Vowel length

In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived length of a vowel sound:

Long
the corresponding physical measurement is duration. In some

◌ː
languages vowel length is an important phonemic factor, meaning
vowel length can change the meaning of the word, for example in:
Arabic, Estonian, Finnish, Fijian, Kannada, Japanese, Latin, Old
English, Scottish Gaelic, and Vietnamese. While vowel length alone
does not change word meaning in most dialects of English, it is said
IPA Number 503
to do so in a few dialects, such as Australian English, Lunenburg
English, New Zealand English, and South African English. It also Encoding
plays a lesser phonetic role in Cantonese, unlike in other varieties of Entity (decimal) ː
Chinese.
Unicode (hex) U+02D0
Many languages do not distinguish vowel length phonemically,
meaning that vowel length does not change meaning, and the length Half-long
of a vowel is conditioned by other factors such as the phonetic

◌ˑ
characteristics of the sounds around it, for instance whether the vowel
is followed by a voiced or a voiceless consonant. Languages that do
distinguish vowel length phonemically usually only distinguish
between short vowels and long vowels. Very few languages
distinguish three phonemic vowel lengths, such as Estonian, Luiseño, IPA Number 504
and Mixe. However, some languages with two vowel lengths also Encoding
have words in which long vowels appear adjacent to other short or
long vowels of the same type: Japanese hōō, "phoenix", or Ancient Entity (decimal) ˑ
Greek ἀάατος [a.áː.a.tos],[1] "inviolable". Some languages that do Unicode (hex) U+02D1
not ordinarily have phonemic vowel length but permit vowel hiatus
may similarly exhibit sequences of identical vowel phonemes that Extra-short
yield phonetically long vowels, such as Georgian გააადვილებ

◌̆
[ɡa.a.ad.vil.eb], "you will facilitate it".

Contents IPA Number 505

Related features Encoding
Phonemic vowel length Entity (decimal) ̆
In English Unicode (hex) U+0306
Contrastive vowel length
Allophonic vowel length
"Long" and "short" vowel letters in spelling and the
classroom teaching of reading
Origin
Notations in the Latin alphabet
IPA
Diacritics
Additional letters
Other signs
 No distinction
Notations in other writing systems
See also
References
External links

Related features
Stress is often reinforced by allophonic vowel length, especially when it is lexical. For example, French long
vowels are always in stressed syllables. Finnish, a language with two phonemic lengths (i.e. vowel length
changes meaning), indicates the stress by adding allophonic length, which gives four distinctive lengths and
five physical lengths: short and long stressed vowels, short and long unstressed vowels, and a half-long vowel,
which is a short vowel found in a syllable immediately preceded by a stressed short vowel: i-so.

Among the languages with distinctive vowel length, there are some in which it may occur only in stressed
syllables, such as in Alemannic German, Scottish Gaelic and Egyptian Arabic. In languages such as Czech,
Finnish, some Irish dialects and Classical Latin, vowel length is distinctive also in unstressed syllables.

In some languages, vowel length is sometimes better analyzed as a sequence of two identical vowels. In
Finnic languages, such as Finnish, the simplest example follows from consonant gradation: haka → haan. In
some cases, it is caused by a following chroneme, which is etymologically a consonant: jää "ice" ← Proto-
Uralic *jäŋe. In non-initial syllables, it is ambiguous if long vowels are vowel clusters; poems written in the
Kalevala meter often syllabicate between the vowels, and an (etymologically original) intervocalic -h- is seen
in that and some modern dialects (taivaan vs. taivahan "of the sky"). Morphological treatment of diphthongs
is essentially similar to long vowels. Some old Finnish long vowels have developed into diphthongs, but
successive layers of borrowing have introduced the same long vowels again so the diphthong and the long
vowel now again contrast (nuotti "musical note" vs. nootti "diplomatic note").

In Japanese, most long vowels are the results of the phonetic change of diphthongs; au and ou became ō, iu
became yū, eu became yō, and now ei is becoming ē. The change also occurred after the loss of intervocalic
phoneme /h/. For example, modern Kyōto (Kyoto) has undergone a shift: /kjauto/ → /kjoːto/. Another
example is shōnen (boy): /seuneɴ/ → /sjoːneɴ/ [ɕoːneɴ].

