Physics-1111

Col Md Masud Rana, psc, PhD

 Scope of Study : Part-3

 Classification of Nucleus
 Bohr atom model with explanation and Atomic orbital and energy
equation
 Nuclear size and binding energy
 Radioactivity
 Radioactive decay law
 Half life and Mean life
 Mass energy relation
 Momentum energy relation
 Compton effect
 Photoelectric effect
 De Broglie matter wave
 Nuclear reaction (fission & fusion) introduction to nuclear reactor.
 Classification of Nucleus
 Nucleus is consisting of the elementary particles, protons and nucleons which are known as
nucleons.
 Proton is +ve charged of the same magnitude of electron and its rest mass is about 1836 times
the mass of the electron.
 The charge of electron/proton is 1.602 x 10 -19 Coulomb mass of electron is 9.1x 10 -31 Kg.

 The mass of proton and neutron is 1.6725x 10 -27 Kg

 A neutron is electrically neutral whose mass is almost equal to the mass of proton. Basing on
number of protons a nucleus is classified as:
 Isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of same element having the same atomic number Z (number
of proton) but different mass number A ( sum of proton and neutron) ZXA.

Example: 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3 are three isotope of Hydrogen.

 Isobars. Isobars are atoms of different element having the same mass number A (number
of proton & neutron) but different atomic number Z ( number of proton) .

Example: 8O16 and 7N16 are two isobars.

 Isotones. Isotones are atoms of different element having the same umber of neutrons.

Example: 6C14 and 8O16 are two isotones.

 Classification of Nucleus

Mirror Nucleus: Nuclei having the same mass number but the proton and neutron number
are interchanged are called mirror nucleus.

Examples:are mirror nucleus.

are mirror nucleus.

 Niels Henrik David Bohr.
(1884-1962)
In 1913, Bohr suggested his atom model for which he
was awarded Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922
 En
er
gy
le
 In 1913, Bohr ve
l
suggested that,
positively
charged nucleus
is at the centre
and negatively
charged
electrons revolve
round the
nucleus in
various circular
orbits.

 The electrons revolving round the nucleus only in certain permitted

orbits are called energy levels. i.e. orbits of certain radii are allowed.
 En
er
gy
le
ve
l
 Electrons cannot
emit energy when it
moves in its orbit
known as stationery
energy level.
 The larger the orbit
(i.e. larger radius),
the greater is the
energy of electrons.
 Each energy level has a
certain fixed amount of
energy. The larger the
orbit (i.e. larger
radius), the greater is
the energy of electrons
 Electrons gives out
energy in the form of
electromagnetic
radiation (hυ) when it
jumps from higher to
lower level.
 The Coulombian and
Electron
Newtonian forces are
Nucleus
applicable in the
domain of the atom fo r ce
mb
Co ul o

 The angular momentum for electron

mvr = nh/2π
 When an electron
jumps from a Wn3
higher energy
level to a lower Wn2
energy level, it
hv
gives out EM Wn1
radiations of a
particular
frequency

Wn2 – Wn1 = hv
 Calculation of Radius, Energy and Frequency

 Nucleus of positive charge =E (protons’

charge)
 An electron of charge ‘e’ moving round the
nucleus
 So the force of attraction according to
n3
Coulomb is
n2
Electron
n1 e = Where E=Ze, Z is the number of
Nucleus protons
r
E = -------- ----------------- (1)
 Now the centripetal force

---------------------------- (2)
 Calculation of Radius, Energy and Frequency
 From equation (1) and (2 ) we get

mv2 = -------- ----------- (3)

 Now the angular momentum

m

n3 v= -------------- ----------- (4)

n2 From (3) and (4) we get
Electron ------------------ (5)
n1 e
Nucleus It is the equation for Radius
r
E

From eqn (5) r ∞ n2

From equation (5) the radius of the first

orbit of hydrogen r = 5.29 x 10-11m,
where n =1 and Z = 1
 Now let us consider the energy of an electron
in the orbit is partly potential and partly
kinetic. From the definition of Potential n3
energy of an electron we can write n2
P.E = ʃ F dx Electron
n1 e
Nucleus
F E r
E e
r
dx
Nucleus
P.E = ʃαr F dx = ʃαr dx = (x) αr = (α -
r) =
P.E = -------------- ---------- (6)
 F E
Calculation of Energy E
EE e
r E
dx
Nucleus

K. E = mv2
= ( Using equation 3) ------------------------------------------- (7)

The total energy = K.E + P E

Etot = + = ------------------------------------ ------------------------------ (8)

Etot = - (using equation 5)--------------------- -------------------------------------- (9)

