COURSE SUMMARY

“WELDING INSPECTOR LEVEL-1”

Held at Pakistan Welding Institute, Islamabad.
(28-02-2005 to 18-03-2005)

Report By:
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction to welding technology & Terminology

2. Welding joints & welding symbols

3. Welding electricity

4. Important arc welding processes

5. Welding consumables

6. Welding discontinuities & defects

7. Inspection & testing of welds

8. Distortion & its control

9. Safety in welding
 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING TECHNOLOGY & TERMINOLOGIES

“Welding is a metallurgical process of joining together, pieces of metal by bringing them

into intimate proximity and heating the places of contact to a state of fusion or
plasticity.”
In the field of engineering, whenever a quality job is to be carried out, every major
activity is documented. To prepare a good quality welding product, a well explained
technology document is needed. “The technology document must include the guidelines
set by the applicable codes/standards, fabrication procedures, the inspection details and
even the directions for the safety of personnel.”

Whenever a contract of a welding job is assigned to an engineer, he must proceed in the

following sequence;
1) Contract Analysis 2) Drawing Study
3) Selection of welding process 4) Selection of filler metal
5) Selection of edge preparation 6) Preheat & PWHT selection
7) Selection of auxiliary equipment 8) Type, scope & stages of
inspection.
9) Sequence of operations 10) Review of the technology
11) Preparation of technology documents. (WPS, WPQ & PQR)

 Selection of welding process depends upon the job requirement and available
facilities.
 Selection of edge preparation depends upon the type, shape & thickness of base
metal. Edges on carbon steel and low alloy steels can be prepared by oxyacetylene
cutting followed by grinding. For stainless steels and non-ferrous alloys, plasma
cutting, grinding and/or machining operations are used.
 Selection of preheating depends on the chemical composition and the thickness of
the base metal. It is done to reduce the welding distortion, improve weldability and
to improve the efficiency of welding process. PWHT is done to reduce the welding
stresses.
 The use of auxiliary equipment is necessary to increase the efficiency of production
process, to decrease the fatigue or welders, and to enable the welders to work in
the most favorable position.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES IN WELDING

“A comparatively low voltage and high current electric discharge through a gas is called
an electric arc”.
 Normally two polarities are used for welding namely DCRP (Direct Current
Reverse Polarity) and DCSP (Direct Current Straight Polarity). In DCRP, the
electrode is kept positive while the workpiece is kept negative and in DCSP the
workpiece is kept positive and the electrode is kept negative.
  Whichever component (the electrode or the workpiece carries the positive
charge, 2/3 of the total heat generates at that component and the remaining 1/3
heat is generated at the negative component).
So in SMAW process, where we want the ELECTRODE to be melting more than
the base metal, we shall give it a POSITIVE charge and the BASE METAL shall be
kept NEGATIVE (DCRP)

In GTAW process, where we want more heat to be generated at the base metal
than that on the electrode, the BASE METAL is kept POSITIVE and the
ELECTRODE is kept NEGATIVE (DCSP)

“The deflection of an electric arc from its intended path is called Arc Blow. This
phenomenon is mainly encountered using the direct current and this occurs to a minor
degree in alternating current”.

“The deposition rate is the weight of metal deposited in a given period of time.”

“Operation factor is the proportion of the total welding time the operator is fusing
electrodes, or simply, the ratio of time the welding machine is supplying welding current
and is electrically loaded”

 GTAW process has a deposition rate of 90-100% which is more than that
produced by any other process.
 Gas Metal Arc welding (GMAW), Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) and Flux Cored
Arc Welding (FCAW) processes with automatic machines have an operation
factor of 100% which is the more than that of all the other processes.

“Stresses remaining in a structure or member as a result of thermal or mechanical

treatment are called Residual Stresses”

“There are mainly FOUR welding positions namely FLAT, HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL &
OVERHEAD. These are designated by the following symbols;
1G = Flat Position
2G = Horizontal Position
3G = Vertical Position
4G = Overhead position
5G = Welding of pipe with one end fixed (Involves all positions)
6G = Welding of pipe with one end fixed and joint at 45o.
6G-R = Same as 6G but with an artificial restriction produced to simulate the actual
restrictions of field.

