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Monera
Monera (/məˈnɪərə/) (Greek - μονήρης (monḗrēs), "single",
"solitary") is a biological kingdom that is made up of Monera
prokaryotes (particularly bacteria). As such, it is composed of
single-celled organisms that lack a true nucleus.

The taxon Monera was first proposed as a phylum by Ernst

Haeckel in 1866. Subsequently, the phylum was elevated to
the rank of kingdom in 1925 by Édouard Chatton. The last
commonly accepted mega-classification with the taxon
Monera was the five-kingdom classification system
established by Robert Whittaker in 1969.

Under the three-domain system of taxonomy, introduced by Scanning electron micrograph of

Carl Woese in 1977, which reflects the evolutionary history of
life, the organisms found in kingdom Monera have been Escherichia coli rods
divided into two domains, Archaea and Bacteria (with Scientific classification
Eukarya as the third domain). Furthermore, the taxon Monera
is paraphyletic (does not include all descendants of their Groups included
most-recent common ancestor), as Archaea and Eukarya are
currently believed to be more closely related than either is to Bacteria and Archaea
Bacteria. The term "moneran" is the informal name of
members of this group and is still sometimes used (as is the Cladistically included but
term "prokaryote") to denote a member of either domain.[1] traditionally excluded taxa

Eubacteria Domain Eukaryota

Commonly referred to as "true bacteria" or simply "bacteria.“

They are more common and widely distributed in most habitats (water, soil, inside and on
extracellular organisms, etc.) across the globe and are prokaryotes. Eubacteria can be Gram-
negative or Gram-positive, and they are important in the economy, agriculture, and medicine. E.
coli, Lactobacilli, and Azospirillum are among them.

Archaebacteria

Archaebacteria are a group of microorganisms that are thought to be an ancient form of life that
evolved independently from bacteria and blue-green algae, and they are sometimes classified as a
kingdom. These bacteria that thrive at high temperatures represent life at the known upper
temperature limit.

Most bacteria were classified under Monera; however, some Cyanobacteria (often called the blue-
green algae) were initially classified under Plantae due to their ability to photosynthesize.

Contents
History
Haeckel's classification
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Subsequent classifications
Rise to prominence
Three-domain system
Blue-green algae
Summary
See also
References
External links

History

Haeckel's classification

Traditionally the natural world was classified as animal,

vegetable, or mineral as in Systema Naturae. After the
development of the microscope, attempts were made to fit
microscopic organisms into either the plant or animal
kingdoms. In 1675, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered
bacteria and called them "animalcules", assigning them to the
class Vermes of the Animalia.[3][4][5] Due to the limited tools —
the sole references for this group were shape, behaviour, and
habitat — the description of genera and their classification was
extremely limited, which was accentuated by the perceived lack
of importance of the group.[6][7][8]

Ten years after The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, in

1866 Ernst Haeckel, a supporter of evolutionary theory,
proposed a three-kingdom system that added the Protista as a
new kingdom that contained most microscopic organisms.[2]
One of his eight major divisions of Protista was composed of
the monerans (called Moneres by Haeckel), which he defined
Tree of Life in Generelle
as completely structure-less and homogeneous organisms,
Morphologie der Organismen
consisting only of a piece of plasma. Haeckel's Monera
(1866)[2]
included not only bacterial groups of early discovery but also
several small eukaryotic organisms; in fact the genus Vibrio is
the only bacterial genus explicitly assigned to the phylum,
while others are mentioned indirectly, which led Copeland to speculate that Haeckel considered all
bacteria to belong to the genus Vibrio, ignoring other bacterial genera.[7] One notable exception
were the members of the modern phylum Cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc, which were placed in the
phylum Archephyta of Algae (vide infra: Blue-green algae).

The Neolatin noun Monera and the German noun Moneren/Moneres are derived from the ancient
Greek noun moneres, which Haeckel stated meant "simple";[2] however, it actually means "single,
solitary".[9] Haeckel also describes the protist genus Monas in the two pages about Monera in his
1866 book.[2] The informal name of a member of the Monera was initially moneron,[10] but later
moneran was used.[1]

Due to its lack of features, the phylum was not fully subdivided, but the genera therein were
divided into two groups:

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die Gymnomoneren (no envelope [sic.]): Gymnomonera