Phonemic vowel length

As noted above, only a relatively few of the world's languages make a phonemic distinction between long and
short vowels; that is, saying the word with a long vowel changes the meaning over saying the same word with
a short vowel. Examples of such languages include Arabic, Sanskrit, Japanese, Biblical Hebrew, Scottish
Gaelic, Finnish, Hungarian, etc.

In Latin and Hungarian, some long vowels are analyzed as separate phonemes from short vowels:

Latin vowels Hungarian vowels

Front Central Back Front
  Central Back
short long short long short long unrounded rounded
High /i/ /iː/   /u/ /uː/ short long short long long short long

Mid /ɛ/ /eː/   /ɔ/ /oː/ High /i/ /iː/ /y/ /yː/ /u/ /uː/
Low   /a/ /aː/   Mid /ɛ/ /eː/ /ø/ /øː/ /o/ /oː/
 Low /aː/ /ɒ/

Vowel length contrasts with more than two phonemic levels are rare, and several hypothesized cases of three-
level vowel length can be analysed without postulating this typologically unusual configuration.[2] Estonian
has three distinctive lengths, but the third is suprasegmental, as it has developed from the allophonic variation
caused by now-deleted grammatical markers. For example, half-long 'aa' in saada comes from the
agglutination *saata+ka "send+(imperative)", and the overlong 'aa' in saada comes from *saa+ta "get+
(infinitive)". As for languages that have three lengths, independent of vowel quality or syllable structure, these
include Dinka, Mixe, Yavapai and Wichita. An example from Mixe is [poʃ] "guava", [poˑʃ] "spider", [poːʃ]
"knot". In Dinka the longest vowels are three moras long, and so are best analyzed as overlong /oːː/ etc.

Four-way distinctions have been claimed, but these are actually long-short distinctions on adjacent syllables.
For example, in Kikamba, there is [ko.ko.na], [kóó.ma̋], [ko.óma̋], [nétónubáné.éetɛ̂] "hit", "dry", "bite",
"we have chosen for everyone and are still choosing".

In English

Contrastive vowel length

In many accents of English vowels contrast with each other both in length and in quality, and descriptions
differ in the relative importance given to these two features. Some descriptions of Received Pronunciation and
more widely some descriptions of English phonology group all non-diphthongal vowels into the categories
"long" and "short," convenient terms for grouping the many vowels of English.[3][4][5] Daniel Jones proposed
that phonetically similar pairs of long and short vowels could be grouped into single phonemes, distinguished
by the presence or absence of phonological length (Chroneme).[6] The usual long-short pairings for RP are /iː
+ ɪ/, /ɑː + æ/, /ɜ: + ə/, /ɔː + ɒ/, /u + ʊ/, but Jones omits /ɑː + æ/. This approach is not found in present-day
descriptions of English. Vowels show allophonic variation in length and also in other features according to the
context in which they occur. The terms tense (corresponding to long) and lax (corresponding to short) are
alternative terms that do not directly refer to length.[7]

In Australian English, there is contrastive vowel length in closed syllables between long and short /e/ and /ɐ/.
The following are minimal pairs of length:

/ˈfeɹiː/ ferry /ˈfeːɹiː/ fairy

/ˈkɐt/ cut /ˈkɐːt/ cart

Allophonic vowel length

In most varieties of English, for instance Received Pronunciation and General American, there is allophonic
variation in vowel length depending on the value of the consonant that follows it: vowels are shorter before
voiceless consonants and are longer when they come before voiced consonants.[8] Thus, the vowel in bad
/bæd/ is longer than the vowel in bat /bæt/. Also compare neat /niːt/ with need /niːd/. The vowel sound in
"beat" is generally pronounced for about 190 milliseconds, but the same vowel in "bead" lasts 350
milliseconds in normal speech, the voiced final consonant influencing vowel length.