Example figures of these positions is shown as under;

The alphabet “G” is used for Groove weld position only. For fillet weld positions, the
letter “F” is used. i.e., 1F, 2F, 3F, etc.

Example figures of fillet welds are shown as under;

“If the welding torch or gun is directed towards the progress of the welding is called
forehand welding. It is mainly used for sheets with thickness less than 3mm.”
“If the welding torch or gun is directed in opposite to the progress of the welding, it is
called backhand welding. It is mainly used for thicker sheets.”
WELDING METALLURGY

Steels exist in an austenitic crystalline structure in molten state. Upon solidification to

room temperatures, they change their crystalline structures to different types
depending upon the carbon content present. This cooling process should be slow in
order to avoid excessive hardness of the solid metal. The cooling rate also depends upon
the carbon content. Higher the carbon content, slower the cooling rate. If the cooling
rate is not slow or controlled, the steel, on solidification shall make a very hard and
brittle MARTENSITE crystal structure which is undesirable. The extra hardness of this
MARTENSITE must be removed to avoid cracking of metal during or after solidification of
weld. To remove this extra hardness of MARTENSITE, a number of heat treatment
processes are done which include;
1) Stress Relieving 2) Process Annealing
3) Full annealing 4) Normalising
5) Hardening 6) Tempering
7) Isothermal heat treatments

 Full Annealing, Normalising, and Hardening processes are carried out by heating
the metal to a temperature above their respective Upper Critical Temperatures
and then controlled cooling to room temperatures. This Upper Critical
Temperature of a steel can be obtained from the Iron-Carbon diagram of steels
against different carbon composition.

 Process Annealing, Stress Relieving, and Tempering processes are carried out by
heating the steel to a temperature just near its Lower Critical temperature
(~732oC for all steels) and then slowly cooled to room temperatures.

STAINLESS STEELS

There are three types of Stainless Steels, namely;

1) Austenitic (Non magnetic, Contain 18% Cr, 8% Ni, ASTM No. 3XX)
2) Ferritic (Magnetic, 17~27% Cr, Examples SS-430, 442, 446)
3) Martensitic (Magnetic, 11.5~17% Cr, Examples SS-410, 414, 416, 420)

 The 4XX series Stainless steels are also called “Straight Chrome Series steels”.

 The Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless steels require preheat and postheat when
welding. These should be heated to 200oC and an interpass temperature
reaching 80% of preheat temperature should be maintained during welding. The
weld should also be postheated or annealed and then slow cooled.
 WELDED JOINTS & WELDING SYMBOLS

There are FIVE basic types of welding joints used for bringing two members together for
welding;

Butt Joint Corner Joint

Tee- Joint Lap Joint

Edge Joint

These joint types have a certain value of angular limit also. The angle is measured
between the two same side faces of the components being welded. Angular limits for
these joints are as under;

 Butt Joint = 135o ~ 180o

 Corner Joint = 30o ~ 135o
 Tee Joint = 5o ~ 90o
 Lap Joint = 0o ~ 5o
 Edge Joint = 0o ~ 30o
There are EIGHT basic types of welds, namely; (FG-SSS-F-BP)

Fillet weld Groove weld

Back or Backing weld Flange weld

Plug or Slot weld Spot or projection weld

Seam weld Surfacing weld

WELD SYMBOL and WELDING SYMBOL

“A weld symbol indicates the required type of weld.”

“A welding symbol specifies the weld symbol and supplementary information.”
A welding symbol has a minimum of three basic parts;
1) A reference line 2) An arrow 3) A feather tail.
A sample of the welding symbol is shown here;
This welding symbol shows the information a welding symbol contains;

The welding symbol contains mainly two types of symbols. These are;

ELEMENTRY SYMBOLS
These are the symbols that show the type of joint is specified. A sample
list of these symbols is given as Annex-I.

SUPPLIMENTRY SYMBOLS
These are the symbols that show the shape of the final weld, e.g., convex,
concave, flat, with blended toes etc. A sample list of these symbols is shown as Annex-II.

