Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125
DOI 10.1007/s10661-008-0254-1
Using LiDAR technology in forestry activities
Abdullah Emin Akay & Hakan Oğuz &
Ismail Rakip Karas & Kazuhiro Aruga
Received: 21 November 2007 / Accepted: 29 February 2008 / Published online: 26 March 2008
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract Managing natural resources in wide-scale
areas can be highly time and resource consuming task
which requires significant amount of data collection
in the field and reduction of the data in the office to
provide the necessary information. High performance
LiDAR remote sensing technology has recently
become an effective tool for use in applications of
natural resources. In the field of forestry, the LiDAR
measurements of the forested areas can provide high-
quality data on three-dimensional characterizations of
forest structures. Besides, LiDAR data can be used to
provide very high quality and accurate Digital
A. E. Akay (*) : H. Oğuz
Department of Forest Engineering, Faculty of Forestry,
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University,
46060 Kahramanmaras, Turkey
e-mail: akay@ksu.edu.tr
H. Oğuz
e-mail: hakan@ksu.edu.tr
I. R. Karas
Department of Geodetic and Photogrammetric Engineering,
Gebze Institute of Technology,
41400 Gebze,
Kocaeli, Turkey
e-mail: ragib@penta.gyte.edu.tr
K. Aruga
Department of Forest Science, Utsunomiya University,
Utsunomiya,
Tochigi 321-8505, Japan
e-mail: aruga@cc.utsunomiya-u.ac.jp
Elevation Model (DEM) for the forested areas. This
study presents the progress and opportunities of using
LiDAR remote sensing technology in various forestry
applications. The results indicate that LiDAR based
forest structure data and high-resolution DEMs can be
used in wide-scale forestry activities such as stand
characterizations, forest inventory and management,
fire behaviour modeling, and forest operations.
Keywords DEM . Forestry activities . LiDAR .
Remote sensing
Introduction
There are two commercially available remote sensing
systems which are used in the applications of natural
resources; Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR)
system and InterFerometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
(IFSAR). The LiDAR system has been widely used
by various principles while IFSAR is mostly used in
landscape level studies (Reutebuch et al. 2005). The
LiDAR system is a laser system that calculates the 3D
coordinates of object from reflection on the earth’s
surface. Using airborne laser scanning dates back to
1970s. The first applications were limited to simple
application of determining the flight height of an
airplane using only a single light pulse. In 1980s, high
performance LiDAR systems were generated with
the advent of Global Positioning Systems. LiDAR in-
strument transmits light pulses out to a target and
118
calculates distance based on light which are reflected/
scattered from the target back to the instrument. The
time for light pulses to return back to the LiDAR
instrument is used to calculate the distance to the
target.
Using LiDAR remote sensing technology, various
forestry activities can be performed rapidly and
efficiently. In generating LiDAR data set for forested
areas, light pulses can be reflected from different
levels of vegetation canopy including top of vegeta-
tion surface (first return), intermediate surfaces
(second and following returns), and the ground
surface (last return; Reutebuch et al. 2003; Fig. 1).
Based on the first and second returns, it is possible to
estimate various structures of individual tree; crown
width, diameter, volume, and height (Maltamo et al.
2004).
Using the last return, LiDAR can provide very
high quality Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with
approximately 1 m spatial resolution and about 10 to
20 cm height accuracy. Figure 2 indicates a USGS
DEM versus LiDAR based DEM generated for the
same forest area (Andersen 1999). In a study
conducted by Hofton et al. (2002), accuracy of
large-footprint LiDAR system in mapping sub-canopy
topography was tested for a structurally complex and
Fig. 1 LiDAR light pulses
reflected from different lev-
els of vegetation canopy:
(1) the first returns from top
of vegetation surface,
(2) the second and
following returns from
intermediate surface, and
(3) the last returns from the
ground surface
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125
dense tropical forest in Costa Rica. This study
suggested that sub-canopy topography measurements
derived by the LiDAR system met stated accuracy
goals under the majority of measurements conditions.
High-resolution DEMs can assist forest engineers to
examine alternative harvesting systems and to design
forest roads (Sessions and Chung 2003; Akay and
Sessions 2005). Besides, locations of the trees can be
determined and mapped on the DEMs for precise
planning of landing, skid roads, and cable corridors.
