FOURTH EDITION AV) Ww 4 Roger Muncaster 7) Vv ic va a <= y ic ° wn ov cA-Level PHYSICS FOURTH EDITION Roger Muncaster BSc PhD Formerly Head of Physics Bury Metropolitan College of Further Education Thia one KNZR-1YZ-3S8F1D R. Muncaster 1981, 1985, 1989, 1993, ‘The right of Roger Muncaster to be idencifed as author of dsis work has bees. asserted by bien in accordance with the Copyright; Designs and Patents Act 19388, Allrights reserved. No partof this publication maybe reproduced or transmitted in any form orby any ‘means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage anc retrieval system, without permission in writing trom the publisher or under licence from the ‘Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Further details for such licences (for reprographic reprodug- tion) may be obtained trom the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90 Tottenham Court Road, Loodon WIP-9HE First published ia 1981 ‘Second edition 1985 ‘Third edition 1989 Fourth edition 1993 Published by: ‘Nelson Thornes Lid Deka Place 27 Bath Road Cheltenham GL53 7TH ‘A catalogue record for this book is available thom the British Library. ISBN 07487 1584 3 (Flesi-cover students’ edition) ISBN 07487 (Hard-cover libeary edition) Related titles by the same author: AsLevel Physics: Nucioar Physics and Fundamental Particles ISBN 07487 1805 2 AcLevel Physics: Relativity and Quantum Physics ISBN 07487 1799 4 A-Level Physics: Medical Physics ISBN O7487 23242 ArLevel Physics: Astrophysics and Cosmology ISBN 07487 28651 ‘The caver photograph shows polarized light through the injectian area of polycarbonase moulding. ‘The photograph is by courtesy of the Paul Brieriey Photo Library, Harlow, Essex. ‘Typeset by Tech-Set, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear Printed & Bound in Croatia by ZrinsktContents L_Vectors: 2 Motion 3._ Torque 4 Equilibrium, Centre of Mass, Centre of Gravity 5, Work, Energy, Power Circular Motion and Rotation 7._ Simple Harmonic Motion 8,_ Gravitation and Gravity ‘Questions on Section A SECTION B_ STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 9,_ Solids and Liguids 10._Fluids ar Rest 11. Elasticity 12__Bluid Flow ‘Questions on Section B 14__Gases 15. Vapours 16._Thermodynamics 12—Hear Transfer Questions on Section C SECTION D_ GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 18_Refraction 19. Lenses (20._Mirrors 21. Optical Instruments 22, Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light ‘Questions on Section D 23, Basic Properties of Waves 24, Huygens’ Construction 25._Interference of Light Waves 26. Diffraction of Light Waves 27. Polarization of Light Waves 28, Electromagnetic Waves. Optical Spectra 29, Forced Vibrations and Resonance 30. Beats 481 31. Stationary (Standing) Waves 485 32. Waves in Strings 489 BEBBEE EEEBE Eseraurec. SE EBEE REEBERRFOURTH EDITION AV) Ww 4 Roger Muncaster 7) Vv ic va a <= y ic ° wn ov cA-Level PHYSICS FOURTH EDITION Roger Muncaster BSc PhD Formerly Head of Physics Bury Metropolitan College of Further Education Thia one KNZR-1YZ-3S8F1D R. Muncaster 1981, 1985, 1989, 1993, ‘The right of Roger Muncaster to be idencifed as author of dsis work has bees. asserted by bien in accordance with the Copyright; Designs and Patents Act 19388, Allrights reserved. No partof this publication maybe reproduced or transmitted in any form orby any ‘means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage anc retrieval system, without permission in writing trom the publisher or under licence from the ‘Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Further details for such licences (for reprographic reprodug- tion) may be obtained trom the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90 Tottenham Court Road, Loodon WIP-9HE First published ia 1981 ‘Second edition 1985 ‘Third edition 1989 Fourth edition 1993 Published by: ‘Nelson Thornes Lid Deka Place 27 Bath Road Cheltenham GL53 7TH ‘A catalogue record for this book is available thom the British Library. ISBN 07487 1584 3 (Flesi-cover students’ edition) ISBN 07487 (Hard-cover libeary edition) Related titles by the same author: AsLevel Physics: Nucioar Physics and Fundamental Particles ISBN 07487 1805 2 AcLevel Physics: Relativity and Quantum Physics ISBN 07487 1799 4 A-Level Physics: Medical Physics ISBN O7487 23242 ArLevel Physics: Astrophysics and Cosmology ISBN 07487 28651 ‘The caver photograph shows polarized light through the injectian area of polycarbonase moulding. ‘The photograph is by courtesy of the Paul Brieriey Photo Library, Harlow, Essex. ‘Typeset by Tech-Set, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear Printed & Bound in Croatia by ZrinsktContents L_Vectors: 2 Motion 3._ Torque 4 Equilibrium, Centre of Mass, Centre of Gravity 5, Work, Energy, Power Circular Motion and Rotation 7._ Simple Harmonic Motion 8,_ Gravitation and Gravity ‘Questions on Section A SECTION B_ STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 9,_ Solids and Liguids 10._Fluids ar Rest 11. Elasticity 12__Bluid Flow ‘Questions on Section B 14__Gases 15. Vapours 16._Thermodynamics 12—Hear Transfer Questions on Section C SECTION D_ GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 18_Refraction 19. Lenses (20._Mirrors 21. Optical Instruments 22, Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light ‘Questions on Section D 23, Basic Properties of Waves 24, Huygens’ Construction 25._Interference of Light Waves 26. Diffraction of Light Waves 27. Polarization of Light Waves 28, Electromagnetic Waves. Optical Spectra 29, Forced Vibrations and Resonance 30. Beats 481 31. Stationary (Standing) Waves 485 32. Waves in Strings 489 BEBBEE EEEBE Eseraurec. SE EBEE REEBERR33._Waves in Pipes 494 34, Musical Notes and Sound 500 35._‘The Doppler Effect 506 Questions on Section E 314 SECTION F ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 36, Charge, Current, Potential Difference and Power 534 37, The Wheatstone Bridge 556 38._“The Porentiomerer St 39, Electrostatics 570 40. Capacitors 5B9 41. Magnetic Effects of Blectric Currents cin 42. Electromagnetic Induction 65 43._ Alternating Currents e74 44. Rectification 694 45. Magnetic Materials 608 46. Electrolysis 705 ‘Questions on Section F 708 SECTION G MODERN PHYSICS 47. ‘The Photoelectric Effect, Wave—Particle Duality 752 48. ‘The Structure of the Atom, Energy Levels 762 49, X-Rays 773 so The 779 The Nucleus 197 52. Radioactivity 802 53,__Nuclear Stability. Fission and Fusion 822 54. Detectors of Radiation Se Sen ti - aay Questions on Section G 876 APPENDICES Appendix 1, ST Units 914 Appendix 2. Dimensions and Dimensional Methods 316 Appendix 3. Relevant Mathematics a19 Appendix 4. Values of Selected Physical Constants 927 Answers to Questions 930 Index 940Preface ‘This book is intended to-cover the NEAB, London, and AEB A-level syllabuses in Physics. It will also be found to-cover the bulk of all the other syllabuses for A-level Physics, including thase used overseas. Students following BTEC National ‘courses involving Physics should also find the book useful, as should those university students who are studying Physics as a subsidiary subject. SI units are used throughout. ‘The aim has been to produce a book which is not so long that students are unlikely to read it. On the other hand, the book is nota set of ‘revision notes" and ithas been my intention to explain every topic thoroughly. It is hoped that the explanations are such that all students will understand them; at the same time, the content is intended to be such that the book will provide a proper basis for those students who are going on to study Physics at degree level. ‘The book has been arranged in seven main sections (A to G). Though there is no need toread the sections in the order in which they are presented, on the whole itis advisable to keep to the chapter sequence within any one section, Practical details are given of these experiments which students are required w describe at length in examinations. The book contains many worked examples Chapters 9, 11 and 55 were extended for the second edition of the book; a chapter on thermodynamics was added at the same time, Sections on pressure, density, Archimedes’ principle, reflection at plane surfaces, defects of vision, magnetic domains, U-values and impulse were added for the third edition, The treatments of various other topics were also revised and the number of experimental investigations was increased Since the advent of the GCSE examination and double science, smdents starting Aclevel courses tend tohave less knowledge of