Protogenes — such as Protogenes primordialis, an unidentified amoeba (eukaryote) and
not a bacterium
Protamaeba— an incorrectly described/fabricated species
Vibrio — a genus of comma-shaped bacteria first described in 1854[11]
Bacterium — a genus of rod-shaped bacteria first described in 1828. Haeckel does not
explicitly assign this genus to the Monera.
Bacillus — a genus of spore-forming rod-shaped bacteria first described in 1835[12]
Haeckel does not explicitly assign this genus to the Monera kingdom.
Spirochaeta — thin spiral-shaped bacteria first described in 1835 [13] Haeckel does not
explicitly assign this genus to the Monera.
Spirillum — spiral-shaped bacteria first described in 1832[14] Haeckel does not explicitly
assign this genus to the Monera.
etc.: Haeckel does provide a comprehensive list.
die Lepomoneren (with envelope): Lepomonera
Protomonas — identified to a synonym of Monas, a flagellated protozoan, and not a
bacterium.[10] The name was reused in 1984 for an unrelated genus of bacteria.[15]
Vampyrella — now classed as a eukaryote and not a bacterium.

Subsequent classifications

Like Protista, the Monera classification was not fully followed at first and several different ranks
were used and located with animals, plants, protists or fungi. Furthermore, Haeckel's classification
lacked specificity and was not exhaustive — it in fact covers only a few pages—, consequently a lot
of confusion arose even to the point that the Monera did not contain bacterial genera and others
according to Huxley.[10] They were first recognized as a kingdom by Enderlein in 1925 (Bakterien-
Cyclogenie. de Gruyter, Berlin).

The most popular scheme was created in 1859 by C. Von Nägeli who classified non-phototrophic
Bacteria as the class Schizomycetes.[16]

The class Schizomycetes was then emended by Walter Migula (along with the coinage of the genus
Pseudomonas in 1894)[17] and others.[18] This term was in dominant use even in 1916 as reported
by Robert Earle Buchanan (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8814/), as it had priority
over other terms such as Monera.[19] However, starting with Ferdinand Cohn in 1872 the term
bacteria (or in German Bacterien) became prominently used to informally describe this group of
species without a nucleus: Bacterium was in fact a genus created in 1828 by Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg[20] Additionally, Cohn divided the bacteria according to shape namely:

Spherobacteria for the cocci

Microbacteria for the short, non-filamentous rods
Desmobacteria for the longer, filamentous rods and Spirobacteria for the spiral forms.

Successively, Cohn created the Schizophyta of Plants, which contained the non-photrophic
bacteria in the family Schizomycetes and the phototrophic bacteria (blue green
algae/Cyanobacteria) in the Schizophyceae[21] This union of blue green algae and Bacteria was
much later followed by Haeckel, who classified the two families in a revised phylum Monera in the
Protista.[22]

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Stanier and van Neil (1941, The main outlines of bacterial classification. J Bacteriol 42: 437- 466)
recognized the Kingdom Monera with two phyla, Myxophyta and Schizomycetae, the latter
comprising classes Eubacteriae (3 orders), Myxobacteriae (1 order), and Spirochetae (1 order);
Bisset (1962, Bacteria, 2nd ed., Livingston, London) distinguished 1 class and 4 orders:
Eubacteriales, Actinomycetales, Streptomycetales, and Flexibacteriales; Orla-Jensen (1909, Die
Hauptlinien des naturalischen Bakteriensystems nebst einer Ubersicht der Garungsphenomene.
Zentr. Bakt. Parasitenk., II, 22: 305-346) and Bergey et al (1925, Bergey's Manual of
Determinative Bacteriology, Baltimore : Williams & Wilkins Co.) with many subsequent editions)
also presented classifications.

Rise to prominence

The term Monera became well established in the 20s and 30s when to rightfully increase the
importance of the difference between species with a nucleus and without. In 1925, Édouard
Chatton divided all living organisms into two empires Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: the Kingdom
Monera being the sole member of the Prokaryotes empire.[23]

The anthropic importance of the crown group of animals, plants and fungi was hard to depose;
consequently, several other megaclassification schemes ignored on the empire rank but
maintained the kingdom Monera consisting of bacteria, such Copeland in 1938 and Whittaker in
1969.[7][24] The latter classification system was widely followed, in which Robert Whittaker
proposed a five kingdom system for classification of living organisms.[24] Whittaker's system
placed most single celled organisms into either the prokaryotic Monera or the eukaryotic Protista.
The other three kingdoms in his system were the eukaryotic Fungi, Animalia, and Plantae.
Whittaker, however, did not believe that all his kingdoms were monophyletic.[25]
Whittaker
subdivided the kingdom into two branches containing several phyla:

Myxomonera branch
Cyanophyta, now called Cyanobacteria
Myxobacteria
Mastigomonera branch
Eubacteriae
Actinomycota
Spirochaetae

Alternative commonly followed subdivision systems were based on Gram stains. This culminated
in the Gibbons and Murray classification of 1978:[26]

Gracilicutes (gram negative)

Photobacteria (photosynthetic): class Oxyphotobacteriae (water as electron acceptor,
includes the order Cyanobacteriales = blue green algae, now phylum Cyanobacteria) and
class Anoxyphotobacteriae (anaerobic phototrophs, orders: Rhodospirillales and
Chlorobiales
Scotobacteria (non-photosynthetic, now the Proteobacteria and other gram negative
nonphotosynthetic phyla) eg. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, E.coli.
Firmacutes [sic] (gram positive, subsequently corrected to Firmicutes[27])
several orders such as Bacillales and Actinomycetales (now in the phylum Actinobacteria)
eg. Bacillus cerus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus.
Mollicutes (gram variable, e.g. Mycoplasma)
Mendocutes (uneven gram stain, "methanogenic bacteria" now known as the Archaea)
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Three-domain system

In 1977, a PNAS paper by Carl Woese and George Fox demonstrated that the archaea (initially
called archaebacteria) are not significantly closer in relationship to the bacteria than they are to
eukaryotes. The paper received front-page coverage in The New York Times,[28] and great
controversy initially. The conclusions have since become accepted, leading to replacement of the
kingdom Monera with the two domains Bacteria and Archaea.[25][29] A minority of scientists,
including Thomas Cavalier-Smith, continue to reject the widely accepted division between these
two groups. Cavalier-Smith has published classifications in which the archaebacteria are part of a
subkingdom of the Kingdom Bacteria.[30]

Blue-green algae
Although it was generally accepted that one could distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes on the
basis of the presence of a nucleus, mitosis versus binary fission as a way of reproducing, size, and
other traits, the monophyly of the kingdom Monera (or for that matter, whether classification
should be according to phylogeny) was controversial for many decades. Although distinguishing
between prokaryotes from eukaryotes as a fundamental distinction is often credited to a 1937
paper by Édouard Chatton (little noted until 1962), he did not emphasize this distinction more
than other biologists of his era.[25] Roger Stanier and C. B. van Niel believed that the bacteria (a
term which at the time did not include blue-green algae) and the blue-green algae had a single
origin, a conviction that culminated in Stanier writing in a letter in 1970, "I think it is now quite
evident that the blue-green algae are not distinguishable from bacteria by any fundamental feature
of their cellular organization".[31] Other researchers, such as E. G. Pringsheim writing in 1949,
suspected separate origins for bacteria and blue-green algae. In 1974, the influential Bergey's
Manual published a new edition coining the term cyanobacteria to refer to what had been called
blue-green algae, marking the acceptance of this group within the Monera.[25]

Summary
Woese Cavalier- Cavalier-
Linnaeus
Haeckel
Chatton
Copeland
Whittaker

et al.
Smith
Smith

1735[32] 1866[33] 1925[23] 1938[7] 1969[34]

[35]
1990 1998[30] 2015[36]
2 3 4 5 3 2 empires, 6 2 empires, 7
2 empires
kingdoms kingdoms kingdoms kingdoms domains kingdoms kingdoms
Bacteria Bacteria
Prokaryota Monera Monera Bacteria
(not Archaea Archaea
Protista
treated) Protozoa Protozoa
Protoctista Protista
Chromista Chromista
Eukaryota Plantae Eucarya Plantae Plantae
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae
Fungi Fungi Fungi
Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

Monerans are a group of organisms having prokaryotic structure.

Archaea differ from Bacteria in
having a different 16S srna.
They also have a different cell wall structure.

See also
Bacterial cell structure
Endosymbiont
Kingdom (biology)

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Prokaryote
Symbiogenesis

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External links
Woese CR (June 1987). "Bacterial evolution" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3
73105). Microbiol. Rev. 51 (2): 221–71. doi:10.1128/MMBR.51.2.221-271.1987 (https://doi.org/
10.1128%2FMMBR.51.2.221-271.1987). PMC 373105 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC373105). PMID 2439888 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2439888). Woese reviewed
the historical steps leading to the use of the term "Monera" and its later abandonment.
What is Monera? A descriptive details of the entire kingdom (http://www.thebigger.com/section/
biology/monera/)

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