In this study, the capabilities and advantages of
using LiDAR remote sensing technology in various
forestry applications will be investigated based on
previously conducted studies. The applications dis-
cussed in this study include measuring forest stand
characteristics, estimating forest inventory parame-
ters, managing forest fires, and planning harvesting
systems and forest roads.
Forestry applications
Stand characterization
Means et al. (1999) used a scanning LiDAR to
measure structure of conifer forests in the Pacific
First Returns Interpolated Second and Following
Surface Returns
Last Returns
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125 119
Fig. 2 USGS DEM (a) ver-
sus LiDAR based DEM
(b) generated for the same
forest area (Andersen 1999)

a b

Northwest. Scanning LiDAR Imager of Canopies by
Echo Recovery (SLICER), which is scanning airborne
LiDAR that transmits short (ca. 12 m, 4 ns) pulses of
near infrared (1,064 nm) laser light towards the
ground using a laser transmitter specifically designed
for surface LiDAR applications was employed during
this work. Accompanying SLICER data, ground
measurements of forest stand structure were collected
from 26 plots. At each selected location a 50×50 m
square plot was established. Each plot was oriented so
as to correspond to 25 SLICER footprints and was
centered on the center footprint. The LiDAR-derived
metrics were averaged over all footprints in a plot for
comparison to field data. It was possible to predict a
wide variety of stand structural characteristics from
SLICER data. Mean SLICER-derived height was a
good predictor of mean canopy height through the
full-range of heights observed (Fig. 3). It was found
that there was a strong relationship between basal area
and SLICER-derived height. It was also found that
the square of SLICER-derived canopy height is
closely related to the total stand biomass. Ground-
based canopy cover of trees was closely related to
SLICER-derived canopy closure. The results from
this study indicated that data from SLICER can be
used to accurately predict important stand structural
characteristics in the tall coniferous forests of the
Pacific Northwest.
Vertical forest structure is difficult to quantify and
yet is an important component in the decision making

Fig. 3 Estimated mean

60
heights of tree canopy
Field Data Based Canopy Height (m)

derived from field data

versus LiDAR data (Means 50
et al. 1999)

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
LiDAR Based Canopy Height (m)
120
process. Zimble et al. (2003) conducted a study to
investigate the use of LiDAR data for classifying
forest structure at landscape scales for inclusion into
decision support systems since those are difficult to
asses over large and remote areas, but they represent
important information for forest management. Vertical
forest structure was defined as the distribution of tree
heights within a forest stand. On the other hand,
horizontal structure was defined for reference as the
distribution of percent canopy closure. The study area
was located in central Idaho and composed of two
research blocks where these forests have canopy
closures typically less that 60%. Field data were
collected in Idaho during the summer of 2000. These
data were used to test for differences between field-
and LiDAR-derived tree height variances. A small-
footprint, multi-return LiDAR mission flown on
October 12, 1998 provided complete coverage of
both research blocks with 16 flight lines per block, at
a nominal post spacing of approximately 2 m. The
results indicated that field-derived tree height vari-
ances could be used to distinguish between single-
story and multi-story classes of vertical structure within
forests of the study area. Results also suggested
strongly that LiDAR-derived tree height variances
could be used to differentiate these two structure
classes at the landscape scale. The results of this study
also suggested that LiDAR data could be used to map
vertical structure accurately at landscape scales.
Patenaude et al. (2004) conducted a study where
forest above ground carbon content (AGCC) in
temperate deciduous woodland was estimated based
on LiDAR canopy height measurements. In the study,
the canopy elevation and ground elevation was
computed by using the first and the last significant
returns, respectively. Triangulated Irregular Network
(TIN) was used to produce initial surface and a linear
interpolation method was used to produce 1×1 m
spatial resolution raster for each surface. These
elevation layers were used to generate two models
including Digital Canopy Height Model (DCHM) and
Digital Terrain Model (DTM). In the process, DTM
was first generated based on the last return surface
layer, and then DCHM was generated by subtracting
DTM from the canopy elevation layer. In the model,
canopy height parameters from forestry yield tables
were used to form AGCC model. The height metrics
were derived from LiDAR DCHM model and total
AGCC in tones per hectare was computed for the
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125
woodland. The results from this study indicated that
LiDAR technology is somewhat limited to estimate
AGCC; however, it improved capabilities for mea-
suring carbon content in forest ecosystem.
