CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Brief Overview
Hydroelectric power plants consist of turbine-generator sets to produce electrical energy from the
potential and kinetic energy of water flow. Water is tapped from rivers and instantly supplied to
turbine-generator sets, or the water is stored in a dam first and then its flow is regulated through
the turbine-generator sets to generate electricity. The run-of-river (ROR) hydroelectric projects
have diversion channels to tap water from rivers while storage projects use dam to store and
supply water to turbines. The ROR projects are cheaper to install compared to storage projects of
the same capacity, which would make the per unit energy generation cost of ROR projects
cheaper than the per unit generation cost of the storage projects. However, the variation of the
ROR projects power output due to fluctuation in the river discharge makes the ROR projects less
reliable.

Furthermore, an integrated power system network is complicated. It usually consists of

generation stations, transmission lines, power substations, distribution lines, and demand
locations and these components are grouped as the power system components. The operational
characteristic of each component of the system varies based on the component capacity, location,
and weather conditions among others. For example, the power loss in transmission line is a
function of the conductor diameter and the length of the line. Longer transmission lines have
more power loss than shorter ones and similarly a thicker power conductor has less power loss
than a thinner conductor. Another important aspect of the integrated power system is the power
system operator(PSO) or electricity utility. The PSO or utility coordinates, controls, and
monitors the power system and it has the authority and responsibility of supplying electricity to
its consumers optimally. As the number of power system components increases the PSO needs to
deal with a more complex problem of optimal electrical power distribution. A comprehensive
investigation which explores and highlights the various methods of harnessing Hydro-energy for
both industrial and household utilization and addresses the operational complexities of the

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integrated power system is necessary for economic dispatch of the hydroelectric generators and
distribution planning.

1.2. Research Motivation

Electricity is used for various purposes including lighting, heating and cooling, transportation,
manufacturing, to run data centers in service industries. Electricity has been traded similar to
other commodities in the deregulated energy market. The main challenge of considering
electricity as a commodity is its reliability. Disruption of energy supply would not affect simple
household lighting as much as it would the lighting in hospitals and manufacturing industries.

Some of the major reasons behind unreliable power supply would be variability in generation
station due to the change in input power, unexpected disturbances in the system (like major
faults), and unexpected increment in the energy demand. For a power system consisting of
renewable energy sources like ROR projects, the variability in input power would be due to the
change in water discharge availability in different weather patterns.

Electricity is an essential service, a vital input required for almost every business and personal
activity. As businesses grow in a country, the country’s overall economy continues to grow.
Serious reliability problems could have overall economic impacts and result in bankruptcies, job
losses, and even loss of life. The electricity trade can occur through wholesale transactions (bids
and offers): which use supply and demand principles to set the price or through the long term
trades which are similar to power purchase agreements between the sellers and the buyers. The
decision maker in the power system market is not only responsible for the reliable energy supply,
but also at possible minimum cost. The cost of energy generation at power plants is different for
different types of power plants (PP). This cost depends on the location of the power plant, its
size, fuel cost, and maintenance cost. For example, the hydroelectric power plants need to be
installed closer to the riverside, which is most of the time far away from the major consumption
areas such as commercial buildings, industries, and residential. The fuel (water) is free of cost for
HEP but due to the requirement of building water reservoir and access roads to the power plant
the initial investment cost becomes expensive. Larger initial investment makes higher per unit
energy cost during its operation to the energy users.

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The variable energy generators like ROR hydro, solar, and wind have changes in the supply of
primary fuel (water flow, solar insolation, or wind velocity) resulting in fluctuations in the
plant’s output every time. In other words, the magnitude and timing of variable generation output
is less predictable than the conventional generation. Since the storage technologies, like
compressed air or battery storage system, has not been well advanced to store energy in bulk in
the customer’s house, the integrated power system operator must ensure that the supply matches
load instantaneously. If such variability and uncertainty of generators are not properly addressed
before integrating with the existing power system, serious reliability issues may arise and cause
the whole system shutdown due to unbalanced energy demand and generation. One of the
options to balance energy generation and load, for power system consisting of multiple variable
energy generators (VEG) would be by integrating the VEG with non-variable energy generators.
This non-variable energy generator supplies electricity when the VEG is not available, and also
pick up the load when there is deficit in energy generation from the VEG. Examples of non-
variable energy generators include storage dam hydro, natural gas or coal, and nuclear power
plants. Integrating both the ROR generators and the storage dam hydroelectric power generators
will provide a reliable energy. This requires optimal planning to balance the fluctuating output
power from ROR power plants by storage type hydroelectric power plants in real time. The
optimal planning of the available energy generators (both ROR and storage) benefits the system
operator to balance the system load.