The welding symbol also shows the type, location and scope of the inspections to be
carried out on the welded joint. Such a welding symbol looks as under;
 WELDING ELECTRICITY

In electric arc welding, the basic welding circuit is the same as any electrical circuit. In a
simplest electric circuit, there are three factors namely, CURRENT, VOLTAGE and
RESISTANCE.

 “Current is the rate of flow of charges. It is denoted by “I”. Its unit is Ampere.”
 “Voltage is the force that causes the charges to flow. It is denoted by “V”. Its unit
is Volts.”
 “Resistance is the restriction to current flow. It is denoted by “R” and its unit is
“Ohm”. Resistance mainly depends on material, the cross sectional area, and the
temperature of the conductor.”
 “Ammeter is a low resistance meter used to measure the current flowing in a
circuit. A low resistance is connected in parallel to the basic galvanometer to
convert it to an ammeter.”
 “Voltmeter is a high resistance meter used to measure the voltage across twp
points in a circuit.s A very high resistance is connected in series with the basic
galvanometer to convert it to a voltmeter”.
The most important part of a welding circuit is the power source. There are two types of
current used to produce the electric arc, AC or DC. There are three types of welding
machines used to produce the necessary energy for welding. These are;

WELDING TRANSFORMER
This machine works on an AC current. The purpose of the machine is to change the
value of voltage and current of the AC current. For a welding job, it normally decreases
the value of voltage and increases the value of current.
WELDING GENERATOR
This machine provides an AC current for welding. A generator with special construction
can also produce DC current. It is motor driven.
WELDING RECTIFIER
This machine is used to convert AC current into DC current. This only provides DC
current for welding.

In the following, a comparison is given between AC and DC type current with reference
to certain welding properties.

PARAMETER AC DC
Voltage drop Less More
Arc stability Poor Better
Thin sheets welding Poor Better
Arc length Poor Better
Arc blow problem More Less

SELECTION OF A POWER SOURCE

There are two types of welding machines based on their current and voltage
characteristics. These are;
1) Constant current machines
2) Constant voltage machines

During a welding process, if the length of the arc is changed by any reason, there is a
corresponding change in the current and voltage of the machine.

Current mainly affects the heat input and therefore the melting characteristics of the
electric arc. Higher the current, the more the base metal shall melt. Whereas voltage
affects the scattering/width of the electric arc. Higher the voltage, wider shall be the arc
of welding and vice versa.
CONSTANT CURRENT MACHINES
In constant current type machines, during welding, if the length of electric arc is
disturbed, voltage changes by a larger value than that of current. So for a longer arc, the
heat input of the machine shall not change to a large value due to less change in welding
current but the width of arc shall be disturbed by a large value due to a change in
voltage. Due to negligible change in heat input, the melting properties of the arc do not
change and base metal melts uniformly even if the arc length is changed a bit. Hence
constant current machines are recommended for Manual welding processes like
“SMAW, GTAW etc”

CONSTANT VOLTAGE MACHINES

In constant voltage type machines, during welding, if the length of arc changes, there is
a large change in the welding current and a considerably small change in voltage. So this
results in a large change in the heat input of the arc which is not desirable. So constant
voltage machines are only recommended for automatic welding processes.

IMPORTANT ARC WELDING PROCESSES

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW or Stick Welding)

This is an arc welding process in which coalescence of metals is produced by heat from
an electric arc that is maintained between the tip of a covered electrode and the surface
of the base metal in the joint being welded.

In this process the heat of the arc is employed to melt the base metal and the tip of the
consumable covered electrode. In this process, a consumable electrode is used, so more
heat should be generated at the electrode. For this purpose, we connect the electrode
to the positive terminal of the machine and the base metal is connected to the negative
terminal. (DCRP polarity)
The process requires sufficient electric current to melt both the electrode and the base
metal. It also requires an appropriate gap between the tip of the electrode and the base
metal. Both AC and DC currents can be used for welding.
The welding power source used for this process should be of a “Constant current type”.