This is the equation for energy

 F E
Calculation of Frequency E
EE e
r E
dx
Nucleus
Now when electrons jumps from energy level higher ( n2) to lower (n1) then it will be

hυ = En2-En1

hυ = - ( )
hυ = +
hυ = ( - )
So, υ = ( - ) -------------------- ----------------- (10) ( Where
Z=1 for Hydrogen atom)

Again, we know c = υλ, so equation (10 ) becomes

= ( - )

= ( - )
 F E
E
EE e
r E
Nucleus dx
or = R( - ) where R = is Rydberg constant = 1.096 x 107 per m

υ = R( - ) Where υ = is known as wave number

Spectral Series of H2 Atom

 Lyman Series. When an electron jumps from the outer orbits to the first orbit, the
spectral lines are in the ultra-violet region . Here n 1=1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5-----
So the wave number for Lyman Series will be:

υ1 = R ( - ) = R ( - )= R

υ2 = R ( - ) = R ( - )= R

and so on
 Balmer Series. When an electron jumps
from the outer orbits to the second orbit,
the spectral lines are in the visible region.
Here n1=2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5-----
 Spectral Series of H2 Atom
So the wave number for Balmer Series will be:

υ1 = R ( - ) = R ( - )= R

and so on
 Paschen Series. When an electron jumps
from the outer orbits to the third orbit, the
spectral lines are in the near Infrared
region. Here n1=3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6-----

So the wave number for Balmer Series will

be:

υ1 = R ( - ) = R ( - )= R

And so on---
 Brackett Series. When an electron jumps
from the outer orbits to the fourth orbit, the
spectral lines are in the far Infrared region
(electromagnetic radiation). Here n1=4 and
n2 = 5, 6-----
 Pfund Series. When an electron jumps
from the outer orbits to the fifth orbit, the
spectral lines are in the far Infrared
(electromagnetic radiation) region. Here
n1=5 and n2 = 6, 7-----
 Balmer Series
Paschen Series

Bracket Series

n1
n2
Pfund Series n3
n4 Lyman Series
n5
n6
 Mathematical Problem
Problem: Calculate the radius of the first Bohr orbit for H 2 and He atoms.
We know,

For Hydrogen atom Z =1

Here,

For Helium atom Z =2

 Mathematical Problem
Problem: Calculate the radius of the third orbit of hydrogen atom. Also calculate the energy
of electrons in that orbit. (Given c)

Here,

Solution: We know, for Hydrogen atom

 Mathematical Problem
Continue-----
Energy of an atom is
Here,

For Hydrogen atom Z =1

 Mathematical Problem

Problem: How much energy is required to remove an electron from n=3 or n=2 state in
Hydrogen atom.

We know, Energy of an atom is

Here,

For Hydrogen atom Z =1

Solve at your own

 Nuclear size
 Nuclear Size
 It is found that the volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to
the number of nucleons it contains which is its mass number A.
 If a nuclear radius is R and the corresponding volume is π R3. So,
it is proportional to A. This relationship is usually expressed in
inverse form as
4/3 π R3 ∞ A
or R3 ∞ 3/4 π A
or R ∞ A
or R= R0 A

Where R0 = 1.2 x 10 -15 m

 Binding energy
 Binding Energy

 It is found that the mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the constituent particles in the
free state.

 According to Einstien the decrease in mass is due to the release of energy when the particle combine to
form a nucleus.

 This energy can be expressed by the relation E=mc 2 where m is the decrease in mass and c is the velocity of
light.

 This amount of energy represents the binding energy of nucleus.

 If the binding energy is large the nucleus is more stable

Fe56

B.E per nucleon B.E → 8.8

MeV/nucleon

Mass no
 Binding energy
 If a nucleus is to be broken into its constituent particles an energy equal to or
more than the binding energy must be supplied to the nucleus.
 It is convenient to calculate energy in Joule or electron volt (ev).
 The energy equivalent of the mass defect in a nucleus is called binding energy
and is a measure of the stability of the nucleus.
 The greater the B.E per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus is. F 56 is the most
stable nucleus in the nature.

Fe56

B.E per nucleon B.E → 8.8

MeV/nucleon

Mass no
 Mass Deffect and Binding Relation

Mass defect: Neutrons and protons together create a nucleus. So, the mass of a nucleus
should be equal to the mass of the protons and neutrons added together. But actually, the
mass of a nucleus is little less than the mass of the protons and neutrons added together.
The difference in mass is known as mass defect. It is denoted by M.
Mathematically,
Where, Z = Number of protons, (A-Z) = Number of neutrons , Mp = Mass of protons, Mn =
Mass of neutrons and M = Mass of nucleus.

Relation:
The relation between the binding energy and mass defect is given by

If all masses are in atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) then

The binding energy is always a positive quantity.

