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,3AyV^---
VISUAL IMAGERY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
by
Of ■
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Psychology
Approved:
H W d ,^Maj of Ddpartment_
tZ%
Graduate Dean
March, 1977
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. Richard Block, for the many unselfish hours he spent supervising my
Dr. William Jankel and Dr. William Shontz, for valuable criticism and
advice. In addition. Dr. Paul Willis has been very generous and
grateful to Judy Fisher for typing this thesis and providing profoundly
Page
INTRODUCTION ........................................ I
EXPERIMENT I . . . ........................................... .. . 18
M e t h o d ................ ................................... .. . 19
T e s t s ........................ 19
Apparatus................................ 19
Discussion . . . » .................. 23
EXPERIMENT 2 ....................... 25
M e t h o d .............. ..................................... . - 25
T e s t s ........................................................... 25
Page
Apparatus........................ 26
Results ...................................... 27
D i s c u s s i o n ................ 29
EXPERIMENT 3 .................................. .. . 30
Method ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Tests ...................... 31
Subjects ............................ 31
Procedure.................................................... 31
Part I .......................... 31
Part I I .................. 32
Results ............................ 32
Part I .......................... 32
Discussion , . .............. 35
EXPERIMENT 4 .................................................... 38
M e t h o d ................ 39
S u b j e c t s ............................... 40
Page
D i s c u s s i o n ............................ ................. 43
Table Page
Figure Page
ABSTRACT
many people continue to deny the usefulness and even the existence of
pline? People often feel they know a great deal about the world beyond
their bodies, yet they are often only fleetingly aware of the world
the ages. Since the time of the cave paintings, one of the first
creative human endeavors, man has externalized his inner visions in the
desired effect over the mind. The Old Testament of Jews and Christians
and the Koran of Moslems contain many examples of the importance inner
cultures.
equated thought and images. Aristotle and Plato believed that memories
out that nearly every ancient mnemonic system involved the use of
walk" past the loci, reconstructing images associated with the specific
items along the way. Cicero (Yates, 1966) mentioned that he memorized
(1974) notes that ,many theaters constructed during the Renaissance era
were decorated with elaborate art work. These decorations were used by
actors to help them remember their lines, again through the association
tion.
that all his knowledge was represented in the form of mental images
the mind in the form of images led the Structuralists to base their
(1883, 1907; as cited in his book, Inquiries into Human Faculty, 1928).
1907) and other researchers was too great for the Structuralists to.
(1883, 1907) work showed this notion to be wrong. These problems, the
almost total reliance put on the introspective method, and the advent of
had become.
6
Through the years, a great deal of work has been spent cata
Visual memory imagery (VMI) is the most common type of inner visual
familiar road) are all termed memory images. A memory image is defined
1970, p. 22). Richardson (1969) adds that memory images usually "refer
greater detail later on. VMI is the basic rudiment of most kinds of
p. 29).
at night. The original image lasts only a few seconds and is soon
replaced by its negative after-image. The black and white tones of the
original after-image are reversed and the colors of the original after
perceptions, but the images are arranged in a novel way and are not
familiar, little scientific research in the past has been carried out
9
research dealing with this type of visual imagery experience will prove
share.a common link— the visual image— but are distinguished by the
often introduce a time factor; they deal with a series of images taking
when it occurs just after sleep before being fully awake, is closely
and Samuels, 1975, p. 47). However, people generally know they are
internal and rarely mistake them for events in the external world.
are many different antecedent conditions that can give rise to this
scene often has an image of that object or scene recur in his mind at a
imagery useful, the distinction between one form of visual imagery and
the question remains: How are visual events stored in memory? This
debate. Currently there are two main types of theories concerning the
imagery and verbal processes are essentially the same form of repre
theories hold that there are two basic ways of representing information
adhering to the unitary point of view argue that visual memories are
(Pylyshyn,. 1973). Anderson and Bower (1973) agree with Pylyshyn and
12
argue that what people call images do not differ from verbal memories.