The electrode used for this process is a shielded electrode (Hence the name Shielded
metal Arc welding). The covering over the electrode rod melts due to heat of arc and
decomposes. This decomposition results in evolution of gases which protect the weld
from atmosphere gases. The molten flux also helps to take out contamination present
inside the weld and purify it. After solidification, the molten flux changes to slag which is
easily removable.
Other important uses of electrode covering is to control the mechanical properties,
chemical composition, arc characteristics of electrode and the metallurgical structure of
weld metal. It is also used to enhance the deposition rates. The main chemical
components of the weld metal are added in the flux covering which melt and become
part of the weld metal and enhance the deposition rate.

SMAW welding process is useful for welding of carbon and low alloy steels, stainless
steel, cast irons, copper & nickel alloys, and some aluminum applications.
Metals with low melting temperatures such as Lead, Tin, Zinc and their alloys cannot be
welded by this process because heat of arc is too high for them. Also, reactive metals
such as Titanium, Tantalum, Zirconium, and columbium are not welded by this process
because the shielding provided is insufficient to protect the weld from oxygen
contamination.

This process can be efficiently utilized for any thickness of metal greater than 1.6mm. If
thickness less than 1.6mm is to be welded, special fixtures and welding procedures
should be employed. There is no upper limit to thickness.

A major advantage of this process is that it can be used for welding in any position and
at any location indoor or outdoor.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

Gas tungsten Arc welding is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a tungsten
electrode (Non consumable) and the weld pool. Shielding gas is fed through the torch to
protect the electrode, molten weld pool, and solidifying weld metal from contamination
by the atmosphere. The filler metal is added externally by hand which melts by the heat
of the arc. The process can be used with both AC and DC currents. GTAW setup has the
following main parts;

1) Torch 2) Electrode
3) Welding power source 4) Shielding gas.
5) Nozzles

There are two types of nozzles used for this process, Gas cooled and Water cooled. The
gas cooled torches cannot be used above 200 Amperes current, whereas, water cooled
torches can be used up to a current 300~500 Amperes.

For this process, as the electrode is non-consumable, we want to produce more heat at
the base metal and less heat at the electrode, so we connect the electrode to the
negative terminal and the base metal with the positive terminal (DCSP polarity). Using
this process, DCRP polarity is also used but it is used only for welding of reactive metals
like Aluminum and Magnesium.
Pulsed DC welding
This is a special technique of welding of low thickness sheets. This allows repetitive
variation in arc current from a background/low value to a peak value. The power source
allows adjustment of pulse current time, background current time, pulsed current value,
background current value suitable for a particular application. This technique allows
greater penetration and is used on metals sensitive to heat and minimizes distortion.

There are two major types of shielding gases used for this process namely Helium and
Argon. Helium is a very expensive gas is generally not preferred. The main difference
between the characteristics of these gases is that Helium has a higher ionization
potential hence arc produced in its atmosphere is harsh and is not useful for thin sheets
whereas Argon is better for thin sheets welding. Also, as Helium is lighter than air, it
provides better coverage in overhead position welding than Argon whereas Argon is a
better choice in horizontal position welding as it is heavier than air.

This process is the best choice for thin sheets welding. The weld produced is very
delicate and having a very good finish. A main disadvantage of this process is that its
deposition rate is low. It is a less economical process for thickness greater than 10mm.

The process can be used for welding of all metals and in all positions. The use of this
process is difficult in windy environment as it spoils the inert gas shielding.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

This process produces coalescence of metals by heating them by and electric arc
between a constantly fed bare wire and the base metal. This is the most useful method
of welding when a very high production rate is desired.

The flux, in this case, is fed separately through a hopper. The molten metal and the arc
are submerged in the blanket of this granular flux.

This is a versatile production welding process capable of making welds with currents
upto 2000 Amperes, AC or DC. The welding wire being fed can be single or multiple. The
wire can also be replaced by a strip of filler metal in case of a welding overlay job.