Cockney English features short and long varieties of the closing diphthong [ɔʊ]. The short [ɔʊ] corresponds
to RP /ɔː/ in morphologically closed syllables (see thought split), whereas the long [ɔʊː] corresponds to the
non-prevocalic sequence /ɔːl/ (see l-vocalization). The following are minimal pairs of length:
 [ˈfɔʊʔ] fort/fought [ˈfɔʊːʔ] fault
[ˈpɔʊz] pause [ˈpɔʊːz] Paul's
[ˈwɔʊʔə] water [ˈwɔʊːʔə] Walter

The difference is lost in running speech, so that fault falls together with fort and fought as [ˈfɔʊʔ] or [ˈfoːʔ].
The contrast between the two diphthongs is phonetic rather than phonemic, as the /l/ can be restored in formal
speech: [ˈfoːɫt] etc., which suggests that the underlying form of [ˈfɔʊːʔ] is /ˈfoːlt/ (John Wells says that the
vowel is equally correctly transcribed with ⟨ɔʊ⟩ or ⟨oʊ⟩, not to be confused with GOAT /ʌʊ/, [ɐɤ]).
Furthermore, a vocalized word-final /l/ is often restored before a word-initial vowel, so that fall out [fɔʊl
ˈæəʔ] (cf. thaw out [fɔəɹ ˈæəʔ], with an intrusive /r/) is somewhat more likely to contain the lateral [l] than
fall [fɔʊː]. The distinction between [ɔʊ] and [ɔʊː] exists only word-internally before consonants other than
intervocalic /l/. In the morpheme-final position only [ɔʊː] occurs (with the THOUGHT vowel being realized as
[ɔə ~ ɔː ~ ɔʊə]), so that all [ɔʊː] is always distinct from or [ɔə]. Before the intervocalic /l/ [ɔʊː] is the
banned diphthong, though here either of the THOUGHT vowels can occur, depending on morphology
(compare falling [ˈfɔʊlɪn] with aweless [ˈɔəlɪs]).[9]

In cockney, the main difference between /ɪ/ and /ɪə/, /e/ and /eə/ as well as /ɒ/ and /ɔə/ is length, not quality,
so that his [ɪz], merry [ˈmɛɹɪi] and Polly [ˈpɒlɪi ~ ˈpɔlɪi] differ from here's [ɪəz ~ ɪːz], Mary [ˈmɛəɹɪi ~
ˈmɛːɹɪi] and poorly [ˈpɔəlɪi ~ ˈpɔːlɪi] (see cure-force merger) mainly in length. In broad cockney, the contrast
between /æ/ and /æʊ/ is also mainly one of length; compare hat [æʔ] with out [æəʔ ~ æːʔ] (cf. the near-RP
form [æʊʔ], with a wide closing diphthong).[9]

"Long" and "short" vowel letters in spelling and the classroom teaching of
reading

The vowel sounds (phonetic values) of what are called "long vowels" and "short vowels" (less confusing
would be "vowel letters") in the teaching of reading (and therefore in everyday English) are represented in this
table, although the descriptions "long" and "short" are not accurate from a linguistic point of view in the case
of Modern English as the vowels are not actually long and short versions of the same sound, they are different
sounds and therefore different vowels as is clearly shown by their phonetic representations in the table:

letter "short" "long" examples

a /æ/ /eɪ/ mat / mate
e /ɛ/ /iː/ pet / Pete
i /ɪ/ /aɪ/ twin / twine
o /ɒ/ /oʊ/ not / note
oo /ʊ/ /uː/ wood / wooed
u /ʌ/ /juː/ cub / cube

In English, the term "vowel" is often used to refer to vowel letters even though these often represent
combinations of vowel sounds (diphthongs), approximants, and even silence, not just single vowel sounds
(monophthongs). Most of this article covers the length of vowel sounds (not vowel letters) in English. Even
classroom materials for teaching reading use the terms "long" and "short" in referring to vowel letters, while
confusingly calling them "vowels". For example, in English spelling, vowel letters in words of the form
consonant + vowel letter + consonant (CVC) are called "short" and "long" depending on whether or not they
are followed by the letter e (CVC vs. CVCe) although those vowel letters called "long" actually represent
combinations of two different vowels (diphthongs). Thus a vowel letter is called "long" if it is pronounced the
same as the letter's name and "short" if it is not.[10] This is commonly used for educational purposes when
teaching children.
In some types of phonetic transcription (e.g. pronunciation respelling), "long" vowel letters may be marked
with a macron; for example, ⟨ā⟩ may be used to represent the IPA sound /eɪ/. This is sometimes used in
dictionaries, most notably in Merriam-Webster[11] (see Pronunciation respelling for English for more).