In their Human Associative Memory model they advocate that all memories,
that: "Images are not pictures in the head, but plans for obtaining
description (see Pylyshyn, 1973, for a review), the image, per se, is
not an image in the true sense of the word to unitary theorists. What
is called the image, the verbal trace, or whatever, is more or less one
sentations are stored very much in the same way as verbal represen
tations in LTM.
13
Essentially, the dual-system assumes that there are two basic ways of
1971) states that the verbal system deals better with linguistic,
that information that can be held in both the verbal and imaginal
one system because there should be twice as much information about it.
& Csapo, 1969; Bower, 1972) have supported this contention. Paivio's
research studies fhat indicate that there are two, not one, represen
tation systems.
components. In fact, the pathways are so similar that the two opera
tions sometimes occur together or interfere with each other. Segal and
Nathan (1964) found that sometimes a person whose eyes are opened can
<
superimpose a memory image upon a perceptual stimulus so clearly that
the memory image can distort or even blot out the external stimulus.
also been found that during the scanning of visual images there are
Richardson, 1969).
of some perceptual operations, then one would expect people with good
i
15
the presence of a form of visual imagery that at least partly uses the
viewpoint.
Students who reported the best VMI and students who reported the worst
VMI on these questionnaires were then selected as good and poor visual
measure. .
The Experiments
thetic imagery and VMI on the Sheehan short form of the Betts vividness
of imagery scale (in the form that appears in Richardson, 1969), and
test of vividness was substituted for the ten vividness items of the
naire and the MSC Knowledge Interest Test. While there were some signi
there ^ere greater differences between males and females. The results
I
17
made.
correlations between the four separate tests was that while vividness
found between good and poor female controllers of VMI and kinesthetic
imagery.
EXPERIMENT I
This notion goes back to the work of Jacobson (1932), who demonstrated
that the better a person visualizes during MP, the more benefit he will
get from-M P . We thus have an ideal situation for applying the indivi-
'\ i
dual differences approach to the study of VMI. Good visual imagers
should benefit more from MP than poor visual imagers. The present
strate the importance of VMI and suggest that VMI questionnaires are
Method
(1949) test of VMI control (Appendix A); and the kinesthetic and visual
administered the imagery tests. Four males and four females who
recorded the lowqst scores on the two Betts tests (x = 13) and the
Gordon (1949) test (x ? 12.5) and four males and four females who
recorded the highest scores on the two Betts tests (x = 23.1) and the
Gordon (1949) test (x = 38.1) were selected as good and poor imagers,
respectively.
placed 6.5 feet above the floor on a blank wall. Three velcro balls
worth 30, 20, and 10 points. Two chairs, a desk, four magazines, and
the room.
Four good and four poor visual imagers received MP throughout the
menter to the testing room. Each subject was then given the following
instructions:
The set scores during each of the three throwing trials were
recorded after each subject had thrown the balls. The highest set
score was then recorded for each of the three throwing trials. The
subjects were asked for comments on the experiment after all five steps
12 minutes.
Results
80 —
Good Visual Imagers/Distracting Task
MEAN SCORE
1 2 3
TRIAL
Figure I. Mean Throwing Scores for Good and Poor Visual Imagers Under Mental Practice
and Distracting Task Conditions in Experiment I.
23
variables (good vs. poor imagers, MP vs. distracting task, and test
trials) and the interactions between them. The main effects of two
and test trials [F_ .(I, 12) = 9.04, <.01]. None of the four inter
While no significant difference was found between the eight good and
eight poor imagers on test trial I [I? (I, 14) = .04, £ >.05], a signi
ficant difference in performance was found on test trial 3 f_F (I, 14) =
was found between the eight good and poor imagers under MP conditions
Discussion
mance from trial I to trial 3 than did poor visual imagers under MP
were made. Most important, of the changes were increasing the number of
Thus, there were four throwing trials and three MP/distracting task
maze (taken from McKim, 1972, p. 109) , a task that required far more
the Experiment I complained that the sessions were too long. Another
Questionnaire" was substituted for the 10 items selected from the Betts
Method
naire" and the 12-item "Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control" (in the
26
revised form that appears in Richardson, 1969) were used to assess the
administered the two imagery tests. The eight males and eight females
who scored the lowest point total on the Marks test (x = 22.5) and
good visual imagers. Likewise, the eight females and eight males who .
scored the highest point total on the Marks (x = 38.5) and Gordon
Eight good and eight poor visual imagers received MP throughout the
90 seconds each.
