MCT 456 Dynamic Modeling and Simulation

Transfer Function and State

Space Representations
Dr. Ahmed Asker
Production and Mechanical Design Engineering
Department
Mansoura University
2019/2020
 Introduction

 Two methods to develop mathematical models from schematics

of physical systems
◦ Transfer function in the Frequency domain system
◦ State equations in the time domain system
 We have been working with individual subsystems represented by
a block with its input and output. More complicated systems,
however, are represented by the interconnection of many
subsystems.
 Since the response of a single transfer function can be calculated,
we want to represent multiple subsystems as a single transfer
function.

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 Block Diagrams

 As you already know, a subsystem is represented as a block with

an input, an output, and a transfer function. Many systems are
composed of multiple subsystems, as in Figure below.

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 Transfer Function

 A general nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential equation

d nc(t ) d n1c(t ) d m r (t ) d m1r (t )

an n
 an1 n 1
 ...  a0c(t )  bm m
 bm1 m 1
 ...  b0r (t ) (2.50)
dt dt dt dt

◦ 𝑐(𝑡) is the output, 𝑟(𝑡) is the input.

◦ Taking the Laplace transform both sides,

an s nC ( s )  an1s n1C ( s )  ...  a0C ( s )  initial condition terms involving c(t )

m 1
(2.51)
 bm s R( s)  bm1s
m
R( s)  ...  b0 R( s)  initial condition terms involving r(t )

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 Transfer Function

◦ If we assume that all initial conditions are zero

(an s n  an1s n1  ...  a0 )C (s)  (bm s m  bm1s m1  ...  b0 ) R(s) (2.52)

◦ The ratio of the transform, divided by the input transform

C ( s) bm s m  bm1s m1  ...  b0
 G( s)  (2.53)
R( s ) an s n  an1s n1  ...  a0
◦ We call this ratio, G(s), the transfer function and evaluate it
with zero initial condition
C (s)  R( s)G( s) (2.54)

Figure 2.2 Block

diagram of a transfer

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 Laplace Transform Review

 Transfer function for a differential equation

◦ Find the transfer function represented by
dc(t )
 2c  t   r (t ) (2.55)
dt
◦ Sol) Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero
initial conditions

sC ( s)  2C  s   R( s) (2.56)

C ( s) 1
G s   (2.57)
R( s ) s  2

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 Laplace Transform Review

 System response from the transfer function

◦ find the response, 𝑐(𝑡), to an input, 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡), a unit step,
assuming zero initial conditions.
1
◦ Sol) 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅(𝑠) =
𝑠
C ( s) 1
G s  
R( s ) s  2
1
C ( s)  G  s  R( s) 
s  s  2 (2.58)

◦ Expanding by partial fractions

1/ 2 1/ 2
C ( s)   (2.59)
s s2

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 Laplace Transform Review

◦ Taking inverse Laplace transform of each term yields

1 1 2t
c t    e (2.60)
2 2

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 Block Diagrams

 When multiple subsystems are interconnected, a few more

schematic elements must be added to the block diagram. These
new elements are summing junctions and pickoff points. All
component parts of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant
system are shown in Figure below.

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 Cascade (Series) Form

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 Parallel Form

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 Feedback Form

 The typical feedback system, is shown in Figure (a); a simplified

model is shown in Figure (b).

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 Feedback Form

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 Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms

 This subsection will discuss basic block moves that can be made
in order to establish familiar forms when they almost exist. In
particular, it will explain how to move blocks left and right past
summing junctions and pickoff points.

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 Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms

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 Example

 PROBLEM: Reduce the block diagram shown to a single T.F.

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 Example

 SOLUTION:

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 Example

 PROBLEM: Reduce the system shown to a single T.F.

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 Example 5.2

 SOLUTION:

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 Example 5.2

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 The General State-Space Representation

General State-Space Representation

 Linear combination: S  Kn xn  Kn1 xn1   K1 x1 (3.17)

 Linear independence: A set of variables is said to be linearly

independent if none of the variables can be written as a linear
combination of the others.
 System variable: Any variable that responds to an input or initial
conditions in a system.
 State variables: The smallest set of linearly independent system
variables.
 State vector: A vector whose elements are the state variables.
 State space: The n-dimensional space whose axes are the state
variables.