1.3. Objective of the Study

The main purpose of this research is to formulate and solve a comprehensive mathematical
model that can be used to optimize hydroelectric energy generation and distribution. As
described above, the hydroelectric power generation stations are far away from the consumption
locations. The transmission and distribution lines, and substations are required to deliver the
power to the consumers located in regions far away from each other. Furthermore, the nature of
demand is different from voltage level perspective; low voltage level to high voltage level (i.e.
from residential consumers to industrial consumers). Due to the difference in voltage level of a

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transmission or distribution line the current flow through the line varies. A high voltage lines
have smaller current flower than a low voltage line of same capacity. Hence, the power loss in
each line and at each power system component differ from one path to another path.

A generation station of having the lowest per unit cost and a transmission/distribution line of
lowest power loss cost would always be the cheapest option to supply power if those components
can supply all the required power. Once the capacity of a power system component is fully
utilized another option needs to be explored to supply the energy demand. Hence, the goal of this
research is to explore different combinations of the power system components to supply the load
optimally. For example, the electrical energy demand at demand center 𝑘 = 1 can be supplied by
a various combination of generators, transmission lines, substations, and distribution lines. In an
integrated power network, it is not possible to find exactly which generator is delivering its
power to which of the demand; however, it is expected that by implementing the methodology
presented in this thesis the power system operator can dispatch each of its generators at their
optimal capacity to minimize the total energy supply cost.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Hydroelectric power, also called hydropower, electricity produced from generators driven by
turbines that convert the potential energy of falling or fast-flowing water into mechanical energy.
Hydro-energy is known as traditional renewable energy source. It is based on natural circulating
water flow and its drop from higher to lower land surface that constitutes the potential. In order
to convert this potential to applicable electric energy, water flow should be led to and drive a
hydraulic turbine, transforming hydro energy into mechanical energy, the latter again drives a
connected generator transforming the mechanical energy into electric energy. As hydro energy
exploitation and its utilization are completed at the same time. i.e. the exploitation of first energy
source and the conversion of secondary energy source occur simultaneously, unlike the coal
power generation which should have two orders; first order is exploitation of fuel, second order
is generation, so hydropower has the advantages over thermal power generation.

Fig 2.0: A Hydro-electricity power plant setup.

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 Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In
the late 18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the
Industrial Revolution. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published
Architecture Hydraulique, which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and
in 1771 Richard Arkwright’s combination of water power, the water frame, and continuous
production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern
employment practices. In the 1840s the hydraulic power network was developed to generate and
transmit hydro power to end users. By the late 19th century, the electrical generator was
developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand arising from the
Industrial Revolution would drive development as well.

The technical potential for hydropower development around the world is much greater
than the actual production: the percent of potential hydropower capacity that has not been
developed is 71% in Europe, 75% in North America, 79% in South America, 95% in Africa,
95% in the Middle East, and 82% in Asia-Pacific. Due to the political realities of new reservoirs
in western countries, economic limitations in the third world and the lack of a transmission
system in undeveloped areas, perhaps 25% of the remaining technically exploitable potential can
be developed before 2050, with the bulk of that being in the Asia-Pacific area. Some countries
have highly developed their hydropower potential and have very little room for growth:
Switzerland produces 88% of its potential and Mexico 80%. The construction of a hydroelectric
complex can cause significant environmental impact, principally in loss of arable land and
population displacement. They also disrupt the natural ecology of the river involved, affecting
habitats and ecosystems, and the siltation and erosion patterns. While dams can ameliorate the
risks of flooding, they also contain a risk of dam failure, which can be catastrophic.

2.1 Uniqueness of hydropower in terms of less pollution

Hydropower is unique as it is a clean source of energy, renewable and green as compared

to fossil fuel generation power plants. It does not cause air pollution nor does it burn any fuel
with near zero emissions. Hydropower is relatively cleaner as compared to other sources of
energy and the emission rate per unit of electricity generated from hydropower excluding
tropical reservoirs is way below than emission rates for fossil fuel technologies (Steinhurst,
Knight, & Schultz, 2012). In comparison to other renewables on a life cycle basis, GHG

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emissions release from hydropower is lesser relative to that of electricity generation from
biomass and solar. The emissions are almost equivalent to those from wind, nuclear and
geothermal power plants. Since hydropower generation does not require burning or combustion
of any fuels, the cost of operation is not susceptible to market price fluctuations.