Physics than they did previously. In the light of this, I have needed to make further additions to the book. ‘The number of worked examples has been greatly increased. Many of these are easier than was previously considered necessary, Questions have been added at relevant points in the text so that students can obtain an immediate test of their understanding of a topic. ‘Consolidation’ sections have been added at the ends of selected Chapters. These are designed to stress key points and, in some cases, to presentan overview of a topicin amanner which would not be possiblein the main text, Definitions and fundamental points are now highlighted - either by the use of serecning or bold type At the end of each of the seven sections of the book there are questions, most of which are taken from past A-level papers. Over two hundred of these have been added for the fourth edition of the book. A new edition gives me the opportunity to thank all those people who have suggested ways in which the book might be improved. I am particularly grateful to Jeni Davies for undertaking the laborious task of assisting with proof-reading, and for the invaluable suggestions she has made throughout the preparation of this editionFinally, I express. my gratitude to the following examinations boards for permission to use questions from their past examination papers: Associated Examining Board [AEB] University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate [C], reproduced by permission of University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate ‘Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, Overseas Examinations (C(O}] Norther Ireland Examinations Board [1] Northern Examinations and Assessment Board (formerly the Joint Matriculation Board) [J] Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examinations Board (0 & C] University of Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations [0] Southern Universities’ Joint Board (S] University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (formerly the University of London School Examinations Board) (L] Welsh Joint Education Committee [W']. Where only part of the original question has been used, this is indicated by an asterisk in the acknowledgement to the board concemed thus (L"] R. MUNCASTER HelmshoreSECTIONA MECHANICS1 VECTORS 1.1 VECTORS AND SCALARS Table 1.1 Examples of vectors and sealers Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction; sealar quantities have magnitude only. Examples of each type of quantity are given in Table 1.1. Distance Displacement Speed | Velocity Mass | Roce Creighe) Bneruy (work) | Accelero Volume Momentum Chae Toraue Vectors can be represented by a line drawn in a particular direction. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector; the direction of the line represents the direction of the vector, In print, vector quantities are indicated by using bold type (e.g. F) or by using an arrow (e.g. F), The same symbol without the use of either bold type or an arrow (e.g. F) represents the magnitude of the vector. Two vector quantities are equal only if they have the same magnitude and direction, 1.2 DISPLACEMENT The displacement of a body may be defined as being the length and direction of the imaginary line joining it to some reference point. Displacement is therefore a vector; the magnitude of the displacement is equal to the distance from the reference point. Suppose a body moves from Oto ¥ along the path OXY (Fig. 1.1). When the body is at Y its displacement from © is the vector, OY. The magnitude of the displacement is simply the length of OY, This is quite clearly less than the path length OXY, illustrating that the magnitude of the displacement of a body is not necessarily equal to the distance the body has actually moved, 21.3 SOME DEFINITIONS Note Velocity is the rate of change of displacement, i.c, the rate of change of distance in a given direction. Speed is the rate of change of distance. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. ‘Velocity, momentum and acceleration are vectors A body moving along a circular path may have constant speed but, because its direction is changing, it cannot have a constant velocity. It follows that ifa body is moving around a circle, even if it has constant speed, it is being accelerated because its velocity is changing, 1.