 Atomic Mass Unit (amu) and Electron Volt
 It is a unit of mass used to express relative atomic masses. One atomic mass
(1 amu) is taken as one-twelfth (1/12) of the mass of carbon atom 6C12

 A mass of 1 amu (atomic mass unit) is converted into energy, then

E=mc2
m=1 amu =1.66x10-27 kg and c= 3x 108 m/sec
So E= mc2 = (1.66x10-27 x 3x 108 ) = (1.49x 1010 / 1.6x10-19) ev
= 931 x 106 ev ( since 1 ev= 1.6x10-19 joules)
= 931 Mev ( 1 Mev= 106 ev)

1 amu (mass) → 931 MeV (energy)

 Electron Volt (EV) is the unit of work and energy in nuclear physics.
 It is defined as the work done in taking an electron through a difference of potential
of one volt.
 Problem
Calculate of the Binding Energy in case of Lithium of A =7 and Z=3

The mass of the Lithium nucleus = 7.016005 amu

The mass of the one proton = 1.007277 amu
The mass of one neutron= 1.008665 amu

Practice
 Radioactivity
 The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of powerful
radiations exhibited by heavy elements is called radioactivity.

 A nucleus undergoing decay spontaneously emits 2He4 nucleus

(alpha particle) an electron (beta particle) and photon (gamma
ray) leads to stability. This phenomenon is called radioactivity.

 It is a spontaneous and self-disruptive activity exhibited by

several of the heavy elements of atomic weight more than
206.
 Example
92 U
238
90 Th
2384
+ 2He + mc + γ
4 2

The radioactive radiations emitted by radioactive elements are :

 Alpha (α) rays or α –particle (helium nucleus)
 Beta (β) rays or β –particle (β -particle has negative charge and a mass number equal
to that of an electron)
 Gamma (γ) rays or γ-particle. (γ -rays are electromagnetic radiation with high
frequency)
 Types of Radioactivity

There are two types of radioactivity:

 Natural radioactivity
 Artificial or induced radioactivity

Natural Radioactivity: Natural radioactivity is that which is exhibited by

elements as found in nature. When unstable nuclei decompose in nature the
process is referred to as natural radioactivity. It is always found in heavier
elements in the periodic table.

Artificial or induced radioactivity: Artificial transmutation of elements has made it

possible to produce radioactivity in many other elements much lighter than those
occur in nature. Such type radioactivity is known as artificial or induced
radioactivity.
 Radioactive Decay Law
Let us consider at time t there was N radioactive atoms. Let a number of atoms dN
disintegrate in a time dt. The rate of disintegration is directly proportional to the number
of atoms present i, e

Or where is radioactive constant. The – sign shows

that with the increase of disintegration the value of N
decreases.

Loge N= Where c is a constant ------- (1)

Now if t=0 then N=N0 the initial number of atoms. So, equation (1) becomes Loge N0 =
c

So, Equation becomes, Loge N= Loge N0

Or Loge =
Or = e -

So, N= N
0e ---------- --------------- (2)
 Radioactive Decay Law Cont-----

N= N
0 e -

From the above equation it is evident that the number of radioactive atoms decreases exponentially with time.

The graphical presentation of it will be as under

𝑵𝟎
𝟐

N
t

Fig. Radioactive Decay Law

 Half Life and Mean/Average Life

𝑵) 𝟎
The half life period of a radioactive atoms are defined as the time requires for one half of the radioactive (initial
𝟐
atoms to disintegrate. Suppose half life period =T and as per definition N=
Therefore, from equation

N= N
0 e- N=

We shall get = N0 e - t=T and

=e -

Or e =2
Or Loge 2= Loge e

= Loge 2

So, T=

This is the equation for half life period of radioactive atom.

 Mean/Average Life
1. The average life period of the atom can be calculated by adding the total life periods of all atoms and then dividing

it by the total number of atoms present at the beginning.

2. Number of atoms at the beginning =No

3. At any instant t the number of radioactive atoms present is given by

t
N =N
0 e-
Or, e - (differenting)
Or, dNt= e - dt ---------------- ----- (1) it means dNt atoms
4. Consider an atomdisintegrate
of lifetime =tat short interval of time dt.
So, lifetime for dNt atom = t dNt

T
5. he Meantolife
According τ==
definition, =
=
= (
τ=

𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆

 Unit of Radioactivity

 Curie- In radioactivity, the intensity is determined in terms of the rate of

disintegration or number of particles emitted per second. Curie is a unit of
radioactivity and
1 curie = 3.70x1010 disintegration/second

 Rutherford- This is another unit of radioactivity.

1 Rutherford = 106 disintegration/second
 Application of Radioactivity/Radioactive Isotope

 The location of gland and its structure can be studied outside

by using radio-isotope Iodine I131

 In order to identify any disorder in human body Na24 is used.