In this process, the end of a continuous welding wire electrode is inserted into a heap of
granular flux fed at a controlled rate by a hopper. The feeder is moved manually or
automatically along the joint. This granular flux has the same functions as those of the
flux covering over a SMAW electrode. After making one weld joint, the granular flux can
be recovered and reused for the next pass. It is important that the solidified flux is
removed before making second weld pass.
The welding equipment peculiar to this process includes the travel equipment used for
moving the welding torch along the weld joint, the flux feeding system and the
automatic electrode feeding system.

This process is used to weld almost all the metals.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

This is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal
electrode and the weld pool. The process is applied with an externally supplied gas and
without the application of pressure.
This process has two versions namely MIG (Metal Inert Gas) and MAG (Metal Active
Gas).

If the shielding gas used is of an inert nature, the process is called Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
welding. Inert gases used are Argon, Helium or sometimes a mixture of these two.

If the shielding gas used is of a chemically active nature. The process is known as the
Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding process. The active gas used widely for this process is
Carbon Dioxide.

In this process, no flux is used and the weld shielding is achieved through the shielding
gas. The electrode is automatically fed at a preset rate. The rate of wire feed depends
on the thickness of joint, the penetration required, current and voltage settings etc. The
welding torch is moved manually along the joint. The welding torch used for this process
is also water cooled which tends to reduce the temperature of welding torch due to
high currents used in the process.

Almost all types of metals can be welded in any position by this method. Both AC and DC
currents can be used. DCRP polarity is generally used for this process.

There are three types of metal transfer modes in this method. These are;
1) Short circuit mode 2) Globular transfer mode
3) Spray transfer mode.

“Short circuit mode or Dip transfer mode” uses very low currents and voltages. This
results in low heat input. In this mode, the metal transfer occurs when the electrode
wire touches the base metal; otherwise, no metal transfer occurs. This mode is best
suited for thin gauge sheet welding but this mode is not useful in welding of Aluminum
because due to higher thermal conductivity of Aluminum, heat quickly dissipates away
from base metal and does not melt it. This process produces negligible spatter.

“Globular transfer mode” uses a relatively low current. This process is characterized by
a drop size greater than that of the electrode. The electrode is to be held at a certain
distance from workpiece. Currents are only slightly higher than that in dip transfer
mode. In this process, the arc length should be long enough to ensure detachment of
molten metal drop from the electrode before it touches the base metal, otherwise it
shall produce considerable spatter. This mode is best achieved while using Argon or CO 2
gas shielding.

“Spray transfer mode” is best produces in Argon gas shielding. This process is virtually
spatter free and stable. This process can be used in any position. This mode is achieved
at currents slightly higher than that in Globular transfer mode. Welding efficiency is
maximum and spatter is minimum. This process is not useful for welding of thin sheets
due to higher heat input produced due to higher currents.

FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)

The GMAW process has a deficiency that it does not use a flux for purification of weld
joint. FCAW process overcomes this deficiency by using a tubular electrode. The welding
flux is filled inside the core of this tubular electrode. The gas shielding is also available.
The process and method of application is same as that of GMAW process. The
equipment used is the same as that of GMAW process. The only difference in the two is
that of the welding electrode. GMAW process uses a solid electrode while FCAW
process uses a tubular electrode.

This process has a drawback that tubular electrodes have not been developed for all the
metals, so all the metals can not be welded by this process. This process is only used for
welding of ferrous metals and nickel based alloys.

WELDING CONSUMABLES
Welding consumables are materials used up during welding such as electrodes, filler
rods, flux and shielding gases.

Welding consumables are classified into four types;

1) Coated electrodes 2) Fluxes 3) Filler wires
4) Shielding gases

WELDING ELECTRODES
Selection criteria
In order to select the correct electrode for welding, the following should be done;
 Know and match the mechanical properties (Of base metal and electrode)
 Know and match metallurgical composition
 Know and match the welding position encountered
  Match power supply available (AC or DC)
 Know and match the joint design and fit-up (Penetration requirements)
 Know and match thickness and shape of base metal
 Match service condition and specifications
 Consider production efficiency required and job conditions.

SMAW electrodes are selected according to AWS specifications. The filler metal
specification numbers are given in chart given as Annex-III.

