Republic of the Philippines

OCCIDENTAL MINDORO STATE COLLEGE

Labangan, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro
website: www.omsc.edu.ph email address: omsc_9747@yahoo.com
Tele/Fax: (043) 457-0231 CERTIFIED TO ISO 9001:2015
CERT. NO.: 50500643 QM15

Learning Module in
The Contemporary World

Prepared by:
JENNY MEI S. PEROY

The compiler does not own any of the contents of this learning module. Due credits
and acknowledgment are given to the authors, internet sources, and researchers
listed on the reference page. Such sources are reserved to further explain concepts
and cannot be credited to the compiler and the school. All diagrams, charts, and
images are used for educational purposes only. The sole objective of this instructional
material is to facilitate independent learning and not for monetary gains because this
is NOT FOR SALE.

2020 Edition

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 TOPIC
1. Defining Globalization

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization;

identify the underlying philosophies of the varying definitions of
globalization; and
agree on a working definition of globalization for the course.

STUDYING THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

Why do you need to study the world?
As rational human beings capable of transcending beyond our biology and
nature, we have shaped the way we live in the world with great feats of discovery,
development, and construction. Our objective realities are constructed in a way that the
very society that we have created becomes an entity that assumes a life of its own,
capable of influencing and even controlling one’s agency. In this society, we have
created social structures, institutions, and systems that help us organize our lives and
help us make sense of our phenomenology (day to day experiences). However, a single
society with all its institutions, structures, and systems is just an aspect of the world,
although the world is pretty much full of it and all about it. When we talk about studying
the world, what aspect/s of it are we trying to touch on? Are we focusing on human
relations? World- systems? Institutions of economy, politics, education, religion, family,
media? All of these can come as abstractions, yet all of these concepts are present in
our objective and subjective realities. Why do we need to understand these? What’s in it
for us?
Claudio and Abinales (2018) posed the question “why do you need to study the
world?” to students in tertiary education. In their attempt to answer the question they
posed, the main thesis centers on the idea that students like you, whether you are
aware of it or not, are citizens of the world. They expounded on these by providing
points as to why the study of the world is relevant (Claudio & Abinales, 2018):
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 1. Cure parochialism. From close-mindedness to stretched imagination, outlook,
and concern. One’s concern is not only for their immediate context or
environment.
2. It can teach you more about yourself. With knowledge about other countries,
one can compare their society’s condition with that of other societies/countries.
This comparison may point out uniqueness and even similarities.
3. You are interacting with the world. As global citizens, being aware of what is
happening with the world is a given. With all the interconnectedness and
interdependence, the events happening outside us might bring a positive or
negative impact.
Central to these is the awareness, recognition, and study of globalization as a
phenomenon. And the very idea of globalization is the focus of this course subject—the
study and understanding of what makes up this process and/or phenomenon. The frame
of ontology is making sense of the existence of globalization through themes and issues
related to and confront it, and at the same time, making sense of what is to be a citizen
of the world. From this point, the main question “why do you need to study the world?”
is supplemented by “what does it mean to be a citizen of the world?” (Claudio &
Abinales, 2018).

TOPIC 1: DEFINING GLOBALIZATION

As the main concept in the study of the contemporary world vis-à-vis the
ontology (what it is to exist) as a citizen of the world, globalization is in itself a work-in-
progress concept. Academic circles are yet to come up with an encompassing definition
that is not limited to globalization in the contexts of economy and politics. As we
progress through the course, there are numerous definitions and/or conceptualizations
of globalization that will be discussed.
Rather than defining what globalization is, Manfred B. Steger (2013), described
the phenomenon as “the expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and across world-space” (as cited in Claudio &
Abinales, 2018: 7-8).

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 GLOBALIZATION is the expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and across world-space (Steger, 2013).

Different levels of connections:

EXPANSION refers to both the creation of
1. Social media (establishing global
new social networks and the connections between people)
multiplication of existing connections 2. International groups of non-
that cut across traditional political, governmental organizations
economic, cultural, and geographic (NGOs)
boundaries.

INTENSIFICATION refers to the expansion, Expansion of global connections  with

stretching, and acceleration of these
networks.
THE HUMAN PERCEPTION OF TIME AND
SPACE; Steger notes that globalization
processes do not occur merely at the
objective, material level but they also
involve the subjective plane of human
consciousness.
this connection, transactions happen at a
higher speed  integration of economies,
markets, nation-states, cultures,
institutions
The perception that the world has
become a smaller space and distance has
collapsed from thousands of miles to just
mouse-click away

GLOBALIZATION (process) vs. GLOBALISM (ideology)

If globalization represents the many processes that allow for the expansion and
intensification of global connections, globalism is a widespread belief among powerful
people that the global integration of economic market is beneficial for everyone, since it
spreads freedom and democracy across the world.

A breakdown of Steger’s (2013) description of globalization together with Claudio & Abinales’ (2018) elucidation.

In addition to this conceptualization, Steger (2014) pointed out that critics of

globalization commit the mistake of conceptualizing the process along economic lines
only, dismissive of globalization’s multidimensional character. This multidimensional
character is described in three processes: globalization as an economic process,
globalization as a political process, and globalization as a cultural process (Steger, 2014:
6).