This helps doctor to know the effectiveness of the medicines
given to the patients and also to determine whether any
amputation(operation/ surgery) is necessary or not

 The radio isotope Co60 is useful for the treatment of cancer. It

also used in malignant tissues and tumors

 Radioisotope radium as tracer is being sed in case of Syphilis

treatment
 Characteristics of α, β, and γ radiations
 α - Radiation  β - Radiation
 Discovered by Rutherford and  Consists of high speed
Royds electrons which originates
 It is high energetic helium nucleus in the nucleus
 Consists of 2 protons and 02  Mass= 1/1840 u
neutrons  Charge= 1 unit negative
 Mass= 4u charge
 Charge=2 unit positive charge  0n1=1p1 + -1e0 (β -) + γ
(neutrino)
 γ - Radiation  0 p1=1n1 + +1e0 (β+) + γ (anti-
 Electromagnetic radiation neutrino)
 Emitted from excited atoms
 Consists of photons
 Relation E ∝ 1/
 Travel with 3x108 m/sec (velocity of
light)
 Mass-Energy relation

When a force F displaces a body ds then the increase in kinetic energy E k is given by

dEk =F.ds= F ( ) dt = Fvdt------------ ----------- (1)

We know
F=ma= m (v)
Or Fdt=d(mv)
Or = d(mv) (using equation 1)
Or dEk = vd(mv) ------------------ -------------------- (2)

Or dEk = vd[ ] ( since m = )

Or dEk = v [ ] dv
Or dEk = m0 v [ ] dv
 Mass energy relation

Or dEk = m0 v [ ] dv
After differentiation we shall get

dEk = [ ( 1/2 + . ] dv
= [ ] dv (series expansion)
dEk = = -------- ----- (3)

Again, we have m = ------------------------ (4)

Differentiating (4) dm = --------------------- (5)
From (3) and (5) we can write
dm=
Or dEk= dm ------------------- --------- (6)
 Mass energy relation

Or dEk= dm ------------------- --------- (6)

Now consider that the mass of a body at rest is m0 and when it is moving with a velocity

v it is m. Therefore, integrating equation (6) within limit of m 0 to m we shall get

ʃ dEk= ʃ m0
m
dm= (m- m0)

Ek = (m- m0) ------------- -------------------------- (7)

Now total energy = K.E of moving body + energy at rest

E= Ek + m0c2
= (m- m0) + m0c2
= mc2
E = mc2
This is known as mass energy relation
Momentum Energy relation

E2 = + C2P2
 Momentum energy relation
If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v its momentum
P= mv --------------------- (1)
Again, we know E = mc2
Or E2 = m2C4 (squaring both sides) --------------- -------------- (2)
and m = ------------------------ (3)
From (1) we can write
P 2 = m2 v 2
C2P2 = m2v2C2--------------------- (4)
Now (2) – (4) E2 - C2P2 = m2C4 - m2v2C2
= C4 - v2C2 (Using 3)
= = =
So, E2 = + C2P2
This is the desired relation between momentum and energy
 What is Compton Effect?

 When an energetic photon strikes an electron (assumed to be initially at rest),

it is scattered away from its original direction.

 In the collision, the photon may be regarded as having lost an amount of

energy that is the same as the kinetic energy gained by the electron.

 Consequently, the scattered photon has less energy than the incident photon.

 Therefore, the frequency of the scattered photon is shorter than that of incident
photon.

 This alteration in frequency or wavelength of the photon due to the collision

with electron is called Compton Effect.
 Compton Effect

Let an energetic (X-ray) photon of energy and momentum hν/c strikes a free electron at rest.
The energy of incident photon will be divided into energy of scattered photon = hν/ and energy
of electron = K.E.
 Compton Effect
For the conservation of energy, we can write

We know the momentum of a massless particle is related to its energy by

Since the energy of a photon is hν, its momentum is

 Compton Effect

Momentum is a vector quantity that incorporates direction as well as magnitude and in a collision
momentum must be conserved in each of two mutually perpendicular directions. The directions we
choose here are that of the original photon and one perpendicular to it in the plane containing the
electron and the scattered photon (fig.).
The initial photon momentum is hν/c and the scattered photon momentum is hν//c, and the
initial and final electron momenta are respectively 0 and p.
In the original photon direction (x direction)

Momentum of photon + momentum of electron= momentum of scattered photon +

momentum of scattered electron
 Compton Effect
and perpendicular to this direction (y direction)

Momentum of photon + momentum of electron= momentum of scattered photon +

momentum of scattered electron

The angle θ is that between the directions of the initial and scattered photons and,  is
that between the directions of initial photon and recoil electron.
Multiplying equations (4) and (5) by c we can write
 Compton Effect

Squaring equations (6) and (7) and adding, we get

We know the total energy

Again for all particles

Equating the above two equations we get

Squaring above equation we get

 Compton Effect

Since

We have

From equations (8) and (9) we can write

Dividing equation (10) by we get

Since
 Compton Effect

We can write

Equation (11) is the expression for the change in wavelength when an incident radiation
of wavelength l is scattered by a free electron by an angle .
The quantity is called Compton wavelength of scattering particle.
Then equation (11) becomes
 Compton Effect

Special Cases:
1. When , then

Thus when, there is no change in wavelength.