27
Results
test for linear improvement across throwing trials. . While the 16.
improvement across trials [I? (I, 14) = 0.3; £_■>■.05], the 16 subjects in
£ <.001].
was found between those under MP conditions and those under distracting
task conditions [J? (I, 14) = 0.07, £ >.05]. Conversely, good visual
70—
MEAN SCORE
60—
NS
00
50— Poor Visual Imagers/Mental Practice
40—
1 2 3 4
TRIAL
Figure 2. Mean Throwing Scores for Good and Poor Visual Imagers Under Mental Practice
and Distracting Task Conditions in Experiment 2.
29
Discussion
probably considerably less effective for others, namely those with poor
this respect.
additional support for the above notions. All poor visual imagers
However, four of the eight good visual imagers said the MP "'session
duration was "about right," two said it was too long, and two said it
was too short. Apparently, good visual imagers had a much easier time
working under MP conditions and thus derived greater benefit from them.
involving M P .
EXPERIMENT 3
mainly by the right hemisphere in most people (Gale, Morris, Lucas, and
possible that good and poor visual imagers might differ in respect to
31
The purpose of this study was to compare good and poor visual
Method
VMI. The Gordon (1949) test was used to assess controllability of VMI
the Montana State College Knowledge Interest Test (from the Montana
used.
psychology students were administered the two imagery tests and the
imagers those people who scored below 14 on the Gordon (1949) test and
the test. There were 17 male and 22 female good visual imagers and 14
male and 23 female poor visual imagers who were then compared on their
Marks) good visual imagers were selected from the 209 psychology
Good and poor visual imagers were then compared in an analogous manner
Results2
2
Part I. A two-way x analysis was performed on the data to
visual imagers for each gender. The total number of responses by all
life than talk about their work or studies, a preference opposite that
2
favored by poor.visual imagers [x = 10.2, £ <.01].
£ <.05].
Table I
Interest Test, there were two subjects on which male good and poor
good and poor visual imagers differed significantly. For males, good
visual imagers reported they liked and poor visual imagers reported
2 2
they disliked Calculus [x = 8.75, £ <.01] and Philosophy [x = 4.95,
£ <.05]. For females a similar response pattern among good (like) and
Discussion
groups, the results are puzzling. While there are some significant
differences in the way poor and good visual imagers responded to item
gender were not found on that same item for the other gender. In fact,,
visual imagers and male and female poor visual imagers as within the
sex groups. Any study done involving VMI should be very careful to
groups. Just because a person reports good VMI does not mean he or she
person has developed a right hemisphere ability that the person with a
poor VMI has not. But developing one right hemisphere attribute does
very vivid, controllable VMI which he says was responsible for his
cognitive modes.
While there are problems with attempting this type of study, and
conclusions, the basic notion that differences in VMI ability can have
not be readily dismissed. Over the past year, I have talked to many
people who have good' abilities in the arts (such as painting, ceramics,
architecture, etc.) and they have all indicated to me that they have an
37
follow or should follow, and what type of activity they enjoy most or
do best.
EXPERIMENT 4
the two studies dealing with MP, VMI was implicated as an important
that not only could they "see” throwing the balls in their minds, but
they also, reported that they could "feel" the throwing motion. It is
VMI and highly controllable VMI may well be due, in part, to the use of
their VMI, and some people may not honestly answer the questions. It
sample of good and poor visual imagers and then give that sample
objective tests to find the best and worst visual imagers. Such a
is a much more valuable ability. Snyder (1972) mentions that the Space
Method
were used: the kinesthetic and visual portions of the Sheehan short
(Appendix E).