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 The General State-Space Representation

General State-Space Representation

 State equations: A set of 𝑛 simultaneous, fist-order differential
equations with 𝑛 variables, where the n variables to be solved are
the state variables.
 Output equation: The algebraic equation that expresses the
output variables of a system as linear combinations of the state
variables and the inputs. x  state vector
x  derivative of thestate vector with respect to time
x  Ax + Bu: State equation (3.18) y = output vector

y = Cx + Du : Output equation (3.19) u = input or control vector

A = system matrix
B = input matrix
C = output matrix
D = feedforward matrix

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 State Space Approach

Process of state –space approach

 Select a particular subset of all possible system variables (state
variables)
 For an nth-order system, write 𝑛 simultaneous, first-order
differential equations in terms of the state variables (state
equations)
 If the initial conditions of all of the state variables at 𝑡0 as well as
the system input for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0 are given, we can solve the
simultaneous differential equations for the state variables for 𝑡 ≥
𝑡0 .
 Algebraically combine the state variable with system’s input and
find the other system variables for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0 (output equation)
 The state equations and the output equation  state-space
representation

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 Applying The State-Space Representation

 Must be chosen according to the following considerations:

◦ A minimum number of state variables must be selected.
◦ Typically, the order of the differential equation.
◦ The number of independent energy-storage elements in system.
◦ The components of the state vector must be linearly
independent.
 Minimum number of state variables
◦ The minimum number = the order of the differential equation
describing the system
◦ Count the number of independent energy-storage elements in
the system

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 Applying The State-Space Representation

 Find the state equations for the translational mechanical system.

Figure 3.7 Translational mechanical system

d 2 x1 dx
M 1 2  D 1  Kx1  Kx2  0 (3.44)
dt dt
d 2 x2
M 2 2  K ( x2  x1 )  f (t ) (3.45)
dt
◦ Sol) First write the differential equations for the network.

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 Applying The State-Space Representation

◦ State equation
dx1
  v1 (3.46a)
dt
dv1 K D K
 x1  v1  x2 (3.46b)
dt M1 M1 M1
dx2
  v2 (3.46c)
dt
dv2 K K 1
 x1  x2  f (t )
dt M2 M2 M2 (3.46d)

◦ Vector matrix form

 x1  0 1 0 0   x1  0 
v    K / M  D / M1 K / M1 0  v1  0 
 1 1    f (t )
 x2  0 0 0 1   x2  0  (3.47)
      
v2   K / M 2 0  K / M2 0  v2  1 / M 2 

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 Linearization

 If we are interested in small perturbations about an equilibrium point,

we can use Taylor series.
 To obtain a linear mathematical model for a nonlinear system, we
assume that the variables deviate only slightly from some operating
condition.
 Consider a system whose input is 𝑥1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 (𝑡) and output is 𝑦(𝑡).
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 )
 If the normal operating condition corresponds to 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 .Taylor
series about this point as follows:

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 Linearization

Representing a nonlinear system

 First represent the simple pendulum shown in Figure 3.14(a) in
state space: Mg is the weight, T is an applied torque in the 𝜃
direction, and L is the length of the pendulum. Assume the mass
is evenly distributed, with the center of mass at L/2. Then
linearize the state equations about the pendulum’s equilibrium
point the vertical position with zero angular velocity.

Figure 3.12
a. Simple
pendulum;
b. Force
components of Mg;
c. Free-body
diagram
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 Linearization

 Sol) First draw a free body diagram and Summing the torques, we get.
d 2 MgL (3.79)
J 2  sin   T
dt 2
where 𝐽 is the moment of inertia of the pendulum around the point of
rotation.
 Select the state variables 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 as phase variables.
 Letting 𝑥1 = 𝜃 and 𝑥2 = 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡, we write the state equations as
x1  x2 (3.80a)
MgL T
x2  
sin x1  (3.80b)
2J J
where 𝑥2 is evaluated from Eq.(3.79).
 Thus, we have represented a nonlinear system in state space.
 It is interesting to note that the nonlinear Eq. (3.80) represents a valid
and complete model of the pendulum in state space even under
nonzero initial conditions and even if parameters are time varying.
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 Linearization