2. When , then

Thus when, the change in wavelength is equal to Compton wavelength.

3. When , then

Thus when, the change in wavelength is maximum and equal to.

 Compton Effect

Problem-1: A monochromatic X-ray of wavelength 0.124 A0 are scattered by a carbon block.

Find the wavelength of X-rays scattered through an angle of 180 0.

Here,
h=6.63×10-34JS
m0=9.1×10-31kg
c=3×108 ms-1
λ=0.124 A0
=0.124×10-10m
φ=1800
λ/ = ?
 Compton Effect

Problem-2: X-ray of l= 1 A0 are scattered from a graphite block and the scattered radiation
is viewed at 900 to the incident beam. What is Compton shift? Calculate the kinetic energy
imparted to the recoiling electron.
 Compton Effect

Problem-3: X-rays of wavelength 10.0 pm are scattered from a target

(i) Find the wavelength of the X-ray scattered through 450
(ii) Find the maximum wavelength present in the scattered X-rays.
(iii) Find the maximum Kinetic energy of recoil electrons

Here,

Practice

At maximum
The maximum Kinetic energy of recoil electrons
U=
= h( c/ - c/ ’)
 Photoelectric Effect

 When light of sufficiently high

frequency falls upon the metal
surface, electrons are emitted from
it. This phenomenon is known as
photoelectric effect. The emitted
electrons are called photo-electrons
and the current constitutes by their
electrons called photo-current.
OR
 Ejection of electrons from a metal
plate when illuminated by light or
any other radiation of suitable
wavelength (or frequency) is called
photo-electric effect.
 Characteristics/Laws of Photo-Electric Emission

• For a given metallic surface, there is a minimum frequency for which the
incident light can eject the photo-electrons out of the metal. Light of
frequency smaller than the particular value cannot eject electrons, no matter
how long it falls on the surface.
• The number of photo-electrons ejected depends upon the intensity of the
incident light. Thus, the photo-electric current depends upon the intensity of
the incident light.

• Light of frequency higher than the critical

frequency ejects electrons of different velocities.
The maximum velocity, with which an electron is
ejected, depends upon the frequency of the KE
incident light. The threshold frequency is the 𝝂𝟎
minimum frequency which can eject and electron
out of the metal.
• The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected 𝝂
electrons increases linearly with the frequency of
the incident light.
 Einstein’s Photo-Electric Equation

 According to Einstein when light of frequency 𝛎 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞

𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐡𝛎 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐤𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 . 𝐀 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
𝐡𝛎 to the electron and the electron ejected out of the metal.
 If the energy h𝛎 𝐢𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐞𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐚𝐧 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭
𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐨 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧 is ejected.
 The minimum energy required is h where is the threshold frequency.

 If the frequency of the incident light is just equal to the threshold

frequency i,e 𝛎 then the electron is just out of the metal, but its velocity is
zero.

 If 𝛎 then the difference in energy (h 𝛎 ) is used in giving K. E. to the

electron.
 If the mass of an electron is m and velocity v then
h𝛎 = mv2 , Where ω0 = is known as work function
It is known as Einstein’s Photo-Electric Equation
 Stopping Potential

 The potential which is sufficient to emit the most energetic photo-electron

is called stopping potential.
 If the energy h𝛎 𝐢𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐞𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐚𝐧
𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐨 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧 is ejected.

We have , h𝛎 = mv2
Again K. E= mv2 = eV0

So eV0= h𝛎

= h(𝛎 )

This is the equation for stopping potential

 Problems : Photo-electric Equation
Problem-1: A photoelectric surface has a work function of 4eV. What is the maximum velocity
of Photoelectrons emitted by light of frequency 10 15 Hz incident on the surface?

Here,

Or

∴ 𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝟐 . 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒔 −𝟏 ( 𝑨𝒏𝒔 )
 Problems : Photo-electric Equation
Problem-3: The wavelength of light falling on the surface of a metal of work function 2.3 eV
is 4300 A0 with what velocity the electron will be emitted?