40
In the second part of the experiment, Form T of the Space
students were selected on the basis of their scores on the Gordon and
Gordon; x-= 12.6, Chara); nine female good imagers (x = 13.1, Gordon;
Chara).
sensations into a chronological scene, like the Gordon test. This test
naires were subsequently added and the total scores of each question
Part II. Good and poor imagers were selected from the
students given the four imagery questionnaires. Both male and female
good and poor imagers were selected on the basis of the low and high
were then administered the Space Relations subtest. The mean score of
each of the four groups was calculated and good and poor imagers were
Results
of the four imagery scales. Five of the six correlations were found to
Imagery Control.
was the fact that while the correlation between the vividness of VMI
(Betts test) and controllability of VMI (Gordon test) was not signi
was performed via a Correlated Groups Test and it was found that the
Space Relations test than poor visual imagers of the same sex (male x =
41.77; female, x = 38.66). The means of the two imagery groups were
42
Table 2
1
2 a) Betts Vividness of Visual Imagery
m
O
A
.066
Pi
b) Gordon Controllability of Visual Imagery
N = 406; df = 404
43
compared for each sex and, while male good and poor imagers were found
Discussion
imagery. In controlling VMI not only do you "see" an image, you almost
have a "feel" for it and thus can manipulate it. It does not seem to
a sensation (holding a weight) and doing something with that over time
(lifting the weight over your head and then lowering it to your feet)
Although male and female good imagers, both had higher mean scores on
the Space Relations test than their poor imaging counterparts, the
difference was not large, just barely significant when males were
unfolded, box or item would look like when folded, intuitively would
who reported highly controllable VMI and kinesthetic imagery yet scored
very pqorly on the Space Relations test. While saying he answered the
in his mind what the unfolded items in the Space Relations test would
45
look like when folded. It seems likely he was overrating his controll
results found in the second part of this study. This will be dealt
selected on the basis of poor VMI. Since it has been shown that there
are. a number of tasks on which good visual imagers do not surpass the
specific abilities to a much greater degree than people with poor VMI.
image, especially the visual memory image, is a lot more important than
believe.
1972; Westcott and Rosenstock, 1976) and research reported here and
Tneasure what they purport to, people are still assessing their own
cle^r and vivid") on that same scale. Some people use a strict
visual imagers and then give more objective measures of VMI ability to
that group of people to get the best and worst visual imagers. Of
more precise measurement of VMI. For the present time, however, the
differences between male and female good visual imagers and male and
noting.
assume that males have better VMI. Seemingly at variance with this,
between vividness of VMI and good pictorial recall. The answer to this
be, then, that males and females differ in the nature of their VMI;
studies.
reasoning may also shed light on the gender differences observed for
50
The idea that there is not a separate code for visual and verbal
various associates (see Paivio, 1971, for a review) have shown that
there is an imaginal system that best handles memory for pictures and
a verbal system that best handles memory for words and that each system
is best fit to code the two types of stimuli. Concrete nouns, words
that are easily visualized (such as "dog"), have been found to be best
visual processes are the same way of representing information, why then
and verbal coding, Neisser (Cognition and Reality, 1976) dismisses the
idea that visual images are closely related to percepts by saying that
this idea has "some difficulty in explaining why images and percepts
are not systematically confused with one another" (p. 129). He goes on
that percepts and images are confusable, it is seriously flawed and has
and Fusella (1970), and Atwood (1971). These experiments have repli
cated and extended the work of Perky (1910) and found that imaging and
The main problem with the unitary view of visual imagery is that
it considers only VMI and fails to consider that there are many other
from visual stimulation are coded and decoded. Next to the visual
Eccles (as cited in Gatz, .1970, p. 37), is likely stored. What is then
also compatible with the dual-system theory. It has been found that
image, recognition of faces" (p. 52). Ornstein sees the left hemis
phere as the one that deals primarily with verbal, sequential thought,
thought. If the brain has two modes of thought then it is very likely
54
imagery phenomena, the image/no image question, now in the form of the
will go on. People with poor imagineI abilities will deny the
will assert their importance. One such person was Albert Einstein, who
thought are certain signs and more or less clear images which.can be
facets of living. The ability to take memory images and combine them
with and develop them into imagination images may well be one of the
most important abilities of the human mind. Bill Koch, the only
psychiatrists have had patients use visual images to deal with problems
people, such as Albert Einstein, Bertrand Russel and Vincent Van Gogh,
the tip of the iceberg. As more attention and research are devoted to
mind. The fact that the ability to form visual images is a partially
56
how poor your visual imagery is, you can learn to improve it.