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 Points forwarded in the multidimensional take of globalization as involving three processes: economic, political, and
cultural (Steger, 2014).

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

Confused with the conceptualization of globalization? You might want to check these materials:
Globalization I – The Upside: Crash Course World History #41 (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SnR-e0S6Ic)
Globalization in 3 minutes, theory in 3 minutes (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6u9m5FK0IQ)

In light of the multidimensional character of globalization, anthropologist Arjun

Appadurai (1996) identifies multiple and intersecting dimensions of global cultural
flows he calls ‘landscapes’ or ‘scapes’ (Steger, 2014: 13). These five conceptual
dimensions are:
1. Ethnoscape. Flows of people. The movement of people for reasons such as work,
recreation, and/or due to displacement. The shift in populations made of
tourists, immigrants, refugees, and exiles. This is, in part, due to the ease and
cheaper travel costs to travel and borders of countries opening up to
accommodate and offer opportunities to people.
2. Technoscape. Flows of technology. Development and boom of technology that
facilitates cross-border connections and transactions. E.g. the internet,
information technology, and engineering.
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 3. Finanscape. Flows of money. The flow of global capital. International banking
and cash systems allow this to happen. E.g. credit card systems.
4. Mediascape. Flows of information. The production and dissemination of
information through electronic means. The access of people to modern popular
culture. E.g. access to international entertainment like Hollywood films, K-drama,
and anime; media such as newspapers, magazines, the social network.
5. Ideoscape. Flows of ideas. Ideologies of state, and social movements. E.g.
posting of your views on a certain event or human reality on Facebook; religious
missionaries spreading their doctrines to other regions or countries;
environmentalism.

ETHNOSCAPE TECHNOSCAPE FINANSCAPE

flows of people flows of technology flows of money

MEDIASCAPE IDEOSCAPE
flows of information flows of ideas

Appadurai’s five landscapes of globalization (Appadurai, 1996; Steger, 2014)

Appadurai’s five ‘landscapes’ present the idea that there are multiple globalizations,
and this can help make sense the dynamics in globalization as a big process with all its
multidimensional sub-processes (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 10). As Appadurai (1996) put
it, “[e]ach of these ‘scapes’ contains the building blocks of the new ‘imagined worlds’
that are assembled by the historically situated imaginations of persons and groups
spread around the globe” (as cited in Steger, 2014: 13).
These descriptions should provide students an overview of what to expect in
undertaking a study of the world and globalization. The concepts presented here will be
tackled in more detail in the succeeding lectures.

TASK/ACTIVITY
PERSONAL CONCEPT MAP OF GLOBALIZATION:

This is a free association exercise of ideas. All you have to do is list all ideas you associate
with “globalization”. Based on the concepts you listed, synthesize your personal
definition of the globalization. Accomplish this activity in one whole sheet of paper.

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 ASSESSMENT

QUIZ ON THE READING MATERIAL:

Reading material: Steger, M. B. (2014). “Approaches to the Study of

Globalization”. In The SAGE Handbook of Globalization. SAGE Publications Ltd.
Pp. 1-19 [e-copy pagination]

Answer the following questions:

What are the four types of globalization critic?
What are the main argument of these critics for why they see globalization as a
“globaloney”?
Why is it important to recognize globalization’s multidimensional character?

In one whole sheet of paper, explain your answers clearly. Draw your answer
from your study and understanding of the material. 10 points each.

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 TOPICS
The Global Economy
Global Interstate System
Contemporary Global Governance

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

define economic globalization and identify the actors that facilitate

this process;
explain the effects of globalization on governments and differentiate
internationalism from globalism; and
identify the functions of the United Nations and the challenges of
global governance in the 21st century.

The succeeding topics are best explored and discussed in view of Held et al.’s
(1999) description that globalization “may be thought of initially as the widening,
deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of
contemporary social life. In connection to this, for Giddens (1999), these “aspects” can
refer to political, cultural, and economic features (as cited in Beczes, 2014: 900). These
conceptualizations reinforce the view of globalization as a multidimensional process or
phenomenon as discussed in the descriptions Steger (2014) provided above.
For this lecture, the economic and political aspects of globalization will be
explored. The concepts, ideas, and perspectives should provide the students with ideas
on how academics and/or scholars of globalization, economics, political science, and
international studies, among others, confront the complex and multidimensional
process of globalization.

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 TOPIC 1: THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
Economic globalization is defined as,
…a historical process, the result of human innovation and technological progress. It
refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly
through the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders. The term
sometimes also refers to the movement of people (labor) and knowledge
(technology) across international borders (IMF, 2008 as cited in Benczes, 2014:
900).