2.2 Multipurpose aspects

Unlike other sources of energy, hydropower generation provides an abundance of unique

benefits which can be those emanating from the generation of electricity itself or from side
benefits associated with hydropower reservoirs. Such benefits can include a secure water supply,
irrigation and flood control including increased navigation and increased recreational
opportunities. There can be scope for development of fisheries and cottage and small scale
industries. Multipurpose hydropower projects also help in subsidizing other major features of the
project such as those indicated above. In spite of recent debates sparking greenhouse gas
emissions from reservoir based hydropower projects, hydropower generation is still a relatively
cleaner source of energy in comparison to fossil based generation

2.3 Maintain Peak delivery and reduced cost of generation

There is a variation in demand of power at different time intervals during the 24-hour
cycle of a day and vary from season to season. For instance, peaks are usually high in case of
summer days when air conditioners are in operation. As compared to other sources of energy like
thermal, gas, oil etc. the cost of generation for hydropower decelerates progressively in the
course of operation of the hydropower plant. Both nuclear and fossil fuel power plants are
relatively inefficient in producing power for shorter durations of increased demand during peak
demand.

2.4 Green Growth and Hydro Power

In contrast to thermal power plants, hydropower plants can help to meet peaking delivery
as on demand. Hydropower projects have an inherent ability for quick starting and terminating
with features of instantaneous load acceptance and rejection which makes hydropower
generation very apt and ideal to meet peaking power shortage. This special feature where
hydroelectric generators can almost instantly start and stop make it more responsive than other

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energy sources in meeting peak demand. Both storage and pondage type hydro power plants
have the option of varying their output almost instantly. Pondage based hydropower projects can
be used to meet the peak load during the non-monsoon period since they operate to meet the base
load during the monsoon season. The CEA anticipates a peak shortage of 2% for 2014-15 (CEA,
2014c). Hydropower reservoir based projects can store water overnight as per requirement and
use it as per demand in order to meet peak load demand. This power mix of different energy
sources offers opportunities for utilities to operate their plants more efficiently as hydropower
plants can be used to meet the peaking needs while fossil fuel and nuclear plants can meet the
base load demand.

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 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 WORKING PRINCIPLE AND MAJOR COMPONENTS
A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy. A
hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity. The operation of a
generator is based on the principles discovered by Faraday. He found that when a magnet is
moved past a conductor, it causes electricity to flow. In a large generator, electromagnets are
made by circulating direct current through loops of wire wound around stacks of magnetic steel
laminations. These are called field poles, and are mounted on the perimeter of the rotor. The
rotor is attached to the turbine shaft, and rotates at a fixed speed. When the rotor turns, it causes
the field poles (the electromagnets) to move past the conductors mounted in the stator. This, in
turn, causes electricity to flow and a voltage to develop at the generator output terminals.

Fig 3.0 Hydro-electricity generation process

Capacity, unit size and selection of Equipment, their Characteristics and Specifications for
design of hydro power station depends upon type of hydroelectric development and classification
with respect to head and size. There are three main types of hydropower schemes that can be
categorized in terms of how the flow at a given site is controlled or modified. These are:
1. Run-of-river plants (no active storage)
2. Plants with significant storage

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3. Pumped storage
Run of the River Schemes or Diversion Schemes: This type of development aims at utilizing
the instantaneous discharge of the stream. So the discharge remains restricted to day to day
natural yield from the catchments; characteristics of which will depend on the hydrological
features. Diurnal storage is sometime provided for optimum benefits. Development of a river in
several steps where tail race discharges from head race inflows for downstream power plants
forms an interesting variation of this case and may require sometimes special control measures.
Small scale power generation also generally fall in the category and may have special control
requirement especially if the power is fed into a large grid.
Storage Schemes: In such schemes annual yield from the catchment is stored in full or partially
and then released according to some plan for utilization of storage. Storage may be for single
purpose such as power development or may be for multi-purpose use which may include
irrigation, flood control, etc. therefore, design of storage works and releases from the reservoir
will be governed by the intended uses of the stored water. If the scheme is only for power
development, then the best use of the water will be by releasing according to the power demand.
Schemes with limited storage may be designed as peaking units. If the water project forms a part
of the large grid, then the storage is utilized for meeting the peak demands. Such stations could
be usefully assigned with the duty of frequency regulation of the system.
Pumped Storage: The basic principle of pumped storage is to convert the surplus electrical
energy available in a system in off-peak periods, to hydraulic potential energy, in order to
generate power in periods when the peak demand on the system exceeds the total available
capacity of the generating stations.
By using the surplus scheme electrical energy available in the network during low demand
periods, water is pumped from a lower pond to an upper pond. In periods of peak demand, the
power station is operated in the generating mode i.e. water from the upper pond is drawn through
the same water conduit system to the turbine for generating power.

There are two main types of pumped storage plants:

i) Pumped-storage plants and ii) Mixed pumped-storage plants.
Pump-storage plants: In this type only pumped storage operation is envisaged without any
scope for conventional generation of power. These are provided in places where the run-off
is poor. Further, they are designed only for operation on a day-to-day basis without room for
flexibility in operation.
Mixed pumped-storage plants: In this type, in addition to the pumped storage operation,
some amount of extra energy can be generated by utilizing the additional natural run-off
during a year. These can be designed for operation on a weekly cycle or other form of a
longer period by providing for additional storage and afford some amount of flexibility in
operation.