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
Instructions:
The following questions are concerned with the ease with which
you can control or manipulate visual images. For some people this task
is relatively easy and for others relatively hard. One subject who
could not manipulate his imagery easily gave this illustration. He
visualized a table, one of whose legs suddenly began to collapse. He
then tried to visualize another table with four solid legs, but found it
impossible. The image of the first table with its collapsing legs
persisted. Another subject reported that when he visualised a table the
image was rather vague and dim. He could visualize it briefly but it
was difficult to retain by any voluntary effort. In both these illus-
rations the subjects had difficulty in controlling or manipulating their
visual imagery. It is perhaps important to emphasize that these
experiences are in no way abnormal and are as often reported as the
controllable type of image.
Read each question, then close your eyes while you try to
visualize the scene described. Record your answer by marking in I for
"yes," 3 for "unsure,", and 5 for "no." Remember that your accurate and
honest answer to these questions is most important for the validity of
this study. If you have any doubts at all regarding the answer to a
question, mark 3 for "unsure." Please be certain that you answer each
of the twelve questions.
Items;
1. Can you see a car standing in the road in front of a house? I 3 5
2. Can you see it in color? I 3 5
3. Can you now see it in a different color? . I 3 5
4. Can you now see the same car lying upside down? I 3 5
5. Can you now see the same car back on its fourwheels again? I 3 5
6. Can you see the car running along the road? I 3 .5
7. Can you see it climb up a very steep hill? I 3 5
8. Can you see it climb over the top? I 3 5
9. Can you see it get out of control and crash through a house? I 3 5
10. Can you now see the same car running along the road with a
handsome couple inside? I 3 5
11. Can you see the car cross a bridge and fall over the side
into the stream below? I 3 5
12. Can you see the car all old and dismantled in a car-cemetery?1 3 5
APPENDIX B
Rating Scale:
The image aroused by an item of this test may be:
Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience . .Rating I
Moderately clear and vivid.............................. Rating 2
Not clear dr vivid, but recognizable.................... Rating 3
Vague and d i m ........ ................................. Rating 4
No image present at all, you only 'knowing' that you
are thinking of the object............ ................ Rating 5
APPENDIX B (continued)
Rating
6. Running upstairs ( )
7. Springing across a gutter ( )
8. Drawing a circle on paper . ( )
9. Reaching up to a high shelf ( )
10. Kicking something out of your way ( )
APPENDIX' C
Rating Scale:
"Perfectly clear and as vivid as normal vision", . . . . . Rating I
"Clear and reasonably vivid" ........................ . Rating 2
"Moderately clear and vivid" .................... . . . Rating 3
"Vague and dim".............. ..........................Rating 4
"No image at all, you only know that you are thinking
of the object"............................ . Rating 5
For items 1-4, think of some relative or friend whom you fre
quently see (but is not with you at present) and consider carefully the
•picture that comes before your mind's eye.
Item: /
1. The exact contour of face, head, shoulders and body.
2. Characteristic poses of head, attitudes of body, etc.
3. The precise carriage, length of step, etc., in walking.
4. The different colors worn in some familiar clothes.
Visualize a rising sun. Consider carefully the picture that
comes before your mind's eye.
5. The sun is rising above the horizon to a hazy sky,
6. The sky clears and surrounds the sun with blueness.
7. Clouds. A storm blows up, with flashes of lightening.
8. A rainbow appears.
Think of the front of a shop which you often go to. Consider the
picture that comes before your mind's eye.
9. The overall appearance of the shop from the opposite side of the
road.
10. A window display including colors * shapes and details of individual
items for sale.
62
APPENDIX C (continued)
11. You are near the entrance. The color, shape and details of the
door.
12. You enter the shop and go to the counter. The counter assistant
serves you. Money changes hands.