In this definition, it highlights the role played by the historic feats of human innovation
and the progress that materialized through it, especially in the fields of technology and
knowledge. The focus of these definitions, in relation to globalization, is the increasing
integration of economies and markets around the world. In this regard, economic
globalization has several interconnected dimensions:
1. The globalization of trade goods and services.
2. The globalization of financial and capital markets.
3. The globalization of technology and communication.
4. The globalization of production.
In discussing economic globalization, one is shedding light to the drastic economic
changes happening in the world, the increasing regard for the value of trade, the jumps
in world Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the movement of the investments at faster
rates, the role technology play in the realization of cross-border transactions and
relations among others (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 12-13).
Furthermore, economic globalization is described as (Benczes, 2014: 900):
1. Functional integration between internationally dispersed activities as opposed
to internationalization which is about the extension of economic activities on
nation- states across borders.
2. Economic globalization is rather a qualitative transformation than just a
quantitative change.
In economic globalization, economies and economic actors are integrated through
internationally recognized and practiced economic policies and practices, where most
are created by economic giants of the First World countries. Economic globalization is
more qualitative because it highlights how it has changed the quality of economic
relations, transactions, the value of trade, capital, consumerism, and so forth.
The definition of economic globalization provided by the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) does not hold water if we take note of the nature of globalization as a
“complex, indeterminate set of processes operation very unevenly in both time and
space” (Dicken, 2004 as cited in Benczes, 2014: 900). We note that globalization in itself
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is multidimensional, complex, and does not influence or affect nation-states in the same
way which makes it an uneven process as well. With this, a more substantive definition
of economic globalization is required.
The definition provided by IMF (2008) is juxtaposed with the definition provided
by Szentes (2003): “In economic terms globalization is nothing but a process making the
world economy an “organic system” by extending transnational economic processes and
economic relations to more and more countries and by deepening the economic
interdependencies among them” (as cited in Benczes, 2014: 901). Benczes (2014) notes
that this definition claims that only in a global context (i.e. an integrated world
economy) can economic activities and processes can be interpreted.
The role of the nation-state is redefined as a factor and an actor in this arena of
economic activities and processes. In the wake of the global market, nation-states
ceased to exist as primary economic organization units as people consume highly
standardized products and services produced by global corporations (Benczes, 2014:
901). In the height of the global market system, the national economy has been
transformed by globalization into a global one in that “there will be no national products
or technologies, no national corporations, no national industries” (Reich, 1991 as cited
in Benczes, 2014: 901).

GLOBAL ACTORS IN ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

The process of economic globalization has produced its actors as well. These
economic globalization actors became key players in the global economy and have
touched on local industries of nation-states to create an international, tradable, and
not- context-limited goods and services. Aside from this are economic globalization
actors that try to produce harmony in an ever-growing economic and market
integration.

 TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS (TNCs)

- Regarded as another important
economic development that involves
the changing nature of global
production.
- TNCs are believed to be the main
driving force of economic
globalization.
- For realists, TNCs still represent
national interests and have means
through which the rich can exploit
the poor.
- The availability of cheap labor, Transnational Corporations. Image from
https://sayaglobal.weebly.com/uploads/2/6/3/6/26367531/63
resources, and favorable production 3 6134.jpg?414
conditions in the Third World
1
0
enhanced both the mobility and the profitability of TNCs.

1
1
 - TNCs' ability to ‘outsource’ manufacturing jobs—that is, to cut labor costs by
dispersing economic production processes into many discrete phases carried out
by low-wage workers in the global south—is often cited as one of the hallmarks
of economic globalization.
- Enterprises like Wal-Mart, General Motors, Exxon-Mobil, Mitsubishi, and
Siemens belong to the 200 largest TNCs, which accounts for over half of the
world’s industrial output.

 INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)

- Founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944
alongside the International Banks for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD)—which was responsible for post-
war reconstruction, as two international institutions.
- The mandate of IMF was to promote international
financial cooperation and strengthen international
trade.
- The IMF was expected to provide short-term financial
assistance (loans) to countries. IMF logo. Image from Wikipedia.
- Official organization for securing international
monetary cooperation.
- Help less-developed countries through research and giving monetary advice.

 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)

- WTO was launched on January 1, 1995, and
has become an official forum
for trade negotiations.
- It is a formally constituted organization with
legal personality.
WTO logo. Image from Wikipedia.
 WORLD BANK
- Two mandates of the institution: end extreme
poverty
and promote shared prosperity.
- Offers financial and technical assistance to developing
countries. The World Bank logo. Image from
Wikipedia.

 WTO, IMF, and WORLD BANK

- 3 institutions that underwrite the basic rules
and regulations of economic, monetary, and
trade relations between countries.
- Many developing countries have loosened
their trade rules because of the influence
and

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pressure of these institutions.
IMF-WB-WTO. Image from imf.org

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SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
On economic globalization and global economic actors:
Globalization- trade and transnational corporations | Society and Culture | MCAT | Khan
Academy (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmomzubjO1I)
How the IMF Monitors the Global Economy (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IlzBFLsToGk)
What's the difference between the IMF and the World Bank? | CNBC Explains (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lN3qrFA4jXc)
Covid-19: why the economy could fare worse than you think | The Economist (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9v6givfTEA)

SOME HISTORICAL NOTES

TIME EVENT
130 BCE – 1453 BCE Silk Road, the oldest known international trading route
from China to the Middle East to Europe.
1571 Establishment of the galleon trade which connected
Manila to Mexico; made the connection between the
Americas and the trading routes possible.
1867 A more open trade system was established when nations
like the United Kingdom, the United States, and other
European countries adopted the gold standard.
World War I (1914 – To support the war efforts, the countries depleted their
1918) gold reserves, forced them to abandon the gold
standards. European countries adopted floating
1920s – 1930s The Great Depression happened—the worst and longest
recession ever experienced by the Western world.
Early 20th century The world economy operates based on fiat currencies—
currencies that are not backed by precious metals and
whose value is determined by their cost relative to other
currencies. This system allows governments to freely and
actively manage their economies by increasing or
decreasing the amount of money in circulation as they
see fit.
1944 Bretton Woods Conference gave birth to International
Banks for Reconstruction and Development (IBDR), World
Bank, and International Monetary Fund (IMF).
1957 Establishment of the European Economic Community
(EEC).
1964 The United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) was established with the joint
effort of the developing world.