( )
𝟏 𝒄 Here,
𝒎 𝒗𝟐
𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 − 𝒘𝟎
𝟐 𝝀

√ { ( ) }
𝒄
𝟐 𝒉 − 𝒘𝟎
𝝀
𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =

√
𝒎

{ ( ) }
𝟖
−𝟑𝟒𝟑×𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟗
𝟐 𝟔.𝟔𝟑×𝟏𝟎 × −𝟕
−𝟑.𝟔𝟖×𝟏𝟎
𝟒.𝟑×𝟏𝟎
𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟗.𝟏×𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏
𝟓 −𝟏
𝒗 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝟒 . 𝟓𝟓 ×𝟏 𝟎 𝒎𝒔 ( 𝑨𝒏𝒔 )
 Problems : Photo-electric Equation

Problem : Find the maximum velocity of photo-electrons emitted by radiation

of frequency Hz from a photoelectric surface having a work function 4.0 eV.
(Ans:)

Problem: Calculate the threshold frequency and corresponding wavelength of radiation

incident on a certain metal whose work function is. Given Plank’s constant.

𝐀𝐧𝐬 : 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨
𝟎

Problem: The stopping potential for electrons emitted from a metal due to photoelectric
effect is found to be 1V for a light of 2500 A0. Calculate the work function of the metal in eV.

𝐀𝐧𝐬 : 𝟑 . 𝟗𝟕 𝒆𝑽
Assignment
In 1924 Luis de-Broglie proposed that matter possesses wave as
well as particle properties. This wave is called de-Broglie wave.
 de- Broglie matter wave

 After the discovery of particle behaviour of radiation as

well as light be the photoelectric effect and later
Compton effect de- Broglie argumented that if wave
have particle behaviour why not a moving particle can
show a wave behaviour. Based on his argument he
suggested that a moving body behaves in certain ways as
though it has a wave nature, which he has given name
the matter wave.

 Accordingly, all particles like electron, proton neutron,

atoms and molecules have an associated with wave which
he called matter wave or pilot wave or de-Broglie wave.
 de- Broglie matter wave
In 1924 Luis de-Broglie proposed that matter possesses wave as well as particle
properties. This wave is called de-Broglie wave.
A photon of light of frequency n has the momentum

The wavelength of a photon is therefore specified by the relation

This wavelength is called de-Broglie wavelength. de-Broglie suggested that

equation (1) is completely general one that applies to material particle as well as
photons.
 de- Broglie matter wave

The momentum of a particle of mass m and velocity v is given by

and its de-Broglie wavelength is accordingly

Thus, the greater the particle’s momentum, the shorter its wavelength.
We know,
 de- Broglie matter wave

Again, we know

This is the expression for the Broglie wavelength in terms of energy.

 Wave velocity and group velocity
The equation of plane progressive wave is given by

Here is called the angular frequency of the wave and k is called the wave vector.

Here is called the phase/wave velocity. In other words, is the velocity with which a plane progressive
wavefront travel forward. It has a constant phase
 Wave velocity and group velocity

Differentiating this equation with respect to t,

The phase/wave velocity of a wave is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in
space. This is the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component of the wave
travels.
Or, equivalently, in terms of the wave’s angular frequency ω, which specifies the number of
oscillations per unit of time, and wave number k, which specifies the number of oscillations
per unit of space, by
 Wave velocity and group velocity

The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall shape of the waves'
amplitudes-known as the modulation or envelope of the wave-propagates through space.
The group velocity vg is defined by the equation:

where ω is the wave's angular frequency (usually expressed in radians per second ),
and k is the angular wave number (usually expressed in radians per meter).
 Relation Between Wave velocity and Group velocity

Problem: If the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron is equal to . Calculate its

kinetic energy.

Here,
 Nuclear Reaction (fission & fusion)

When a nucleus gets in close contact with another nucleus, the incident particle and the
target nucleus form a composite system which is an excited state and after a short while
a reaction is produced in which the incident particle itself or some other particle or
gamma ray is emitted with excess energy and a resulting nucleus is obtained. This
phenomenon is called a nuclear reaction.
A nuclear reaction can be written as

Where, a is the incident particle

X is the target nucleus
Y is the residual product nucleus
b is the resulting or outgoing particle.
a and b are incident and outgoing particle respectively and these may be any one of the
following: Proton, Neutron, Deuteron, Alpha particle, Gamma ray or a few nucleons.
 Nuclear Reaction (fission & fusion)
Examples of Nuclear Reaction:
Nuclear reaction Short form of Nuclear Reaction

Nuclear fission: If neutrons or gamma rays of definite speed strike a heavy nucleus (A>230)
and breaks the nucleus into two main parts, then a vast nuclear energy is released. This
kind of breakup of nucleus is called nuclear fission.
Let us consider the capture of neutron by a heavy nucleus. The reaction can be represented
as
 Nuclear Reaction (fission & fusion)

Background of Discovery of Nuclear Fusion

 Soon after, Albert Einstein developed his theory of mass-energy
equivalence, best expressed in his famous formula E=mc2.

 In 1920 Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the sun could be

producing energy, as expressed by Einstein’s work, by and merging
hydrogen atoms to create helium and thus giving out heat and light
– essentially, nuclear fusion energy production.