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPEED AND VELOCITY Ifa body moves along a straight line (without ever reversing its direction of motion), the distance it moves is equal to the magnitude of its displacement from the starting point. It follows, therefore, that since Distance moved Speed — Distance moved Time taken and ; ; Magnitude of displacement Mi of velocity = —AeNSS 0 eeent agnitude of velocity “Tia wl then Speed = Magnitude of velocity Teshould be noted that this relationship is not necessarily true if the motion is not along a straight line, for then the magnitude of the displacement is less than the distance moved. The relationship does hold, though, if the time interval under consideration is infinitesimally short, for then the path length will also be infinitesimally short and therefore can be considered linear. Thus, for all rypes of motion Instantaneous speed = Magnitude of instantaneous velocityvecrons 5 Fig. 1.5 8 © The parallelogram rule bx aa o a ‘Thus, in Fig. 1.5, 0A+O0B = OC Subtraction ‘This can be achieved by adding a vector of the same magnitude as that being subtracted but which acts in the opposite direction. For example OA~ OB = 0A+BO OA- OB = BC+BO Le, OA - OB = BA EXAMPLE 1.1 A force of 3 N acts at 90° toa force of 4 their resultant, R. Find the magnitud Solution Fig. 1.6 Diagram for Example 1.1 Refer to Fig. 1.6. By Pythagoras R= P44 23 . R=3N Also ane =] 4 @ = wat) = 97 The resultant is therefore a force of 5N acting at 37° tothe 4N force and at 53° to the 3N force.6 SECTION A: MECHANICS EXAMPLE 1.2 2:2) (2 RE eee Fig. 17 Diagram for Example 1.2 Your caloulator will give you sin’? 0.3712 as 21.8" but in general sin a = sin (180° — 0) and therefore 158.2" is also a possibility, A force of 3N acts at 60° to a force of 5N. Find the magnitude and direction of their resultant, R. Solution a aN a Refer to Fig. 1.7. Applying the cosine rule (Appendix 3.7) to A ABC gives Ri = 57+ 37— 2.53.cos 120° = 2549415249. R=7N Applying the sine rule (Appendix 3.7) to 4 ABC gives R 3 sin 120° sind sin @ = 28i0120° _ 3 sin 120° . RO 7 @ = sin“ 0.3712 = 21.8" of 180° = 21.8" = 158.2" = 0.3712 Itis obvious from the diagram that mustbe acute and therefore the required value 21.8°, The resultantis therefore-a force of 7'N actingat 21.8° tothe 5 N force and at 38,2" to the 3N force. EXAMPLE 1.3 #8 Sc PE I A particle which is moving due east at 4m s"" changes direction and starts to move due south at 3 m s~', Find the change in velocity, Solution ‘The change in velocityis the ‘new" velocity minusthe ‘old velocity, justasachange in temperature, for example, would be the ‘new" temperanure minus the ‘old’ temperature. Therefore Change in velocity = 3ms-! (S)- 4ms! (BE) 3ms'(S)+4ms7 (W) ‘The change in velocity is therefore the vector R of Fig. 1.8.vecrors Fig. 1 Diagram for Example 1.3 ie, Change in velocity Alternatively, we can say that the veloci 37° Sof W. Sms! at 37° S of W. has increased by 5m s"! in the direction ‘The parallelogram rule can also be used to obtain the resultant of more than two vectors. For example, suppose that the resultant of three vectors is required. The procedure is touse the rule to find the resultantofany two of them, and then touse it again to add this to the remaining vector. QUESTIONS 14 1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of each of the following pairs of forces. (a) 7N at 90° to 24N, (b) 20N ar 60° to 30N, (©) 40Nat 110° to 50N, (@) 60N at 150° to 20N. Find the resultantofadisplacement of 30m due east followed by a displacement of 70m due south. 3. Find; (a) the increase in speed, (b) the increase in velocity when a body moving south at 20m.s* changes direction and moves north at 30ms Find the magnitude and direction of the increase in velocity when a body which has been moving due S at 6,0ms! changes direction and moves NW at 8.0ms"! 