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 1986 – 1994 Multilateral trade negotiations were carried out under the
Uruguay Round.
1995 The Uruguay Round gave birth to a ‘real’ international
trade institution, the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Some historical notes related to the development of economic globalization in the contemporary world (Steger, 2014;
Benczes, 2014; Claudio & Abinales, 2018).

The process of globalization, in general, is multidimensional and uneven. In

terms of economic globalization, the global economy is characterized by increasing
linkage of national economies—that forms the global economy through market
integration, financial flows, and investments by multinational firms (Steger, 2014: 6). In
another perspective offered by the world-systems analysis forwards the idea that
“capitalism under globalization reinforces the structural patterns of unequal change”
(Wallerstein, 1983 as cited in Benczes, 2014: 903).
Developed countries and developing countries are tied in a rather ironic
dependency. There is a presence of asymmetry between and among national and
international economic systems which lies at the heart of inequality in economic
globalization. The challenge is how to make the system more just, how the actors can
create and amend policies that close the gap of economic inequalities at the global level.
A large part of globalization processes is anchored on economic changes after all.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
On the detriments of economic globalization:
Globalization and Trade and Poverty: Crash Course Economics #16 (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9MpVjxxpExM)
What global trade deals are really about (hint: it's not trade) | Haley Edwards |
TEDxMidAtlantic (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-v3uqD1hWGE)

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 TASK/ACTIVITY

GLOBAL ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS (RESEARCH):

This activity is geared towards familiarizing oneself to an international
economic organization (e.g. Asian Development Bank) or an international
company (e.g. Honda, McDonald’s, etc.)

Research on the following: (a) the origins and history of the institution you
have chosen; (b) map the international connections it has created; (c) identify
the major country-leaders of this institution; (d) locate the Philippines in this
map of interconnections.
Then answer this question: How does this institution influence global
economic activity? How does it affect economics in the Philippines?
Discuss your points clearly. Don’t forget to cite your sources, use APA citation
style.
Format: 500 words maximum. Times New Roman. 12 font size. Single-space.
In short bond paper (8.5 x 11). (Notice to the instructor: this format serves as a
parameter guide and can be adjusted to the needs and/or conditions of the students)
This activity is adopted from the learning activity for “The Globalization of World Economic” in The
Contemporary World textbook (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 25).

TASK/ACTIVITY RUBRICS:
Format: 15%
Citation and ethical integrity: 20%
Integration, organization, and elaboration of data, information, and points: 50%
Writing technicalities (narrative, grammar): 15%

TOPIC 2: GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM

The multidimensional character of globalization allows the study of the aspects

that account for this multidimensionality and their respective processes. The topic of
The Global Economy introduced us to the economic aspect of globalization. For this part,
we move to the second aspect which is politics (globalization as a political process).
ATTRIBUTES OF CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL SYSTEM
In this part, the attributes of the contemporary global system, namely, world
politics, the nation-state, internationalism, and the global interstate system will be

13
discussed. The goal is to familiarize oneself with concepts that make up the politics at
the international level. Perspectives on the role of what forms the global politico-
interstate system are indicated to show how scholars take on this globalization aspect
differently.

 FOUR KEY ATTRIBUTES OF WORLD POLITICS:

a. There are countries or states that are independent and govern themselves. E.g.
the Philippines is a nation-state, it has a sense of independence from other
nation- states, and has its government (the Republic of the Philippines).
b. These countries interact with each other through diplomacy. E.g. the Philippines
has international relationships with other countries.
c. There are international organizations, like the United Nations (UN), that facilitate
these interactions. I.e. the UN is the center of global governance and the
Philippines is a member of this international organization.
d. Beyond simply facilitating meetings between states, international organizations
also take on lives of their own. I.e. the United Nations has task-specific agencies
like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labor
Organization (ILO), aside from being a meeting ground for presidents and other
heads of states.

 THE NATION-STATE
- The nation-state is a relatively modern phenomenon in human history, and
people did not always organize themselves as countries.
- The nation-state is composed of two non-interchangeable terms:
NOT ALL STATES ARE NATIONS. NOT ALL NATIONS ARE STATES.
E.g. many commentators believe that the Bangsamoro is a separate nation
existing within the Philippines, but through their elites, recognizes the authority
of the Philippine state (this is a case of states with multiple nations);
The nation of Korea is divided into North and South Korea (this is a case of a
single nation with multiple states).