FLUXES
The flux contains the following types of ingredients;
 Elements for producing slag (To protect and purify the weld metal)
 Elements for stability of arc (To be used with AC or DC currents)
 Elements as deoxidizers (To remove any excess Oxygen produced in the weld
metal)
 Elements for fluidity (To control the solidification rate of weld puddle)
 Elements for high deposition (By adding base metal constituents in the flux)
 Elements for reducing the moisture (To avoid hydrogen embrittlement of weld
metal)
 Elements of binders (To make flux stick to the electrode core wire)

Flux classification
There are five basic types of flux. These are;
 Acidic (Contains Iron and Manganese ores and Alumina Silicates, Not used now)

 Rutile (Contains TiO2, used for general purpose)

 Cellulose (Contains organic matter like C 6H10O5 and Zirconium Silicate to stabilize
arc)
 Basic or Low Hydrogen type (Contains CaCO3 and CaF)
 High deposition type (Constituents depend upon application. Generally contains
Iron powder)
FILLER WIRES
The welding electrodes are named according to AWS specifications. The nomenclature
for SMAW electrodes is as under;

AWS E XX X X
(American Welding society)
(Electrode)
(Ultimate tensile strength x 1000 Psi)
Welding Position
Flux & electrical properties
The first two of four or first three of five digits gives the Ultimate tensile strength of
material multiplied by 1000, e.g., E70XX means the electrode has 70,000 Psi UTS and
E110XX means the electrode has 110,000 Psi UTS.

The next digit shows the positions the electrode is capable of working satisfactorily.
Examples are;
EXX1X = All positions
EXX2X = Flat positions or Horizontal fillet position
EXX4X = All positions except Vertical Up.

The last digit shows the type of flux coating and the welding characteristics of the
electrode. Examples are;
If last two digits are 0,1 = Cellulose coating electrodes
If last two digits are 2,3,4 = Rutile coating electrodes
If last two digits are 5,6,8 = Basic or Low Hydrogen electrodes
If last two digits is 7 = High deposition electrodes

 The electrodes for alloy steels have the same nomenclature except that they
have additional information regarding the chemical composition of the
electrode. Example is;

AWS EXXXX-X

The last ‘X’ shows the chemical composition information. The possible suffixes are A1,
B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and G.

 The electrodes for GMAW process have the following nomenclature;

ER 70S-2
Here;
ER means Electrode Rod (Bare rod used as electrode)
70 means wire has 70,000 Psi UTS.
S means a bare, Solid rod.
2 gives the specific chemical composition of the electrode
If the suffix is G; this means that the electrode has general type of chemical
composition.
Tungsten Electrodes for GTAW Process

The GTAW process uses a non-consumable type Tungsten electrode because Tungsten
has got the highest melting temperature of all metals. Its melting temperature is around
3200oC. To improve the current carrying capacity, the arc starting properties and other
welding properties, pure Tungsten electrodes were replaced with Thoriated and
Zirconiated electrodes with Thorium and Zirconium added from 1~2%. As both these
alloying elements are radioactive, Lanthanide and Ceriated electrodes were introduced
in 1980’s with Lanthanum and Cerium added in 1~2% amount. They have the same
purpose as Zirconium and Thorium but with the advantage of being non-radioactive.
These electrodes are identified by the following color codes;

Green = Pure Tungsten

Orange = 2% Ceriated
Black = 1% Lanthanated
Yellow = 1% Thoriated
Red = 2% Thoriated
Brown = 0.25% Zirconium.

WELDING DISCONTINUITIES & DEFECTS

“A discontinuity is an interruption of a typical structure of a weldment, such as a lack of

homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical or physical characteristics of the material
or weldment. A discontinuity is found in weld metal, base metal, or heat affected zone.”

“A defect is a rejectable discontinuity.”

Discontinuities are of four types;

1. Related to drawing or dimensional requirements.
2. Related to weldment and related discontinuities.
3. Related to undesired properties of weld metal.
4. Related to undesired properties of base metal.