◦ However, if we want to apply classical techniques and convert

these state equations to a transfer function, we must linearize
them.
◦ Let us proceed now to linearize the equation point, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 = 0,
that is, 𝜃 = 0 and 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 = 0.
◦ Let 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 be perturbed about the equilibrium point, or

x1  0   x1 (3.81a)
x2  0   x2 (3.81b)

◦ Using Eq.(2.182), we obtain

d  sin x1  (3.82)
sin x1  sin 0   x1   x1
dx1 x 0
1

◦ From which sin x1   x1 (3.83)

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 Linearization

◦ Substituting Eq. (3.81) and (3.83) into (3.80) yields the

following state equations.

 x1   x2 (3.84a)

MgL T
 x2    x1  (3.84b)
2J J

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 Standard Input Functions

 System performance is often characterized by the system’s

dynamic response to any number of standard input functions
 We can think of these “standard” input functions as “test input
signals” for characterizing the system’s dynamic response
 Many standard input functions have a basis in the realistic
(expected) input for a dynamic system

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 Step Input

 The step input shows a sudden, instantaneous change (step) from

one constant value to another constant value

U(t)
Unit-step input
1
0 for t  0
U (t )  
1 for t  0 t
0

 Many times the step input is initially zero and instantaneously

steps to a constant value

 Step input with magnitude of A : u(t )  AU (t )

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 Ramp Input

 A ramp input function increases linearly with time at a constant

rate
u(t)

Unit-ramp input u(t )  t Slope = 1

t
0

 A general ramp input is u(t )  at where a is the slope, which

could be positive or negative

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 Ramped Step Input

 The input “ramps” up from zero to a constant (step) value

 The ramp-up component shows a linear increase with time
 The ramped step input might be a more realistic representation of
a step input, since most physical inputs require a finite time
interval to change from one constant value to another constant
value

Ramped step input u(t)

A
at for 0  t  A / a
u (t )  
 A for t  A/ a
t
0
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 Pulse Input

 The input has a constant (finite) magnitude over a finite time

interval (the “pulse duration”), and is zero before and after the
pulse is applied

Pulse input
u(t)
 0 for t0 A

u (t )   A for 0  t  t1
 0 for t  t1

t
0 t1

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 Impulse Input

 The input has a magnitude that lasts for a very short duration
 We can think of the impulse input as a pulse function where the
pulse duration goes to zero in the limit, i.e., 𝑑𝑡 → 0
 Suppose a constant force 𝐹 = 150 N is applied for a very short
duration 𝑑𝑡 = 0.1 sec (a pulse input)
◦ Therefore, the impulse input has a “strength” of 15 N-s, which
is the area of the original pulse function
◦ Note that the units of an impulse input contain units of time; for
a force input, an impulse has units of N-s.

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 Impulse Input (2)

 Pulse force inputs with an impulse of 15 N-s

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 Impulse Input (3)

 Mathematically, and unit impulse input is represented by the

Dirac delta function, 𝛿(𝑡), which has infinite magnitude but
infinitesimally small time duration, and hence the “area” of the
pulse is unity
 Suppose we have a short-duration force input with “weight” or
“strength” of 15 N-s (such as shown in prior slide)
f (t )  15 (t ) N
f(t), N
 The “weight” of the impulse
is 15 N-s and hence 𝑑(𝑡) has 15
units of 1/sec
t
0

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 Sinusoidal Input

 A sinusoidal input function is a repeating, periodic input that can

be represented by sine and/or cosine functions
Harmonic input fuction (frequency is 0.5 Hz)
3

Sinusoidal input 2

u(t )  A sin t  B cos t 1

Input
0

A and B are amplitudes -1

and  is the frequency in rad/s

-2

Frequency is sometimes expressed -3

0 1 2 3 4 5
in cycles/sec or hertz (Hz) Time, sec

 = 2p rad/s = 1 Hz

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 Questions

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