1. THE STATE
o Refers to a country and its government.
o The institution that creates warfare and sets economic policies for a country.
It is also a political unit that has authority over its affairs.
o Independent political communities each of which possesses a government
and asserts sovereignty in relation to a particular portion of the earth’s
surface and a particular segment of the human population (Bull, 1995 as
cited in Schattle, 2014: 933).
o Essential elements of the state:
a. PERMANENT POPULATION – inhabitant of the country, its citizens
b. TERRITORY – total portion of the land governed
c. GOVERNMENT – an entity that regulates relations among its people and
with other states

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 d. SOVEREIGNTY – supreme uncontrollable power of the state over its
territory; refers to internal and external authority
INTERNAL AUTHORITY: no individuals or groups can operate in a given
national territory by ignoring the state. I.e. groups like churches,
corporations, and other entities have to follow the laws of the state
where they establish their parishes, offices, or headquarters.
EXTERNAL AUTHORITY: a state’s policies and procedures are independent
of the intervention of other states. I.e. Russia or Germany cannot pass
laws for the Philippines and vice versa.
o States have the following rights:
a. Right to govern its people
b. Right for self-determination
c. Right to impose the country’s policy
d. Right to take over issues in its jurisdiction

2. THE NATION
o “An imagined political community”—imagined as both inherently limited
and sovereign (a conceptual definition forwarded by Benedict Anderson in
his most celebrated work, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin
and Spread of Nationalism (1983)). “Imagined” in a sense that the nation
allows one to feel a connection with the community of people even if he/she
will never meet all of them in his/her lifetime. E.g. you know that you live in a
territory with the people in the Visayas or Mindanao even if you haven’t seen
them in person.
o The concept emphasized organic ties to hold groups of people together and
inspire the senses of loyalty and belonging (Schattle, 2014: 933).
o Nations are viewed as socially constructed political communities that hold
together citizens across many kinds of cross-cutting identities: ethnicity,
language, religions, and so forth (Schattle, 2014: 933).
o Nations often limit themselves to people who have imbibed a particular
culture, speak a common language, and live in a specific territory.
o Most nations strive to become states. Nation-builders can only feel a sense
of fulfillment when the national ideal assumes an organizational form whose
authority and power are recognized and accepted by “the people”.

- Nationalism forms a close relationship between nation and state because it is

the one that facilitates state formation. Most nation-states are born out of
nationalist movements. Sovereignty in a state is established because of the
nationalist sentiments for independence (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 29).
INTERNATIONALISM
Internationalism is born out of the desire for greater cooperation and unity
among states and people, a system of heightened interaction of various sovereign

15
states (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 32). The principle of internationalism can be divided
into two broad categories: liberal internationalism and socialist internationalism.
PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONALISM (Claudio & Abinales, 2018)
1. Immanuel Kant
o German philosopher Immanuel Kant likened the states in a global system to
people living in a given territory.
o Kant argued that without a form of world government, the international
system would be chaotic.
o Kant imagined a form of global government where states, like citizens of
countries, must give up some freedoms and establish a continuously growing
state consisting of various nations which will ultimately include the nations of
the world.
2. Jeremy Bentham
o British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (coined the term "international" in
1780) advocated the creation of "international law" that would govern the
inter- state relations.
o Bentham believed that objective global legislators should aim to propose
legislation that would create "the greatest happiness of all nations taken
together".
3. Giuseppe Mazzini
o First to reconcile nationalism with liberal internationalism.
o He believed that a Republican government (no kings, queens, and hereditary
succession) and proposed a system of free nations that cooperated to
create an international system.
o Free, independent states would be the basis of an equally free, cooperative
international system, the basis of global cooperation.
4. Woodrow Wilson
o Wilson saw nationalism as a prerequisite for internationalism.
o In his faith in nationalism, he forwarded the principle of self-determination—
the belief that the world’s nations had a right to free, sovereign government.
o He believed that only by being democratic nations that they would be able to
build a free system of international relations based on international law and
cooperation.
o He advocated for the creation of the League of Nations.
5. Karl Marx
o Marx was an internationalist but he did not believe in nationalism.
o He believed that any true form of internationalism should deliberately
reject nationalism, which rooted people in domestic concerns instead of
global ones.
o Marx placed a premium on economic equality.
o Marx and Engels opposed nationalism because they believed it preventing
the unification of the world’s workers.

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From left to right: Kant, Bentham, Mazzini, Wilson, and Marx. Images from Google Image.

The very principles of internationalism forwarded by Kant, Bentham, and Mazzini serve
as the blueprint for the very face of internationalism in the contemporary world which is
the United Nations (this will be discussed further in the next topic).

PERSPECTIVES ON THE RELEVANCE OF THE NATION-STATE AMID GLOBALIZATION

(Benczes, 2014; Steger, 2014):

Different perspectives on the role of nation-states amid globalization have

enriched the study of global politics and the interstate system. These perspectives are
varied and come from different sociopolitical realities yet offer a rich understanding of
the footing of the nation-state in the complex process of globalization.