Finally, think of a country scene which involves trees, moun
tains and a lake. Consider the picture that comes before your mind's
eye.
13. The contours of the landscape.
14. The color and shape of the trees.
15. The color and shape of the lake.
16. A strong wind blows on the trees and on the lake causing waves.
APPENDIX D
Items:
1. I) Play a game that requires mental arithmetic.
V 5) Work mechanical puzzles.
2. 'I) Take a broken lock apart to see what is wrong.
5) Add columns of figures.
3. I) Visit an exhibit of famous paintings.
*5) Visit an exhibit of laboratory equipment.
4. I) Talk about your work or studies.
'i5)Talk about the meaning of life.
5 . 1 ) Take a course in modern music.
5) Take a course in modern math.
6. I) Take apart a new mechanical toy to see how it worksj
i5) Play chess.
7. I) Construct tables on the cost of living.
*5) Repair and refinish old furniture.
8. 81) Explore the site of ancient cities.
5) Write articles op give lectures about ancient cities.
9. \ I) Teach children who are not very bright.
5) Teach children who are very bright.
10. I) Help a child with his arithmetic problems.
'5) Help a child improve his handwriting.
11. I) Write articles about birds.
15) Draw sketches of birds.
12. 'iI) Doing a job yourself.
5) Telling somebody else to do the job.
13. I) Dealing with things.
t5) Dealing with people.
14. vl) Taking a chance.
5) Playing safe.
6.4
APPENDIX D (continued)
Instructions:
The following questions are concerned with the ease in which you
can control or manipulate your kinesthetic imagery (the sensations asso-
ciatived with the position, movement, tension, etc., of parts of the
body). The items are presented in the context of an action-scene that
you are to try to kinesthetically experience. Read the items below and
try to "feel" the kinesthetic sensations associated with each item.
Respond to each item by marking on the mark-sense form provided: "I"
if your answer is yes, I can definitely experience or feel that
kinesthetic sensation; "3" if your answer is unsure, if I can feel that
sensation; "5" if your answer is no, I can not feel that sensation. If
you have any doubts at all regarding the answer to a question, mark "3"
for unsure. Remember, the validity of this questionnaire depends on
your honest, most precise response to each item.
Items:
Imagine yourself to be taking a journey through the forest.
Think of performing the following acts, considering the image which
comes to your mind's arms, legs, etc. .
1. Can you feel what it. is like to be leisurely walking along a path?
2. Can you now feel what it is like to run along the same path?
3. Can you feel what it is like to tense your muscles as you prepare to
jump over a creek?
4. Can you now feel what it is like to lose your balance and fall upon
landing on the other side of the creek?
5. Can you now feel what it is like to push yourself off the ground?
6. Can you feel what it is like to pick up a heavy rock?
7. Can you now feel what it is like to throw that rock into the creek?
8. Can you feel what it is like to kick a stone into the creek?
9. Can you feel what it is like to hoist yourself via a branch into a
tree?
10. Can you feel what it is like as your legs get tired from climbing a
steep hill?
11. Can you feel what it is like to roll down the other side of that
hill?
12. Can you now feel what it is like to lie down and relax upon comple
tion of your journey?
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Bogen, J. E. The other side of the brain, I, II, III. Bulletin of the
Nueorlogical Societies, July, 1969, 34, 3.
Dick-Read, G. Childbirth Without Fear. New York: Harper & Row, 1953,
14.
Doob, L . W. Eidetic images among the Ibo. Ethnology, 1964, 3^, 357-363.
Paivio, A. Imagery and Verbal Process. New York; Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1971.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. What the mind’s eye tells the mind’s brain: a critique
of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin, 1973, 80, I, 1-24.
Roffwarg, H., Dement, W., Muzio, J,, and Rishef, C. Dream imagery:
relationship to rapid eye movements of sleep. Archives of General
Psychiatry, 1962, J_, 235-258.
Samuels, M., and Samuels, N. Seeing With the Mind’s Eye. New York:
Berkeley, Calif.: Random House-Bookworks, 1975.
70
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