 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe developed the

theoretical concept of nuclear fusion and calculated how the
nuclear fusion reactions that power our sun worked.
 Nuclear Reaction (fission & fusion)

Nuclear fusion: More than one light nuclei are fused (or combined) together to
form a single heavy nucleus and produce enormous nuclear energy. This process
is called nuclear fusion.
The reaction can be represented as

Differences between nuclear fission and fusion reaction

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

In this process heavy nucleus is splitted In this process lighter nuclei are
into lighter nucleus. combined to produce heavy nucleus.
Energy released is large. Energy released is small.
nuclei are used. nuclei are used.
In this process radioisotopes are In this process radioisotopes are not
produced. produced.
The link of the fission process is with The link of the fusion process is with
neutrons. protons.
 Introduction to Nuclear Reactor

Background of Discovery of Reactors

 The neutron was discovered in 1932 by British physicist James
Chadwick.
 The concept of a nuclear chain reaction brought about by nuclear
reactions mediated by neutrons was first realized shortly
thereafter, by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd, in 1933.

 Later, on 2 August 1939 Albert Einstein used this concept and

made nuclear bomb/reactor.

Definition- A nuclear reactor is a device used to create and

control a nuclear chain reaction for the purpose of
producing power. This power is commonly used for the
propulsion of ships or for electricity generation.
 Nuclear Reaction (fission & fusion)

Atomic Bomb

 In an atomic bomb the chain reaction is designed to

increase in intensity until much of the material has
fissioned.
 This increase is very rapid and produces the extremely
prompt, tremendously energetic explosions
characteristic of such bombs.
 In a nuclear reactor the chain reaction is maintained at a
controlled, nearly constant level.
 Nuclear reactors are so designed that they cannot
explode like atomic bombs.
 Introduction to Nuclear Reactor

Reactor Working Principles

 Nuclear reactors operate on the principle of nuclear fission, the
process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two smaller
fragments.
 The nuclear fragments are in very excited states and
emit neutrons other subatomic particles and photons ().
 The emitted neutrons may then cause new fissions, which in turn
yield more neutrons, and so forth.
 Such a continuous self-sustaining series of fissions constitutes a
fission chain reaction.
 A large amount of energy is released in this process, and this
energy is the basis of nuclear power systems.
 Introduction to Nuclear Reactor

Two types of reactors:

 Nuclear Power Reactor- Heat from nuclear fission is passed
to a working fluid (water or gas), which in turn runs through steam
turbines.
 Research Reactor -Some reactors are used to
produce isotopes for medical and industrial use, or for production
of weapons-grade plutonium.

 As of early 2019, the IAEA reports there are 454 nuclear power
reactors and 226 nuclear research reactors in operation around the
world.
 Introduction to Nuclear Reactor

Some Other types of Reactors:

 By type of nuclear reaction (basing on neutron energy)
 Thermal-neutron (energy 0.025ev) Reactors - use slowed or thermal
neutrons to keep up the fission of their fuel. Almost all current reactors
are of this type.
 Fast-neutron (energy 1-25 Mev) Reactors - use fast neutrons to
cause fission in their fuel. They do not have a neutron moderator
and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction
requires the fuel to be more highly enriched in fissile material
(about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of
fission versus capture by U-238.
 By moderator material
 Graphite-moderated reactors
 Water moderated reactors
 Light-element-moderated reactors.
 Organically moderated reactors (OMR)
 By coolant Some Other types of Reactors:
 Water Cooled Reactor-These constitute the great majority of operational
nuclear reactors: as of 2014, 93% of the world's nuclear reactors are water
cooled, providing about 95% of the world's total nuclear generation
capacity.
 Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
 Boiling water reactor (BWR)
 Supercritical water reactor (SCWR)
 Reduced moderation water reactor [RWMR]
 Liquid metal cooled reactor
 Gas cooled reactors
 Molten-salt reactors (MSRs)
 Organic nuclear reactors
 By generation
 Generation I reactor (early prototypes such as Shipping port Atomic Power
Station research reactors, non-commercial power producing reactors)
 Generation II reactor (most current nuclear power plants, 1965–1996
 Generation III reactor (evolutionary improvements of existing designs, 1996–
2016)
 Generation III+ reactor (evolutionary development of Gen III reactors, offering
improvements in safety over Gen III reactor designs, 2017–2021)
 Generation IV reactor (technologies still under development; unknown start date,
possibly 2030)
 Nuclear Reactor - Bangladesh

Rooppur Power Plant/Reactor of Bangladesh

 Rooppur NPP will be equipped with two Water-water energetic reactor) in

Russian word it is named as (Vodo- Vodyannoi enyergetichskiy Reactor)
VVER-1200 water-cooled, water-moderated power reactors of the AES-2006
/ V-392M design.
 The nuclear power plant (NPP) will include two units, Rooppur Unit-1 and
Rooppur Unit-2 with a capacity of 1.2 GW (Gigawatt ) each.
 The main equipment of the Rooppur nuclear power plant will have a service
life of more than 60 years, without the need for replacement.