Takahashi et al. (2005a) investigated the perfor-
mance of using LiDAR to estimate the individual tree
heights of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) in
mountainous forests with steep and varying topogra-
phy. The study was conducted in two sample plots
mainly consisted of sugi. In Plot 1, the terrain surface
varied from gentle to steep slope, while Plot 2
consisted of a gentle slope with a rough surface. In
both Plots, the understory vegetation was less than
2 m height and the forest floor was mainly covered
with litter. Topographic of the Plot 1 was divided into
two groups, including steep slope and gentle slope,
while Plot 2 was called gentle yet rough terrain. The
LiDAR data of the area was collected in summer
2001, while ground truth data was collected during
fall and winter of 2003.To take account of 2-year
increment in tree height and stem diameter, the mean
value of the increment for selected sample trees were
subtracted from the ground truth data. To represent
the canopy height raster layer, the Canopy Height
Model (CHM) was generated by deducting the last
raster layer (i.e. DTM) from the first raster layer (i.e.
Digital Surface Model—DSM). The results indicated
that LiDAR based system underestimated the tree
heights in both the gentle slope and the gentle yet rough
terrain due to lower percentage of first pulse data in
DSM. However, LiDAR based system overestimated
the tree heights in steep slope because tree tops were
tilted to the walleye side particularly on a steep slope.
Hyde et al. (2005) conducted a study where the
ability of a large footprint LiDAR to generate maps of
forest structures to assist in wildlife habitat and other
forest management activities. The forest structures
included canopy height, canopy cover, and above-
ground biomass. In the study, first, the field-derived
forest structures were determined based on field plot
data collected during the summer of 2000 and 2001.
Then, LiDAR-derived forest structures were deter-
mined based on the LiDAR data collected during
the fall of 1999 while deciduous trees were in leaf-
on condition. An automated algorithm was used to
extract canopy height and canopy cover while
specified metrics derived from LiDAR were used to
measure biomass. The statistical comparisons between
field-derived and LiDAR-derived forest structures
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125 121

indicated a good agreement (Table 1). This study Table 2 Number of correctly classified trees per species group
and proportional correct based on LDA method where N=200
suggested that LiDAR remote sensing is an effective
(Brandtberg et al. 2002)
tool for generating spatially continuous maps of forest
structures which are prerequisite for habitat suitability Variables N Oaks N Maple N Poplar Prop correct
studies.
ZMax 55 96 150 0.50
RKurt 26 145 85 0.43
Forest inventory ZStdDev 29 124 99 0.42
ZKurt 136 95 20 0.42
Brandtberg et al. (2002) conducted a study which was RSkew 25 129 94 0.41
one of the first researches evaluated individual leaf- RMax 102 121 21 0.41
off deciduous trees by using the small-foot print, high
density light detection, and ranging data (LiDAR). In
this study, the main objectives were to develop a individual tree delineation and characterization using
simple method that detects individual tree crowns and LiDAR system in the estimation of these parameters.
to investigate the probability of using LiDAR-based Then, the accuracy was tested based on highly
indices in classifying tree species. 2D grid with 25 cm accurate field data collected from sample plots with
pixels was specified for selected subset areas over the dense understory. In this study, theoretical Weibull
6 ha study area. Identify the individual trees, first, distribution functions (Zutter et al. 1986) and LiDAR
interpolations of laser points and Gaussian smoothing data was combined to delineate small and suppressed
at multiple scales were performed, and then results trees. The results indicated that accuracy of estimating
were compared to the ground measured tree-based timber volume using laser scanning was on a
features. For the analysis of LiDAR data within satisfactory level; however, the number of stems was
individual tree crowns, first, tree-based indices were overestimated due to high amount of tree stock and
determined separately, and then Linear Discriminant very dense understory (Table 3). It was also indicated
Analysis (LDA) was used to classify tree species. The that applying distribution functions integrated with
study indicated that using high density LiDAR data in LiDAR data slightly improved the prediction of small
detecting and identifying individual leaf-off trees trees.