DIMENSIONAL DISCONTINUITIES

Distortion
The defect caused due to stresses caused due to uncontrolled heating and cooling of the
welded metal. These can be avoided by careful selection of welding sequence, process,
and joint design. Peening, if allowed by the procedure can also be helpful eliminating
this problem. Other methods may be;
 A straightening operation
 Removal of welds causing distortion and rewelding
 Addition of weld metal at specific areas
 Post Weld Heat Treatment

Incorrect Joint Preparation

The joint design is specified in the welding procedure considering the thickness of the
base metal. Joint preparation as per procedure should be ensured.

Incorrect Joint Size

“The size of a normal equal leg fillet weld is specified as the leg length of the largest
isosceles triangle that can be inscribed in the filler weld cross section.”
“The size of a groove weld is the joint penetration (Thickness of joint and the root
penetration achieved by welding)”
This defect can be detected visually or by help of special gauges built for this purpose.

Incorrect weld profile

A summary of acceptable and rejectable weld profiles is as under;

WELDMENT AND RELATED DISCONTINUITIES

Porosity
“Porosity is characterized by cavity type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment
during solidification”. It is caused if the weld process is not properly controlled, base
metal is contaminated or when the base metal is incompatible with the electrode and
the process. It has several types like scattered porosity, cluster & linear porosity, and
piping porosity.

Slag Inclusion
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid particles entrapped in weld metal. This is basically
the molten flux which got trapped in rapidly solidifying weld metal. This may be due to
improper joint design, poor electrode manipulation, and failure to remove slag.

Incomplete Fusion
It is that fusion which does not occur over the entire base metal surfaces intended for
welding and between all adjoining weld beads. This is caused by insufficient heat input
and poor manipulation of electrode.

Incomplete joint Penetration

“Penetration by weld metal that does not extend for the full thickness of the base metal
in a joint with a groove weld”. This is caused by insufficient welding heat, improper
control of arc and improper joint configuration.

Other welding discontinuities include overlap, Undercut, Underfill, Poor reinforcement,

cracking etc.

INSPECTION & TESTING OF WELDS

There are four main types of test methods for welded joints. These are;]
1. Visual inspection and measurement
2. Destructive tests for mechanical strength and toughness
3. Non-destructive tests for hidden or sub-surface flaws
4. Tightness tests i.e., pressure and leak tests

VISUAL INSPECTION

“Visual inspection is an examination of an article by eye alone or with the aid of a low
power (less than 10x) magnifying glass.” This method is used to check the weld profiles
and dimensions.
The measuring devices used in this inspection include;
 Straight edge
 Rule
 Protractor
 Calipers (internal, external, or Vernier Calipers)
 Contour gauges (To check the concavity or convexity of weld reinforcement)
 Fillet weld gauges (To check the fillet weld contour and leg length)
 Multipurpose gauge (To check both the contour and size of welds)

DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
These tests are used to check qualification of welders and operators, qualification of
welding procedures, and quality control. These tests include chemical tests,
metallographic tests, and mechanical tests.
 Chemical tests are conducted to check the chemical composition or corrosion
resistance of weld metal.
 Metallographic tests are used to check the soundness of weld, distribution of
inclusions, number of weld passes, metallographic structure of weld metal and
fusion zone, and location and depth of weld penetration.
 Mechanical tests include hardness tests (Rockwell, Brinell, Shore Sleroscope
tests), tensile tests (tension and bend tests), impact tests and fatigue tests.

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

These methods can detect imperfections and defects in a product without affecting the
serviceability of the product. Tests include; (UM_LRA)
 Liquid penetrant tests (PT)
 Magnetic particle tests (MT)
 Radiography tests (RT)
 Ultrasonic tests (UT)
 Acoustic emission tests (AET)

Liquid penetrant test is used to detect the surface discontinuities of weld joint.

Magnetic particle tests are used for testing of materials which can be easily magnetized.
This method is capable of detecting open to surface and just below the surface flaws.

Radiographic testing is useful to detect inside weld metal flaws. X-rays and Gamma rays
are used in this method. These have the ability to penetrate materials. When they
encounter any discontinuity in the material, they are absorbed and this absorption is
shown as a dark spot on the developing film.