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3.1 DAMS: A dam is a structure built across a river or stream to hold back water. People have
used different materials to build dams over the centuries. Ancient dam builders used natural
materials such as rocks or clay. Modern-day dam builders often use concrete. Manmade dams
create artificial lakes called reservoirs. Reservoirs can be used to store water for farming,
industry, and household use. They also can be used for fishing, boating, and other leisure
activities. People have used dams for many centuries to help prevent flooding. The ancient
Mesopotamians may have been some of the first humans to build dams. The oldest known dam is
the Jawa Dam, located in present-day Jordan. It was built in the fourth century B.C.E. Dams
provided farmers with a steady source of water to irrigate crops. This allowed ancient
Mesopotamians to feed a growing population. They used dams to divert water for drinking,
bathing, and irrigation. One of the oldest dams still in use is the Cornalvo Dam in Spain. The
ancient Romans built it in the first or second century C.E. The force of flowing water creates
mechanical power. People have harnessed this power for centuries with the use of dams. Small
dams powered paddle wheels in pre-industrial Europe and America. These were used to help saw
logs or grind corn and other grains. During the Industrial Revolution, engineers began to build
bigger dams. These industrial-sized dams could hold back more water to power the big
machinery of factories and mines. They also could turn giant turbines to ‘generatAlternators’
generate alternating current.

Fig 3.1 A Dam.

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3.2 TURBINE: A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid
flow (in this case water) and converts it into useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be
used for generating electrical power when combined with a generator. A turbine is a
turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum
with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational
energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels. Water turbines have
a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Credit for invention of
the steam turbine is given both to Anglo-Irish Engr. Sir Charles Parsons (1854–1931) for
invention of the reaction turbine, and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) for
invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and
impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade
root to its periphery.
The shaft connects the turbine to the generator

3.2.1 TYPES OF TURBINES

There are two main types of hydro turbines: impulse and reaction. The type of hydropower
turbine selected for a project is based on the height of standing water—referred to as "head"—
and the flow, or volume of water, at the site. Other deciding factors include how deep the turbine
must be set, efficiency, and cost.

3.2.2 IMPULSE TURBINE

The impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and
discharges to atmospheric pressure. The water stream hits each bucket on the runner. There is no
suction on the down side of the turbine, and the water flows out the bottom of the turbine
housing after hitting the runner. An impulse turbine is generally suitable for high head, low flow
applications.

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TYPES
3.2.3. Pelton Turbine
A pelton wheel has one or more free jets discharging water into an aerated space and impinging
on the buckets of a runner. Draft tubes are not required for impulse turbine since the runner must
be located above the maximum tailwater to permit operation at atmospheric pressure.

Fig 3.2 A pelton Turbine.

Design
Nozzles direct forceful, high-speed streams of water against a series of spoon-shaped buckets,
also known as impulse blades, which are mounted around the outer rim of a drive wheel (also
called a runner). As the water jet hits the blades, the direction of water velocity is changed to
follow the contours of the blades. The impulse energy of the water jet exerts torque on the
bucket-and-wheel system, spinning the wheel; the water jet does a "U-turn" and exits at the outer
sides of the bucket, decelerated to a low velocity. In the process, the water jet's momentum is
transferred to the wheel and hence to a turbine. Thus, "impulse" energy does work on the turbine.
Maximum power and efficiency are achieved when the velocity of the water jet is twice the
velocity of the rotating buckets. A very small percentage of the water jet's original kinetic energy
will remain in the water, which causes the bucket to be emptied at the same rate it is filled, and
thereby allows the high-pressure input flow to continue uninterrupted and without waste of
energy. Typically, two buckets are mounted side-by-side on the wheel, with the water jet split
into two equal streams; this balances the side-load forces on the wheel and helps to ensure
smooth, efficient transfer of momentum from the water jet to the turbine wheel. Because water is
nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted in the first stage of the
hydraulic turbine. "Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage, unlike gas turbines that
operate with compressible fluid.

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Applications
Pelton wheels are the preferred turbine for hydro-power where the available water source has
relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates. Pelton wheels are made in all sizes. There exist
multi-ton Pelton wheels mounted on vertical oil pad bearings in hydroelectric plants. The largest
units – the Bieudron Hydroelectric Power Station at the Grande Dixence Dam complex in
Switzerland – are over 400 megawatts. The smallest Pelton wheels are only a few inches across,
and can be used to tap power from mountain streams having flows of a few gallons per minute.
Some of these systems use household plumbing fixtures for water delivery. These small units are
recommended for use with 30 meters (100 ft.) or more of head, in order to generate significant
power levels. Depending on water flow and design, Pelton wheels operate best with heads from
15–1,800 meters (50–5,910 ft.), although there is no theoretical limit.
A Turgo Wheel is a variation on the Pelton and is made exclusively by Gilkes in England.
The Turgo runner is a cast wheel whose shape generally resembles a fan blade that is closed on
the outer edges. The water stream is applied on one side, goes across the blades and exits on the
other side.