1.66 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS It follows from the parallelogram rule that any vector can be treated as if itis the sum of a pair of vectors. There is an infinite number of these pairs and three are shown in Fig, 1.9. A perpendicular pair such as P.and @ is the most useful. Fig. 1.9. Components of a vector asPeo ar +o, aera,a SECTION A: MECHANICS Consider a vector, F, resolved into two perpendicular vectors of magnitudes AB and AD (Fig. 1.10), From simple trigonometry, AB = F cos @ and AD = F sin 9, and therefore F can be resolved into two perpendicular vectors (called the perpendicular components of F) of magnitudes F sin and F cos 0 (Fig. 1.11). Fig. 1.10 Resolving a vector into ‘hwo perpendicular components awn Fain fe perpendicular components of a vector Fen EXAMPLE 1.4 root pst , we ae ET Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of a force of 50.N whichis acting at 40° ro the horizontal. Solution Fig. 1.12 pein Diagram for Example 1.4 ‘son fe ap cose Refer to Fig. 1.12. Horizontal component = 50.cos 40° = 38N, Vertical component = 50 sin 40° = 32N EXAMPLE 1.5 A body of weight 100 N rests on a plane which is inclined at 30° to the horizontal. Calculate the components of the weight parallel and perpendicular to the plane.vecrors s Solution Fig. 1.13 Diagram for Example 1.5 Refer to Fig. 1.13. ‘Component parallel to plane = 100 sin 30° = 50.0N Component perpendicular to plane = 100 cos 30° = 86.6N EXAMPLE 1.6 Find the resultant of the system of forces shown in Fig. 1.14. Fig. 1.14 “0.0N Diagram for Example 1.6 Solution Total upward force = 40.0+ 60.0 cos 70° — 50.0 sin 30° = 35.52N Total force to right = 90.0 - 60.0 sin 70° — 50.0 cos 30° = ~19.68N “The minus sign implies thatthe horizontal force is to the left. The resultant, R, is as shown in Fig. 1.15. Fig. 1.15 * momentum of the two bodies will be the same. The changes in momentum, however, are oppositely directed and therefore the total change in momentum is zero, The result can be extended to any number of bodies in any situation where the bodies interact only with themselves, i.e, where there are no external forces. It is known as the principle of conservation of linear momentum and can be stated as: ‘The total!tinéarhomentum of a system of interacting (¢.g. colliding) bodies, ‘on which:no external forces are-acting, remains constant. ‘The experimental investigation of the conservation of linear momentum is dealt with in section 2.14,2 EXAMPLE 2.10 © Fig. 2.11 Diagram for Example 2.10 SECTION A: MECHANICS Abody, A, of mass 4kg moves with avelocity of 2ms~! and collides head-on with another body, B, of mass 3 kg moving in the opposite direction at 5 ms”! Afterthe collision the bodies move off together with velocity e. Calculate v, => = © © Mase = kg Mass = kg ams! => 2 Mase = (4 +3) = Tag Solution Referring to Fig. 2.11 and taking momentum directed to the right to be positive, we find thar Momentum of A before the col 4x2 = Bkems! Momentum of B before the collision = 3x (5) = -I5kgms! ‘The total momentum before the col = -Thems! Momentum of (A+B) after the col = By the principle of conservation of momentum -T=ie ie ov = = the work done (joules, J) F = the constant applied force (N) 5 = the distance moved in the direction of the force (m), Tr follows from equation [5.1] that a force is doing no work if it is merely preventing a body moving, because in such a circumstance s = 0. Thus, if man Iifts some object, he is doing work whilst actually lifting it; but he does no work in holding it above his head, say, once he has lifted it into that position, ‘The man would, of course, became tired if he were to hold a heavy object for a longtime but this is because he is having to keep his muscles under tension; itis not because he is doing work on the object. Suppose that a constant force, F, acts on a body so ast moveitin adirection other than its own (Fig. 5.1), The component of F in the direction ofmotionis F cos, in which case the work done, W, is given by W = Ficos0 Direction ‘of motion This situation can oceur only ifthere is some other force preventing motion taking place in the direction of F. For example, consider a man pulling a garden rollerin the manner shown in Fig. 5.2. For convenience, the man is holding the handle at an angle 0 to the horizontal and exerts a force F in the direction shown. The other force that acts on the roller is its weight, mg, and this of course, acts vertically downwards. The upward directed component of F will be less than the weight. ‘Therefore there is no vertical motion and no work is done by the upward directed component of F.