Similarly, the short vowel letters are rarely represented in teaching reading of English in the classroom by the
symbols ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, o͝o, and ŭ. The long vowels are more often represented by a horizontal line above the
vowel: ā, ē, ī, ō, o͞o, and ū.[12]

Origin
Vowel length may often be traced to assimilation. In Australian English, the second element [ə] of a
diphthong [eə] has assimilated to the preceding vowel, giving the pronunciation of bared as [beːd], creating a
contrast with the short vowel in bed [bed].

Another common source is the vocalization of a consonant such as the voiced velar fricative [ɣ] or voiced
palatal fricative or even an approximant, as the English 'r'. An historically-important example is the laryngeal
theory, which states that long vowels in the Indo-European languages were formed from short vowels,
followed by any one of the several "laryngeal" sounds of Proto-Indo-European (conventionally written h1 , h2
and h3 ). When a laryngeal sound followed a vowel, it was later lost in most Indo-European languages, and the
preceding vowel became long. However, Proto-Indo-European had long vowels of other origins as well,
usually as the result of older sound changes, such as Szemerényi's law and Stang's law.

Vowel length may also have arisen as an allophonic quality of a single vowel phoneme, which may have then
become split in two phonemes. For example, the Australian English phoneme /æː/ was created by the
incomplete application of a rule extending /æ/ before certain voiced consonants, a phenomenon known as the
bad–lad split. An alternative pathway to the phonemicization of allophonic vowel length is the shift of a vowel
of a formerly-different quality to become the short counterpart of a vowel pair. That too is exemplified by
Australian English, whose contrast between /a/ (as in duck) and /aː/ (as in dark) was brought about by a
lowering of the earlier /ʌ/.

Estonian, a Finnic language, has a rare phenomenon in which allophonic length variation has become
phonemic after the deletion of the suffixes causing the allophony. Estonian had already inherited two vowel
lengths from Proto-Finnic, but a third one was then introduced. For example, the Finnic imperative marker *-k
caused the preceding vowels to be articulated shorter. After the deletion of the marker, the allophonic length
became phonemic, as shown in the example above.

Notations in the Latin alphabet

IPA

In the International Phonetic Alphabet the sign ː (not a colon, but two triangles facing each other in an
hourglass shape; Unicode U+02D0) is used for both vowel and consonant length. This may be doubled for an
extra-long sound, or the top half (ˑ) may be used to indicate that a sound is "half long". A breve is used to
mark an extra-short vowel or consonant.

Estonian has a three-way phonemic contrast:

saada [saːːda] "to get" (overlong)

saada [saːda] "send!" (long)
sada [sada] "hundred" (short)

Although not phonemic, a half-long distinction can also be illustrated in certain accents of English:
 bead [biːd]
beat [biˑt]
bid [bɪˑd]
bit [bɪt]

Diacritics
Macron (ā), used to indicate a long vowel in Māori, Hawaiian, Samoan, Latvian and many
transcription schemes, including romanizations for Sanskrit and Arabic, the Hepburn
romanization for Japanese, and Yale for Korean. While not part of their standard orthography,
the macron is used as a teaching aid in modern Latin and Ancient Greek textbooks. Macron is
also used in modern official Cyrillic orthographies of some minority languages (Mansi,[13]
Kildin Sami, Evenki).
Breves (ă) are used to mark short vowels in several linguistic transcription systems, as well as
in Vietnamese and Alvarez-Hale's orthography for O'odham language.
Acute accent (á), used to indicate a long vowel in Czech, Slovak, Old Norse, Hungarian, Irish,
traditional Scottish Gaelic (for long [oː] ó, [eː] é, as opposed to [ɛː] è, [ɔː] ò) and pre-20th-
century transcriptions of Sanskrit, Arabic, etc.
Circumflex (â), used for example in Welsh. The circumflex is occasionally used as a surrogate
for the macrons, particularly in Hawaiian and in the Kunrei-shiki romanization of Japanese, or
in transcriptions of Old High German. In transcriptions of Middle High German, a system where
inherited lengths are marked with the circumflex and new lengths with the macron is
occasionally used.
Grave accent (à) is used in Scottish Gaelic, with a e i o u. (In traditional spelling, [ɛː] is è and
[ɔː] is ò as in gnè, pòcaid, Mòr (personal name), while [eː] is é and [oː] is ó, as in dé, mór.)
Ogonek (ą), used in Lithuanian to indicate long vowels.
Trema (ä), used in Aymara to indicate long vowels.