3.2.4. Cross Flow Turbine

A cross-flow turbine is drum-shaped and uses an elongated, rectangular-section nozzle directed
against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner. It resembles a "squirrel cage" blower. The
cross-flow turbine allows the water to flow through the blades twice. The first pass is when the
water flows from the outside of the blades to the inside; the second pass is from the inside back
out. A guide vane at the entrance to the turbine directs the flow to a limited portion of the runner.
The cross-flow was developed to accommodate larger water flows and lower heads than the
Pelton.

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 Fig 3.3 Internal view of a Cross-flow turbine.

As with a water wheel, the water is admitted at the turbine's edge. After passing to the inside of
the runner, it leaves on the opposite side, going outward. Passing through the runner twice
provides additional efficiency. When the water leaves the runner, it also helps clean it of small
debris and pollution. The cross-flow turbine is a low-speed machine that is well suited for
locations with a low head but high flow. Although the illustration shows one nozzle for
simplicity, most practical cross-flow turbines have two, arranged so that the water flows do not
interfere. Cross-flow turbines are often constructed as two turbines of different capacity that
share the same shaft. The turbine wheels are the same diameter, but different lengths to handle
different volumes at the same pressure. The subdivided wheels are usually built with volumes in
ratios of 1:2. The subdivided regulating unit, the guide vane system in the turbine's upstream
section, provides flexible operation, with 33, 66 or 100% output, depending on the flow. Low
operating costs are obtained with the turbine's relatively simple construction.

Cross Turbine Design

The turbine consists of a cylindrical water wheel or runner with a horizontal shaft, composed of
numerous blades (up to 37), arranged radially and tangentially. The blade's edges are sharpened
to reduce resistance to the flow of water. A blade is made in a part-circular cross-section (pipe
cut over its whole length). The ends of the blades are welded to disks to form a cage like a
hamster cage and are sometimes called "squirrel cage turbines"; instead of the bars, the turbine
has the trough-shaped steel blades.
The water flows first from the outside of the turbine to its inside. The regulating unit, shaped like
a vane or tongue, varies the cross-section of the flow. The water jet is directed towards the
cylindrical runner by nozzle. The water enters the runner at an angle of about 45/120 degrees,
transmitting some of the water's kinetic energy to the active cylindrical blades.
The regulating device controls the flow based on the power needed, and the available
water. The ratio is that (0–100%) of the water is admitted to 0-100%×30/4 blades. Water
admission to the two nozzles is throttled by two shaped guide vanes. These divide and direct the

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flow so that the water enters the runner smoothly for any width of opening. The guide vanes
should seal to the edges of the turbine casing so that when the water is low, they can shut off the
water supply. The guide vanes therefore act as the valves between the penstock and turbine. Both
guide vanes can be set by control levers, to which an automatic or manual control may be
connected. The turbine geometry (nozzle-runner-shaft) assures that the water jet is effective. The
water acts on the runner twice, but most of the power is transferred on the first pass, when the
water enters the runner. Only 1⁄3 of the power is transferred to the runner when the water is
leaving the turbine. The water flows through the blade channels in two directions: outside to
inside, and inside to outside. Most turbines are run with two jets, arranged so two water jets in
the runner will not affect each other. It is, however, essential that the turbine, head and turbine
speed are harmonized. The cross-flow turbine is of the impulse type, so the pressure remains
constant at the runner.

Advantages
 The peak efficiency of a cross-flow turbine is somewhat less than a Kaplan, Francis or
Pelton turbine. However, the cross-flow turbine has a flat efficiency curve under varying
load. With a split runner and turbine chamber, the turbine maintains its efficiency while
the flow and load vary from 1/6 to the maximum.
 Since it has a low price, and good regulation, cross-flow turbines are mostly used in mini
and micro hydropower units of less than two thousand kW and with heads less than 200
m.
 Particularly with small run-of-the-river plants, the flat efficiency curve yields better
annual performance than other turbine systems, as small rivers' water is usually lower in
some months. The efficiency of a turbine determines whether electricity is produced
during the periods when rivers have low flows. If the turbines used have high peak
efficiencies, but behave poorly at partial load, less annual performance is obtained than
with turbines that have a flat efficiency curve.
 Due to its excellent behavior with partial loads, the cross-flow turbine is well-suited to
unattended electricity production. Its simple construction makes it easier to maintain than
other turbine types; only two bearings must be maintained, and there are only three
rotating elements. The mechanical system is simple, so repairs can be performed by local
mechanics.
 Another advantage is that it can often clean itself. As the water leaves the runner, leaves,
grass etc. will not remain in the runner, preventing losses. Therefore, although the
turbine's efficiency is somewhat lower, it is more reliable than other types. No runner
cleaning is normally necessary, e.g. by flow inversion or variations of the speed. Other
turbine types are clogged more easily, and consequently face power losses despite higher
nominal efficiencies.
3.2.5 REACTION TURBINE
A reaction turbine develops power from the combined action of pressure and moving water.
The runner is placed directly in the water stream flowing over the blades rather than striking each

16
individually. Reaction turbines are generally used for sites with lower head and higher flows than
compared with the impulse turbines.