- States ceased to exist as primary economic organization units in the wake of a

global market, wherein people have access to and consume highly standardized
global products and services produced by global corporations (Ohmae, 1995).
- Globalization transforms the national economy into a global one where there will
be no national products or technologies, no national corporations, no national
industries (Reich, 1991).
- Globalization is redefining the role of the nation-state as an effective manager of
the national economy. The state as the main shelter from the perverse effects of
a free market economy (Boyer & Drache, 1996).
- It is misleading to assume that globalization has relegated the nation-state and
its policies to an obsolete or irrelevant status; governments are acting as the
midwives of globalization (Brodie, 1996).
- States are not influenced uniformly by globalization (Milner & Keohane, 1996).
- Scholars argue for the continued relevance of conventional political units,
operating either in the form of modern nation-states or global cities (Steger,
2014).
- Equipped with the power to regulate economic activities within their sphere of
influence, states are far from being impotent bystanders to the workings of
global forces (Steger, 2014).

17
 - The continued relevance of the nation-states as crucial bargaining agencies that
influence the changing world of power relations (Castells, 2009).

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

To better understand the relationship between nation-states and globalization processes, you
might want to check this TED Talk:
Do we need Nation States? | Toni Lane Casserly | TEDxBerlinSalon (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJPE4H_fgBQ)

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE NATION-STATE

CHALLENGES POSED BY GLOBALIZATION:
1. TRADITIONAL CHALLENGES – external intervention or invasion of another country
2. CHALLENGES FROM NATIONAL/IDENTITY MOVEMENTS – confront cultural
and/or national identity
3. GLOBAL ECONOMICS – globalization as imposing a forced-choice upon states:
either to conform to free-market principles or run the risk of being left behind
Golden Straitjacket (Thomas Friedman): states are now forced into policies that
suit the preferences of investment houses and corporate executives who swiftly
move money and resources into countries favored as adaptable to the demands
of international business, and withdraw even more rapidly from countries
deemed uncompetitive (Schattle, 2014; 933).
4. GLOBAL SOCIAL MOVEMENTS – human rights advocates, transnational advocacy
networks
Scholars are divided on the position of the nation-state in the process of
globalization. Some argue that the nation-state has no firm stand in globalization which
is mainly viewed in the economic dimension. While there are still those who believe that
nation-states are still relevant in the globalization context. Nation-states are still
governing agencies and political units that affect and shape power relations even in the
international or global arenas. As the representative of its people, nations-states are
called to practice…
the power to determine economic, social and environmental objects for national
development and the capacity to ensure that transnational corporations meet
these priorities and to set the stage for new forms of participatory democracy
whereby the citizens become effectively involved in international policymaking on
trade, investment, and finance (Cavanagh and Mander, 2004 as cited in Schattle,
2014: 936).

The nation-states of the world are here to stay and play key roles in the shaping of
globalization. This manifests in the formation of regional partnerships with neighboring
countries (e.g. the Philippines in the ASEAN); membership, and active participation in
18
international organizations and global governing bodies like the United Nations;
adherence to universal norms and values; and establishment of transnational networks
among others.
Global politics and interstate conditions have their fair share of positive and
negative implications and results, yet these do not stop nation-states in increasing the
interconnectivity and interrelationship to one another as the forces of globalization bind
them together. The challenge remains as to how global policies created and lobbied by
interstate agencies with a high participatory mandate will create a more just
globalization process in all its economic, political, and cultural aspects.

TASK/ACTIVITY

QUIZ ON THE READING MATERIAL

Reading material: Schattle, H. (2014). “Governments and Citizens in a Globally

Interconnected World of States”. In The SAGE Handbook of Globalization. SAGE
Publications Ltd. Pp. 931-950 [e-copy pagination]
Answer the following questions:

What kind of states do we need to handle today’s most pressing problems?

How do nations states remain a relevant factor and actor of globalization?
What are the limitations of transnational networks?
In one whole sheet of paper, explain your answers clearly. Support your claims
with facts. Draw your answer from your study and understanding of the
material. 30 points.

TOPIC 3: CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

Internationalism ideals and interstate relations reconstruct the world into a

borderless one, where ideas, influence, power relations, institutional affairs, and
impacts on human material conditions meet in complex and intersecting contexts. As
nation- states grew closer to one another in terms of economic, political, and cultural
practices, among others, the global structure of this interconnectivity and
interrelationship is confronted with the challenge to maintain interstate harmony
—therefore, global

19
harmony—amid individual nation-state interests. This challenge calls for the formation of
a global governance body.
Today, the presence of International Organizations (IOs) adheres to the ideals
and pragmatics of global governance, where various intersecting processes that create
an essence of world order through the creation, recognition, and practice of global
norms (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 39).

Global Governance. Image from https://mronline.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/a0783886e96c75a90d351d6faf5a45c1.jpg

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
DEFINITION
There is no global government yet international transactions work in order,
stability, and predictability. This poses the question, “how is the world governed even in
the absence of a world government?” For Wiess and Thakur (2014), the answer to the
question lies in global governance. They defined global governance as “the sum of laws,
norms, policies, and institutions that define, constitute and mediate trans-border
relations between states, cultures, citizens, intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations and the market—the wielders and the objects of exercise of the
international public power” (Weiss and Thakur, 2014: 535).
Global governance is further characterized by Weiss & Thakur (2014):
a. An authority that is constantly shifting and the patchwork of institutional
elements varies by sector.
b. All actors depend upon multilateralism and the underwriting of regularity and
public goods in the international system.