provide good results with a moderate to high degree Takahashi et al. (2005b) conducted a study to
of accuracy (Table 2). investigate which predictor variables with respect to
Maltamo et al. (2004) conducted a study where crown properties could be useful in regression models
LiDAR remote sensing technology was used to in order to predict individual stem volumes. In the
estimate specified forest inventory parameters includ-
ing timber volume and stem density. They examined
Table 3 Estimating forest inventory parameters including
timber volume and number of stems by field data versus
LiDAR data (Maltamo et al. 2004)
Table 1 The accuracy of LiDAR-derived canopy height
measurements (Hyde et al. 2005) Sample Timber volume (m3ha−1) Number of stems
plots
Vegetation class RMSD Coefficient of N P values Field data LiDAR data Field data LiDAR data
determination
1 345.3 266.3 425 267
Red Fir 8.8 0.72 36 0.00 2 448.3 375.1 700 378
White Fir 8.9 0.60 19 0.00 3 532.7 440.4 856 322
Ponderosa and 11.1 0.43 11 4 416.7 322.3 1656 289
Jeffrey pine 5 297.0 196.5 656 233
Sierra mixed-conifer 10.0 0.35 22 0.00 6 316.8 211.6 672 240
Montane hardwood 4.0 0.88 8 0.00 7 287.4 197.8 622 244
and Montane 8 126.6 77.3 478 233
hardwood-conifer 9 375.6 286.1 678 333
Wet meadow 9.5 0.54 10 0.02 10 217.1 172.3 833 300
Barren 3.6 0.85 6 0.00 Average 336.3 254.5 756 284
122
study, the data were acquired from recent commercial
small-footprint airborne light detection and ranging.
The study area was the Nagoya University experi-
mental forest located in the Aichi Prefecture in cen-
tral Japan, and was 48-year-old Sugi (Cryptomeria
japonica D. Don) plantation in mountainous forest.
The topography of the region was steeper and more
complex than that of previously researched sites.
Using the best regression model, the sum of predicted
stem volumes for LiDAR-detected trees was com-
pared with field-measured total stem volumes for all
trees within stands. In the regression analysis, field-
measured stem volumes were regressed against each
of the six LiDAR-derived predictor variables such as
volume and crown area, together with LiDAR-derived
tree height. The results indicated that the model with
Sunny Crown Mantle Volume (SCV) had the smallest
standard error of the estimate obtained from the
regression model in each stand. 0.144, 0.171, and
0.181 were the resulting standard errors (m3), cor-
responding to 23.9%, 21.0%, and 20.6% of the
average field-measured stem volume for detected
trees in each of these stands, respectively. The results
showed that although 69–86% of the total number of
trees was correctly detected using LiDAR data, the
sum of the individual stem volumes, predicted by
regression models with SCV for the detected trees,
occupied 83–91% of field-measured total stem vol-
umes within each stand. The results of this study
indicated that small-footprint airborne LiDAR can be
a useful tool for predicting the individual stem
volume for LiDAR-detected trees and the stand
volume of Sugi plantations in mountainous areas.
Roberts et al. (2005) investigated the potential for
using small-footprint LiDAR in estimating individual
tree leaf area based on LiDAR-derived tree height and
crown dimensions. A reliable approach of remotely
estimating leaf area index would greatly facilitate its
use in forest management. Study sites are composed
of loblolly pine plantations located in east-central
Mississippi (the Starr site) and eastern Texas (the Fred
site). The Starr and Fred sites utilized 16-year-old and
4-year-old loblolly pines respectively. Both sites were
linked to a GIS layer identifying the relative location
of each tree on each plot. By doing that tree-to-tree
comparison could be made between LiDAR-based
and ground-based estimates of tree and crown
dimensions. LiDAR data were acquired using an
Optech ALTM 1210 system and included information
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125
on first and last returns. For individual tree analysis, a
relatively low flying altitude (~360 m) and narrow
scan angle (± 3° off nadir) were required to achieve
the high posting densities. Results showed that after
all initial tree spacing, an average of 81% of all live
loblolly pine trees were accurately identified on plots
at the Starr site; however, nearly 70% of live trees
were accurately identified at the Fred site (Table 4).