3.2.6 Propeller Turbine

A propeller turbine generally has a runner with three to six blades in which the water contacts all
of the blades constantly. Picture a boat propeller running in a pipe.

Fig 3.4 A Propeller turbine.

Through the pipe, the pressure is constant; if it isn't, the runner would be out of balance. The
pitch of the blades may be fixed or adjustable. The major components besides the runner are a
scroll case, wicket gates, and a draft tube. There are several different types of propeller turbines:
3.2.7 Bulb Turbine
The turbine and generator are a sealed unit placed directly in the water stream. The bulb turbine
is a reaction turbine of Kaplan type which is used for extremely low heads. The characteristic
feature of this turbine is that the turbine components as well as the generator are housed inside a
bulb, from which the name is developed.

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 Fig 3.5 An internal view of a Bulb Turbine.

The main difference from the Kaplan turbine is that the water flows in a mixed axial-radial
direction into the guide vane cascade and not through a scroll casing. The guide vane spindles
are normally inclined to 600 in relation to the turbine shaft and thus results in a conical guide
vane cascade contrary to other types of turbines. The runner of a bulb turbine may have different
numbers of blades depending on the head and water flow. The bulb turbines have higher full-
load efficiency and higher flow capacity as compared to Kaplan turbine. It has a relatively lower
construction cost. The bulb turbines can be utilized to tap electrical power from the fast flowing
rivers on the hills.
3.2.8 Tube Turbine
Draft Tube is a diverging tube fitted at the exit of runner of turbine and used to utilize the kinetic
energy available with water at the exit of runner. The penstock bends just before or after the
runner, allowing a straight line connection to the generator.
This draft tube at the end of the turbine increases the pressure of the exiting fluid at the expense
of its velocity. This means that the turbine can reduce pressure to a higher extent without fear of
back flow from the tail race. In an impulse turbine the available head is high and there is no
significant effect on the efficiency if the turbine is placed a couple of meters above the tail race.
But in the case of reaction turbines, if the net head is low and if the turbine is installed above the
tail race, there can be appreciable loss in available pressure head to power the turbine. Also, if
the pressure of the fluid in the tail race is higher than at the exit of the turbine, a back flow of
liquid into the turbine can result in significant damage.

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 Fig 3.6 A Tube turbine.

By placing a draft tube (also called a diffuser tube or pipe) at the exit of the turbine, the
turbine pressure head is increased by decreasing the exit velocity, and both the overall efficiency
and the output of the turbine can be improved. The draft tube works by converting some of the
kinetic energy at the exit of the turbine runner into the useful pressure energy. Using a draft tube
also has the advantages of placing the turbine structure above the tail race so that any required
inspections can be made more easily and reducing the amount of excavation required for
construction.
Types of Tube Turbine
1. Conical diffuser or straight divergent tube-This type of draft tube consists of a conical diffuser
with half angle generally less than equal to 10° to prevent flow separation. It is usually employed
for low specific speed, vertical shaft Francis turbine. Efficiency of this type of draft tube is 90%

2. Simple elbow type draft Tube-It consists of an extended elbow type tube. Generally, used
when turbine has to be placed close to the tail-race. It helps to cut down the cost of excavation
and the exit diameter should be as large as possible to recover kinetic energy at the outlet of
runner. Efficiency of this kind of draft tube is less almost 60%

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3. Elbow with varying cross section -It is similar to the Bent Draft tube except the bent part is of
varying cross section with rectangular outlet. The horizontal portion of draft tube is generally
inclined upwards to prevent entry of air from the exit end.

3.2.9 Kaplan Turbine

It is an evolution of the Francis turbine. Both the blades and the wicket gates are adjustable,
allowing for a wider range of operation. Its invention allowed for efficient power production in
low-head applications which was not possible with the Francis turbine. The head ranges from 10
to 70 metres (33 to 230 ft) and the output ranges from 5 to 200 MW. Runner diameters are
between 2 and 11 metres (6 ft 7 in and 36 ft 1 in). Turbines rotate at a constant rate, which varies
from facility to facility.

Fig 3.7 A Kaplan Turbine.