20
 c. If the actors of global governance are to remain viable, international
organizations and the values of multilateralism embedded in them must be
reconstituted in line with 21st-century principles of governance and legitimacy.
d. Global governance actors must be capable of addressing contemporary
challenges effectively.
e. Global governance is a rules-based order without government.
f. Global governance is not a supplement but rather a kind of surrogate for
authority and enforcement for the contemporary world.
g. The emergence of global governance roots from (1) the growing recognition of
problems that defy solutions by a single state; (2) the growth in the numbers and
importance of non-state actors (civil society and market).
h. The United Nations (UN) is both a global governance actor and site.
i. “Good” global governance implies an optimal partnership between the state,
regional, and global levels of actors and between state, intergovernmental, and
nongovernmental categories of actors.

SOURCES OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE (Claudio & Abinales, 2018):

1. States sign treaties and form organizations to help in the process of drafting and
legislating public international law (i.e. international rules that govern
interactions between states). E.g. peace treaties.
2. International Non-government Organizations (NGOs), though they do not have
formal state power, can influence government or states to behave in a certain
way. E.g. WHO, an international organization under the UN, played a key role in
lobbying guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
International Organizations (IOs) make a big part of global governance.
International Organizations refer to “international intergovernmental organizations or
groups that are primarily made up of member-states” (Claudio & Abinales, 2018: 40).
United Nations or institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World
Bank are usually categorized and called International Organizations (IOs). International
organizations are not a mere amalgamation of various state interests, but IOs can take
on lives of their own—an institution created by man yet can govern the order and
intersecting aspects of human relations and conditions.
POWERS OF IOs (listed by Michael N. Barnett and Martha Finnemore in Claudio &
Abinales, 2018: 41)
1. Power of classification – IOs can invent and apply categories, they create
powerful global standards. E.g. they can define what poverty means and through
that, nation-states can determine who the poor in their demographic are.

21
 2. Power to fix meanings – a broader function related to the power of
classification; the need to address here is for concepts such as “development” to
be well- defined. IOs are viewed as legitimate sources of information by states,
organizations, and individuals. The meaning they create have effects on policies.
E.g. if an IO defined what it means when you say development, then states will
pattern its policies to achieve the kind of development defined by IOs.
3. Power to diffuse norms – IOs can define and/or forward accepted codes of
conduct or behavior. IOs also spread ideas across the world, thereby establishing
global standards. E.g. no discrimination on employment and occupation.
Norms: accepted codes of conduct that may not be strict law, but produce
regularities in behavior.
With these powers, IOs can be sources of great good and great harm (Claudio &
Abinales, 2018: 41). As IOs embody global governance, in addition to the powers they
have, the challenge for the actors that comprise these IOs is to uphold fairness in their
blanket deliberations, policies, and actions that unevenly affect nation-states engaged
in their multilateral bureaucracy and forum. Weiss & Thakur (2014) notes that the life
and survival of IOs rest on two factors: (1) the capacity to change and adapt; (2) the
quality of their governance. The capacity to adapt in an ever-changing international
condition and to uphold a premium quality in their leadership and practice of
governance.
THE UNITED NATIONS
When we talk about international organizations and
when we try to identify the realization of the definition
of global governance in our objective reality, the
United Nations (UN) takes the center stage. Thakur
(2011) even dubbed the UN as “both a global
governance actor and site” (as cited in Weiss & Thakur,
2014: 535). The United Nations is an international
organization that is taking the lead in facilitating global
dialogue to uphold the global harmony among nation-
states and strengthen their interconnectivity and
interrelationship (Schattle, 2014: 938). The existence United Nations’ emblem. Image from
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
of the UN renders important for global governance in co
a world of nation-states. Weiss and Thakur (2014) mmons/thumb/e/ee/UN_emblem_blue.sv
notes, “the world body remains as the embodiment g
/906px-UN_emblem_blue.svg.png
of the
international community of states, the focus of international expectations, and the locus
of collective action as the symbol of an imagined and constructed community of
strangers”.
CHARACTERIZING THE UN:
1. To date, there are 193 sovereign member-states. The Philippines is a member of
the UN. Filipino diplomat Carlos P. Romulo was elected General Assembly
22
President from 1949-1950 (Claudio & Abinales, 2014: 42).

23
2. Six main organs of the UN:

The United Nation’s Organizational Chart. Image from Google Image.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY (GA): the main deliberative, policymaking, and

representative organ of the UN. All 193 member-states of the UN are
represented in the GA—the only UN body with universal representation.
Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security,
admission of new members, and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds
majority of the General Assembly. The General Assembly, each year, elects a GA
President to serve a one- year term of office.
SECURITY COUNCIL (SC): the primary responsibility is on the maintenance of
international peace and security. It has 15 member-states, 5 permanent with
veto power (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States)
and 10 non-permanent members. The Security Council takes the lead in
determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression. SC’s
presidency is rotational (changes every month).
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: the principal body for coordination, policy
review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social, and
environmental issues, as well as the implementation of internationally agreed
development goals. It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for
overlapping three-year terms. It is the United Nations’ central platform for
reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development.