At the Starr site, LiDAR-based estimates of crown
diameter and height to crown center were closer to
ground-measured values for trees at smaller spacings,
therefore LiDAR-based leaf area estimates for trees
were close to ground-based estimates on the lower
density plots. At the Fred site, LiDAR-based esti-
mates were little different from ground measured
heights since the success in predicting leaf area
depends exclusively on the ability of LiDAR to
estimate tree height. Thus, LiDAR-based estimates
of leaf area for accurately identified trees were close
to ground-based estimates of leaf area.
Fire management
Riano et al. (2003) presented a method to use LiDAR
data for estimation of forest parameters that are
critical in fire behaviour modeling. These parameters
included tree height, tree cover, surface canopy
height, surface canopy cover, and crown bulk density.
To provide sufficient statistical significance for the
generation of the forest parameters, laser pulses were
arranged to store x, y, and z (elevation) coordinates in
10 m by 10 m cells. First, the cells were defined as
vegetation if the heights were over 0.6 m. If the 99
percentile of the vegetation height was equal or less
than 4 m, the cells were classified as surface canopy;
while they were classified as forest if it was over 4 m.
The cells defined as forests were divided into two
groups including overstory and understory by using a
Table 4 Estimated mean tree heights derived from LiDAR data
and field data at the Star site and Fred site (Roberts et al. 2005)
Category Star site Fred site
LiDAR (m) Ground (m) LiDAR (m) Ground (m)
Correct 17.5 18.0 4.8 4.6
ID trees
Adll live 17.5 4.7
trees
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125
cluster analysis. The tree height and the crown base
height were computed as the 99 and 1 percentile of
the overstory group, respectively, while surface
canopy height was defined as the 99 percentile of
the understory group. Tree cover was estimated from
the proportion of the laser pulses that hit the tree
canopy, while surface canopy cover was estimated
from the proportion of the laser pulses that hit the
surface canopy cover. Crown bulk density was
calculated based on foliage biomass and crown
volume. This study indicated that the methodology
using LiDAR technology can generate accurate fuel
management plans at twice inexpensive and at 3.5
times less time consuming than that of traditional
methodologies.
Morsdorf et al. (2004) evaluated the accuracy of
using LiDAR data in deriving the structures of the
upper canopy at individual tree level for the fire
behaviour models. Tree position, tree height, and
crown diameter were derived based on LiDAR data
and then compared with field-derived data. The study
area was a part of Swiss National Park covered by
boreal type forest stands. The LiDAR data accuracy
assessment using six geometric reference targets
indicated horizontal and vertical accuracy of 0.5 m
and 0.15 m, respectively. The results also indicated
that tree heights computed based on LiDAR data were
in good agreement with the heights computed using
standard forestry tools. However, LiDAR-derived
crown diameters did not match the field-derived
diameters probably due to the errors in the field
measurements. Based on the LiDAR-derived geomet-
ric properties of the trees, the forest scene was
reconstructed using a simple geometric model. This
study suggested that deriving the structures of the
upper canopy on an individual tree basis will be more
effective for fire behavior modeling. Besides, if it is
necessary, individual tree basis structures can be
aggregated to a large scale to generate fire models
for a stand level approach.
In a study conducted by Fernandes et al. (2005),
automatic classification of single-wavelength LiDAR
signals was performed for early forest fire detection.
The smoke plume signatures in LiDAR curves
resulting from small and large-scale forest fires was
identified by using committee machines composed of
several single layer perceptrons. This study was a
sequel to a previous study where committee machines
were used to classify LiDAR signals. However, the
123
level of false alarms was excessive for effective forest
fire surveillance. In the follow up study, the efficiency
of pattern classification was improved and probability
of false alarms was decreased by using training
patterns containing application-specific parameters.
These parameters included the peak-to-noise ratio,
average amplitude ratio and maximum amplitude
ratio. The results indicated smoke signature classifi-
cation efficiency of 93% and 70% and the false alarm
percentages of 0.041% and 0.011% for small and
large-scale forest fires, respectively.