That rate ranges from as low as 54.5 rpm (Albeni Falls Dam) to 450 rpm. Kaplan
turbines are now widely used throughout the world in high-flow, low-head power production.

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Theory of Operation
The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid
changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered
from both the hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The design
combines features of radial and axial turbines. The inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps around
the turbine's wicket gate. Water is directed tangentially through the wicket gate and spirals on to
a propeller shaped runner, causing it to spin. The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube that helps
decelerate the water and recover kinetic energy. The turbine does not need to be at the lowest
point of water flow as long as the draft tube remains full of water. A higher turbine location,
however, increases the suction that is imparted on the turbine blades by the draft tube. The
resulting pressure drop may lead to cavitation.
Variable geometry of the wicket gate and turbine blades allow efficient operation for a
range of flow conditions. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are typically over 90%, but may be lower in
very low head applications. Current areas of research include computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) driven efficiency improvements and new designs that raise survival rates of fish passing
through. Because the propeller blades are rotated on high-pressure hydraulic oil bearings, a
critical element of Kaplan design is to maintain a positive seal to prevent emission of oil into the
waterway. Discharge of oil into rivers is not desirable because of the waste of resources and
resulting ecological damage.
3.2.10 Francis Turbine
A Francis turbine has a runner with fixed buckets (vanes), usually nine or more. Water is
introduced just above the runner and all around it and then falls through, causing it to spin.
Francis turbines are primarily used for electrical power production. The power output of the
electric generators generally ranges from just a few kilowatts up to 1000 MW, though mini-
hydro installations may be lower. The best performance is seen when the head height is between
100–300 metres (330–980 ft). Penstock (input pipes) diameters are between 1 and 10 m (3.3 and
32.8 ft). The speed ranges of different turbines units are from 70 to 1000 rpm. A wicket gate
around the outside of the turbine's rotating runner controls the rate of water flow through the
turbine for different power production rates. Francis turbines are usually mounted with a vertical
shaft, to isolate water from the generator. This also facilitates installation and maintenance.

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 Fig 3.8 A Francis turbine.

A Francis turbine consists of the following main parts:

 Spiral casing: The spiral casing around the runner of the turbine is known as the volute
casing or scroll case. Throughout its length, it has numerous openings at regular intervals
to allow the working fluid to impinge on the blades of the runner. These openings convert
the pressure energy of the fluid into kinetic energy just before the fluid impinges on the
blades. This maintains a constant velocity despite the fact that numerous openings have
been provided for the fluid to enter the blades, as the cross-sectional area of this casing
decreases uniformly along the circumference.
 Guide and stay vanes: The primary function of the guide and stay vanes is to convert the
pressure energy of the fluid into kinetic energy. It also serves to direct the flow at design
angles to the runner blades.
 Runner blades: Runner blades are the heart of any turbine. These are the centers where
the fluid strikes and the tangential force of the impact causes the shaft of the turbine to
rotate, producing torque. Close attention to design of blade angles at inlet and outlet is
necessary, as these are major parameters affecting power production.

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  Draft tube: The draft tube is a conduit that connects the runner exit to the tail race where
the water is discharged from the turbine. Its primary function is to reduce the velocity of
discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This permits the
turbine to be set above the tail water without appreciable drop of available head.

Application
Francis turbines may be designed for a wide range of heads and flows. This versatility, along
with their high efficiency, has made them the most widely used turbine in the world. Francis type
units cover a head range from 40 to 600 m (130 to 2,000 ft), and their connected generator output
power varies from just a few kilowatts up to 1000 MW. Large Francis turbines are individually
designed for each site to operate with the given water flow and water head at the highest possible
efficiency, typically over 90% (to 99%).In contrast to the Pelton turbine, the Francis turbine
operates at its best completely filled with water at all times. The turbine and the outlet channel
may be placed lower than the lake or sea level outside, reducing the tendency for cavitation.
In addition to electrical production, they may also be used for pumped storage, where a reservoir
is filled by the turbine (acting as a pump) driven by the generator acting as a large electrical
motor during periods of low power demand, and then reversed and used to generate power
during peak demand. These pump storage reservoirs act as large energy storage sources to store
"excess" electrical energy in the form of water in elevated reservoirs. This is one of a few
methods that allow temporary excess electrical capacity to be stored for later utilization.

3.2.11 Kinetic Turbine

Kinetic energy turbines, also called free-flow turbines, generate electricity from the kinetic
energy present in flowing water rather than the potential energy from the head. The systems may
operate in rivers, man-made channels, tidal waters, or ocean currents. Kinetic systems utilize the
water stream's natural pathway. They do not require the diversion of water through manmade
channels, riverbeds, or pipes, although they might have applications in such conduits. Kinetic
systems do not require large civil works; however, they can use existing structures such as
bridges, tailraces and channels.