24
 TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL: as established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter
XIII, to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been
placed under the administration of 7 member-states, and ensure that adequate
steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and
independence.
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE: the principal judicial organ of the UN. The
Court’s role is to settle, following international law, legal disputes submitted to it
by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by
authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.
SECRETARIAT: comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of
international UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as
mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other principal
organs.
3. The UN has significant roles in preventing and managing conflicts, championing
human rights and international humanitarian law, liberating the colonized,
empowering women, educating children, housing the refugees, liberating the
colonized, and feeding the hungry among other (Weiss & Thakur, 2014: 535).

4. The UN provides and manages the framework for bringing together the world’s
leaders to tackle the pressing problems of the day for the survival, development,
and welfare of all peoples, everywhere (Weiss & Thakur, 2014: 538).

LIMITATIONS OF THE UNITED NATIONS (Schattle, 2014):

1. The UN has never transcended the state's system and instead operates mainly as
a forum for states to air their differences and try to resolve them.
2. The UN represents the world’s people based on their national membership and
not on the basis of their humanity. I.e. national membership to a particular
nation- state is the identity of an individual that is regarded and not on the basic
yet deeper level that the individual is a human being.
3. The UN has been unable to prevent many atrocities and genocides around the
world during its history. I.e. in the presence of global policies, the UN is still
unable to mediate and put an end to atrocities because the perpetrators of these
are members of the UN themselves.
GAPS IN GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
Five main gaps confront the UN since its foundation, namely, knowledge gaps,
normative gaps, policy gaps, institutional gaps, and compliance gaps. Weiss and Thakur
(2014) elaborated ways on how to identify, diagnose, and fill the gaps through managing
knowledge, developing norms, promulgating recommendations, and institutionalizing
ideas.
25
MANAGING KNOWLEDGE
Recognize the existence of the problem that goes beyond the capacity of any state.
Collect solid data about the nature of the problem, and understand its causes to explain
the problem.
The UN should be a knowledge-based and knowledge management organization. UN
should use its convening capacity and mobilizing power to help funnel knowledge from
outside and to ensure its discussion and dissemination among governments.

DEVELOPING NORMS
Once a problem has been identified and diagnosed, the UN helps to solidify a new norm
of behavior through summit conferences, and international panels.
From knowledge to norms: when a problem serious enough warrants attention from
international policy community, new norms need to be articulated, disseminated, and
institutionalized.
International norms can be transmitted down into national politics and incorporated
into domestic laws or into the policy preferences of political leaders through elite
learning.

FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS
As new problems emerge and new norms arise, they highlight gaps in policy that also
need attention.
The policy stage refers to the statement of principles and actions that an organization is
likely to take in the event of particular contingencies.
The UN’s ability to convene and consult widely plays an enormous part in its ability to
formulate recommendations for specific policies, institutional arrangements, and
regimes.

INSTITUTIONALIZING IDEAS
Virtually every problem has several global institutions working on significant aspects
of solution.
Institutions can facilitate problem solving even though they do not possess any
coercive powers.
Globalization has led to more practice in international cooperation but has
introduced additional layers of complexity and conflict potential. The creation of
institutions requires the knowledge, normative and policy-making gaps have been at
least partially filled.
Once knowledge has been acquired, norms articulated and policies formulated, an
existing institution can oversee their implementation and monitoring.
Steps in addressing the gaps in global governance (Weiss & Thakur, 2014)
26
 As the symbol of global governance, the United Nations is not a perfect
international organization. However flawed and limited the UN is, no one can discount
how it mediates inter-state relations and how it influences definitions, policies, state
actions, and the social, economic, political, and cultural discourses at the international
level. In the end, global governance has transcended from a strict hierarchy of
international action involving nation-states to global efforts that involve the dynamics
and participation of both nation-states and non-nation-states actors. In the end, the
actors, arenas, and architecture of global governance are continually evolving (Weiss &
Thakur, 2014: 550).

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

More on contemporary global governance through the United Nations:

How Does The UN Work? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tlmYtJiUK00)
The United Nations Is Created | Flashback | History (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnQESSTouNU)
How Powerful Is The United Nations? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yH6Y2jUaLvI)
FAO Policy Series: Global Governance (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CUWiW8RqWSM)

ASSESSMENT

27
THINKPIECE:
As we have familiarized ourselves with the mandate and institutional nature of the
United Nations, let’s take a closer look at its role in the world and in the country. In your
paper,
1. explore the importance of the United Nations for the global interstate system,
why do we need such international organization; and
2. cite three (3) instances where the United Nations has helped, influenced, and/or
affected the Philippines in any way (be it in policy making, human rights,
calamities and disasters, and diplomacy). Provide necessary details of each
instance.
Discuss your points clearly. Don’t forget to cite your sources, use APA citation style.
Format: 500 words maximum. Times New Roman. 12 font size. Single-space. In short
bond paper (8.5 x 11). (Notice to the instructor: this format serves as a parameter guide and can be
xadjusted to the needs and/or conditions of the students)

28