Ultrasonic testing is used to detect any flaws in a weld of upto 25mm thickness.
Equipment used is a transducer and a receiver. A high voltage electrical pulse is applied
to the transducer which converts it to a sound wave and passes it through the test
piece. When this sound wave encounters a discontinuity, it is reflected and detected by
the receiver. The receiver converts this signal to electrical pulse and displays on a CRT
screen (Oscilloscope).

Pressure and leak tests are carried out after all work has been completed and all
examinations have been performed. These tests are done in order to establish the
integrity of the vessel to resist the pressure test, detect leaks and check for any errors
that may have occurred.
 DISTORTION AND ITS CONTROL

The inherent local non-uniform heating and cooling cycle associated with the fusion
welding process like SMAW, GMAW, GTAW, SAW, etc, result in complex thermal
stresses and strains which may finally lead to development of residual stresses and
distortion in welded structures.

Distortion is an unwanted change from specified dimensions in a fabricated structure or

component as a result of welding. The most common forms of distortion are
longitudinal shrinkage, transverse shrinkage, angular distortion, and bowing. The main
causes of distortion are non-uniform heat input, inherent stresses of parent metal, co-
efficient of thermal expansion of parent metal, and welding without use of proper
restraints.

PREVENTION OF DISTORTION
Distortion may be controlled by the following three methods;
1. Reduce the effective shrinkage force
2. Making shrinkage work to reduce distortion
3. Balance shrinkage force with other forces

Effective shrinkage force may be reduced by;

 Avoiding over-welding
 Using proper edge preparation and fit-up
 Using as few passes as possible
 Placing welds near the neutral axis of component
 Using intermittent welds

Shrinkage forces can also be used to reduce distortion by locating parts out of position
before welding so that after solidification, the shrinkage force brings the parts to the
correct position.
Distortion may also be controlled by balancing the shrinkage forces by other forces. The
different methods for this technique are;
 Use of proper welding sequence so that as one section of the weld metal shrinks,
it counteracts the shrinkage forces of previous weld.
 Staggering of intermittent welds applied in a sequence.
 Peening
 Using proper jigs and fixtures.
 SAFETY IN WELDING

The hazards more or less peculiar to welding are;

 Electric shock
 Arc radiation
 Fumes & dust
 Compressed gases
 Fire & explosions
 Noise

Electric shock may occur in welding if current happens to pass through the welder’s
body. A current of 0.1 amperes or more is lethal for humans. To avoid this, ensure
proper insulation of cables, reliable earthing of welding equipment, proper clamps
should be used for making an electrical connection.

Arc radiation with wavelength 0.4~0.75 µm is produced in welding. This level depends
upon current level and the presence of flux. Exposure of skin to UV radiation is also
harmful. Welder must therefore, wear protective clothing to avoid UV radiation.
Recommended shade numbers for common welding and cutting processes are as
Annex-IV.

Fumes & dust may include metallic vapors, fine dust, harmful shielding gases, gases
produced due to burning of flux etc. Proper ventilation and system to clear the
atmosphere from these harmful fumes must be employed.

Compressed gases used in the welding & cutting processes include Oxygen, Acetylene,
Carbon Dioxide, Helium and Argon. To avoid hazards posed by the pressurized cylinders
of these gases, following should be ensured;
 Store cylinders in vertical position & secured from falling by chains or clamps.
 Do not use hammers or wrenches to open cylinder valves.
 Use proper trolleys for transportation of cylinders.
 Do not expose cylinders to direct sunlight and temperatures more than 54 oC.
 Cylinders should be provided with caps during transportation.
 Open the cylinder valves slowly otherwise it may damage regulator diaphragm.

Fire & explosion can be caused by ignition of inflammable or combustible materials

lying in the vicinity of welding zone. Avoid keeping flammables near welding zone. Also
avoid welding of vessels which have contained flammables in past without proper
draining & ventilation.

Noise Hazard is usually experienced during plasma or carbon arc gouging process. These
processes produce noise of more than 80db intensity. To avoid damage to the ears, use
of ear plugs must be ensured.
The welder should be properly equipped with all the protective equipment needed for
welding. A proper outfit for a welder is as shown under;