 It is planned to contribute 10% of total electricity required for the country

by the year of 2021.
 Nuclear Fuel Enrichment
 In natural uranium ore, it consists of approximately 99.3% uranium-238
(U238), 0.7% uranium-235 (U235), and < 0.01% uranium-234 (U234).
 The nuclear fuel used in a nuclear reactor needs to have a higher
concentration of the U235 isotope than that which exists in natural uranium
ore.
 U235 when concentrated (or "enriched") is fissionable in light-water
reactors (the most common reactor design in the USA).
 This is the state of uranium fuel to go for nuclear chain/fission reaction.
 During fission, the nucleus of the atom splits apart producing both heat and
extra neutrons.
 Under controlled conditions, these extra neutrons can cause additional,
nearby atoms to fission and a nuclear reaction can be sustained.
 The heat energy released, by the controlled nuclear reaction within the
nuclear reactor, can be harnessed to produce electricity.
 Commercially, the U235 isotope is enriched to 3 to 5% (from the natural state
of 0.7%) and is then further processed to create nuclear fuel.
 Criticality for Nuclear Reactor

Reactor Criticality
 In nuclear reactors, reactor criticality is the state in which a reactor is
stable and self-sufficient to continue a nuclear chain reaction. This
condition is also known as the critical state. The reactor criticality is
measured by effective multiplication factor (keff).

 The effective multiplication factor (keff ) is the ratio of the neutrons

produced by fission in one neutron generation to the number
of neutrons lost through absorption in the preceding neutron
generation. This can be expressed mathematically, as shown below.
 Introduction to Nuclear Reactor

 keff < 1. In this case, the number of neutrons

decreases in time (with the mean generation
time), and the chain reaction will never be
self-sustaining. This condition is known as the
subcritical state.
 keff = 1. In this case, there is no change in
neutron production in time, and the chain
reaction will be self-sustaining. This condition
is known as the critical state.
 keff > 1. In this case more neutrons
are produced than needed to be self-
sustaining. The number of neutrons is
exponentially increasing in time (with the
Reactor criticality. A –
mean generation time). This condition is
supercritical state; B – critical
known as the supercritical state. state; C – subcritical state
 Nuclear Power Contributing Countries
Country Reactors Capacity Generated Share of
Net-total electricity total
MW (GWh) electricity
use
Operationa U/C
l
1x
Researc
Bangladesh 0 2 — 2.4 10% h
Reactor
Pakistan 6 0 3,256 15,832 10.6%
India 22 8 6,795 39,758 3.2%
Japan 33 2 31,679 61,304 7.2%
South Korea 25 3 24,431 150,456 28.0%
China 55 17 52,170 383,205 5.0%
France 56 1 61,370 363,394 69.0% Highest
Iran 1 1 915 3,236 1.0%
Canada 19 0 13,624 86,780 14.3%
Russia 37 4 27,727 208,443 20.0%
Ukraine 15 2 13,107 81,126 55.0%
United Arab Emirates 2 2 2,762 10,126 1.3%
United Kingdom 10 2 6,368 41,789 14.8%
United States (USA) 92 2 94,718 771,638 19.6%
 Principal Design Parameters of the TRIGA Mark-II Research Reactor
Sl. No. Principal Design Parameters
1. Reactor type TRIGA Mark-II
2. Maximum steady state power level 3 MW
3. Maximum pulse 1.4% k/k, $ 2.00, 852 MW
4. Fuel moderator material U-ZrH*
5. Uranium content 20 wt%
6. Uranium enrichment 19.7% 235 U
7. Burnable poison 0.47 wt% 166Er and166Er
8. Shape Cylindrical
9. Overall length of fuel 38.1 cm (15 inch)
10. Outside diameter of the fuel 3.63 cm (1.43 inch)
11. Cladding material Type 304 stainless steel
12. Cladding thickness 0.051 cm
13. Number of fuel elements 100
14. Total reactivity worth of control rods 10% k/k
15. Number of control rods 6
16. Maximum excess reactivity 7.0% k/k
17. Shim/safety 4
18. Regulating 1
19. Transient 1
 Assignment-2
1. What is the de Broglie wavelength of neutron whose energy is 1 ev? Given e=1.6
c , h =6.662 j-S and mass of neutron is 1.676 kg.
2. Calculate the radius of the H2 atom. Show that the velocity of the electron in the
first Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom is () c where c is the velocity of light.

Date of Deposition :