Forest operations
Chung (2003) developed a model where harvesting
systems and road locations were optimized consider-
ing logging feasibility, environmental requirements,
and total cost. Using this model, forest managers can
evaluate large number of alternatives in extracting
logs from stump to the mill, using network program-
ming technique and GIS data base. The objective was
to help decision makers performing challenging tasks
in planning forest harvesting systems that require key
decision makings on logging equipment, landing site,
cable road profile, road location, transportation
system etc. In this study, topographic details of the
study area were obtained from DEM (10×10 m
resolution) from a LiDAR data set. The model was
tested by applying on an actual cable logging harvest
area. The results indicated that the model was an
efficient tool to quickly analyze physical, economical,
and environmental feasibility of alternative harvesting
systems and road locations. It was indicated that
resolution of the DEM directly affects the problem
size by increasing solution time and demanding more
memory space.
Akay et al. (2004) developed a 3D forest road
design model that relied on high-resolution DEM
generated using a LiDAR data set. In the model, input
data included DEM, attribute data, road design
specifications, and environmental requirements. The
high-resolution 3D DEM (2 m by 2 m) was developed
using a LiDAR data collected from Capitol Forest in
western Washington State (Fig. 4). The DEM data
was represented as a set of scattered metric data
points (x, y, and z coordinates). To extract ground
elevations from the DEM, bilinear interpolation
method was used. The attribute data including soil
types and stream data, was also represented as a set of
124
Fig. 4 3D DEM generated by LiDAR data set (Akay et al.
2004)
scattered metric data points. The model employed
optimization techniques (Simulated Annealing and
Linear Programming) to locate the vertical alignment
with the lowest total costs, subject to road design
specifications and environmental requirements (Akay
2004). The results indicated a road design model
LiDAR remote sensing technology, modern optimi-
zation techniques, and environmental considerations
can improve the design process for forest roads.
Aruga et al. (2005) developed a forest road design
model where optimization techniques were used to
generate optimum vertical alignments, considering
construction and maintenance costs. The model
precisely generates cross-sections and accurately
calculates earthwork volumes using a high-resolution
DEM from a LiDAR system. In generating alternative
vertical alignments by adjusting the height and the
location of the intersection points, one of the modern
optimization techniques, Tabu Search, was used. They
tested the effect of number of intersection point along
the roadway on the total construction costs. The
results from the optimization technique were com-
pared with the results from the exact solution found
by the probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation method.
It was indicated that both techniques provided similar
solutions for a sample road design problem. The best
Table 5 The unit costs
($/m) and solution times for Number of intersection points
alternative vertical align-
1 2
ments with different number
of intersection points
Cost ($/m) 86.64 74.64
(Aruga et al. 2005)
Solution time 3s 9m
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125
solution was generated by the alternative solution
with five intersection points. The results indicated that
the alternatives with six and seven intersection points
could not find better solutions than that alternative
with five intersection points (Table 5). It was also
indicated that increasing the number of intersection
points increased the total computer computation time.
Conclusions
LiDAR technology has shown promise for collecting
surface information more rapidly than the existing
data collection techniques in remote sensing. In this
study, the capabilities of using LiDAR data in
performing forestry applications were discussed by
reviewing previously conducted studies. These forest
applications included measuring forest structures,
estimating forest inventory, managing forest fires,
and planning forest operations. According to the
results derived from these studies, accuracy of the
forest features measured based on LiDAR data were
generally in a satisfactory level, comparing to the
estimates of ground-based surveys. This study indi-
cated that there is a great potential for efficiently
performing many forestry activities using LiDAR
remote sensing technology. Therefore, forest activities
can be done quickly and less expensive for wide-scale
areas. It was also indicated that the performance of
the LiDAR based method is directly affected by the
resolution of the data. However, LiDAR is one of the
fastest growing technologies in the field and it may
provide even higher resolution and more accurate
data, as GIS technologies advance. There are potential
emerging areas where advanced LiDAR based GIS
applications can be successfully implemented such as
3D landscape modeling, aquatic applications, and
environmental monitoring. Thus, virtual reality GIS
can be used to generate 3D modeling of forests by
using high-resolution DEMs based on LiDAR data.
The airborne LiDAR bathymetry, one of the most
recent advancements in LiDAR technology, can be
3 4 5 6 7
75.42 62.12 61.42 61.93 61.81
1 h 01 m 1 h 38 m 1 h 59 m 2 h 24 m 3 h 01 m
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 151:117–125
implemented for shallow water applications in the
field of forestry.
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