3.3.1 GENERATORS: In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts

motive power (mechanical energy) into electrical power for use in an external circuit. Sources of
mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion
engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday
disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of
the power for electric power grids. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical
energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many

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motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity; frequently they make acceptable
manual generators.
Mechanically a generator consists of a rotating part and a stationary part:
 Rotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine.
 Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine, which surrounds the rotor.
One of these parts generates a magnetic field, the other has a wire winding in which the changing
field induces an electric current:
 Field winding or field (permanent) magnets: The magnetic field-producing component
of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided
by either wire winding called field coils or permanent magnets. Electrically-excited
generators include an excitation system to produce the field flux. A generator using
permanent magnets (PMs) is sometimes called a magneto, or a permanent magnet
synchronous generator (PMSM).
 Armature: The power-producing component of an electrical machine. In a generator,
alternator, or dynamo, the armature windings generate the electric current, which
provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either the rotor or the
stator, depending on the design, with the field coil or magnet on the other part.
Generators fall into two broad categories namely; Dynamos and Alternators
3.3.2 Dynamos: A dynamo is an electrical generator that creates direct current using a
commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for
industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power conversion devices
were based, including the electric motor, the alternating-current alternator, and the rotary
converter. Today, the simpler alternator dominates large scale power generation, for efficiency,
reliability and cost reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator. Also,
converting alternating to direct current using rectifiers (such as vacuum tubes or more recently
via solid state technology) is effective and usually economical. The electric dynamo uses rotating
coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric
current through Faraday's law of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure,
called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings called
the armature which turn within that field. Due to Faraday's law of induction, the motion of the
wire within the magnetic field creates an electromotive force, which pushes on the electrons in
the metal, creating an electric current in the wire. On small machines, the constant magnetic field
may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant
magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.
Dynamos still have some uses in low power applications, particularly where low voltage DC is
required, since an alternator with a semiconductor rectifier can be inefficient in these
applications. Hand cranked dynamos are used in clockwork radios, hand powered flashlights and
other human powered equipment to recharge batteries.

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3.3.3 Alternators: An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most
alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear
alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC
electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating
machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines.

Fig 3.9 An alternator.

An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto. Alternators
in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz three-
phase alternators in power plants generate most of the world's electric power, which is
distributed by electric power grids.
3.3.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive force (EMF) in it
(Faraday's Law). This EMF reverses its polarity when it moves under magnetic poles of opposite
polarity. Typically, a rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors
wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating
an induced EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn. The
rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since the currents in the
stator windings vary in step with the position of the rotor, an alternator is a synchronous
generator.
The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, or by a field coil
electromagnet. Automotive alternators use a rotor winding which allows control of the
alternator's generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent

25
magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size,
due to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal
voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually
larger than those used in automotive applications. An automatic voltage control device controls
the field current to keep output voltage constant. If the output voltage from the stationary
armature coils drops due to an increase in demand, more current is fed into the rotating field coils
through the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field coils
which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils. Thus, the output voltage is brought back up
to its original value.
Alternators used in central power stations also control the field current to regulate
reactive power and to help stabilize the power system against the effects of momentary faults.
Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field
produces a three phase current, displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each other.

CONCLUSION
Hydro-electric energy is a great renewable energy source with new constructions and
technological advancements rapidly on the rise. There are currently 14 large scale projects that
are being developed and scheduled to completed between 2012 and 2022 in China, India,
Venezuela and Burma (with most being in China). Some hydropower stations such as the Hoover
Dam in the US are considering changing their turbines with new ones that will work more
efficiently at lower water levels (IEEE). Although hydroelectric will be a big part of our future
electricity generation, a country cannot rely on hydroelectricity alone for its electricity supply.
Therefore, it is of interest to countries to combine this technology with other forms of
technologies.

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 Furthermore, although tidal power is not yet widely used, it has a great potential for future
electricity generation since they are more predictable than most other renewable technologies
such as wind energy and solar power. Since oceans cover almost two thirds of earth's surface,
they truly present renewable energy source with extreme potential and one worth of further
exploration. Some ocean techniques that are being developed are wave energy (kinetic energy
that exists in the moving waves of the ocean caused by winds) and ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) which is a method for generating electricity that uses the temperature
difference between deep and shallow waters (since the water gets colder the deeper you go
further). However current technologies aren't at the right level to capture this potential. Problems
such as ecological, size and cost of the power plants remain to be an issue that needs addressing
(UNICEF). All that ocean or tidal energy needs now is the technology that will be capable of
exploiting its high potential of energy. If we can manage to do that then these renewable energies
can have a huge impact on how we address moving sustainably into the future.

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3. "History of Hydropower". U.S. Department of Energy.
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