Additional letters
Vowel doubling, used consistently in Estonian, Finnish, Somali, Lombard and in closed
syllables in Dutch, Afrikaans, and West Frisian. Example: Finnish tuuli /ˈtuːli/ 'wind' vs. tuli /ˈtuli/
'fire'.
Estonian also has a rare "overlong" vowel length but does not distinguish it from the normal
long vowel in writing, as they are distinguishable by context; see the example below.
Consonant doubling after short vowels is very common in Swedish and other Germanic
languages, including English. The system is somewhat inconsistent, especially in loanwords,
around consonant clusters and with word-final nasal consonants. Examples:

Consistent use: byta /²byːta/ 'to change' vs bytta /²bʏtːa/ 'tub' and koma /²koːma/ 'coma' vs
komma /²kɔma/ 'to come'
Inconsistent use: fält /ˈfɛlt/ 'a field' and kam /ˈkamː/ 'a comb' (but the verb 'to comb' is kamma)

Classical Milanese orthography uses consonant doubling in closed short syllables, e.g.,
lenguagg 'language' and pubblegh 'public'.[14]
ie is used to mark the long /iː/ sound in German because of the preservation and the
generalization of a historic ie spelling, which originally represented the sound /iə̯/. In Low
German, a following e letter lengthens other vowels as well, e.g., in the name Kues /kuːs/.
A following h is frequently used in German and older Swedish spelling, e.g., German Zahn
[tsaːn] 'tooth'.
 In Czech, the additional letter ů is used for the long U sound, and the character is known as a
kroužek, e.g., kůň "horse". (It actually developed from the ligature "uo", which noted the
diphthong /uo/ until it shifted to /uː/.)

Other signs
Colon, ⟨꞉⟩, from Americanist phonetic notation, and used in orthographies based on it such as
Oʼodham, Mohawk or Seneca. The triangular colon ⟨ː⟩ in the International Phonetic Alphabet
derives from this.
Middot or half-colon, ⟨ꞏ⟩, a more common variant in the Americanist tradition, also used in
language orthographies.
Saltillo (straight apostrophe), used in Miꞌkmaq, as evidenced by the name itself. This is the
convention of the Listuguj orthography (Miꞌgmaq), and a common substitution for the acute
accent (Míkmaq) of the Francis-Smith orthography.

No distinction

Some languages make no distinction in writing. This is particularly the case with ancient languages such as
Latin and Old English. Modern edited texts often use macrons with long vowels, however. Australian English
does not distinguish the vowels /æ/ from /æː/ in spelling, with words like 'span' or 'can' having different
pronunciations depending on meaning.

Notations in other writing systems

In non-Latin writing systems, a variety of mechanisms have also evolved.

In abjads derived from the Aramaic alphabet, notably Arabic and Hebrew, long vowels are
written with consonant letters (mostly approximant consonant letters) in a process called mater
lectionis e.g. in Modern Arabic the long vowel /aː/ is represented by the letter ‫( ا‬Alif), the vowels
/uː/ and /oː/ are represented by ‫( و‬wāw), and the vowels /iː/ and /eː/ are represented by ‫( ي‬yāʼ),
while short vowels are typically omitted entirely. Most of these scripts also have optional
diacritics that can be used to mark short vowels when needed.
In South-Asian abugidas, such as Devanagari or the Thai alphabet, there are different vowel
signs for short and long vowels.
Ancient Greek also had distinct vowel signs, but only for some long vowels; the vowel letters η
(eta) and ω (omega) originally represented long forms of the vowels represented by the letters
ε (epsilon, literally "bare e") and ο (omicron – literally "small o", by contrast with omega or
"large o"). The other vowel letters of Ancient Greek, α (alpha), ι (iota) and υ (upsilon), could
represent either short or long vowel phones.
In the Japanese hiragana syllabary, long vowels are usually indicated by adding a vowel
character after. For vowels /aː/, /iː/, and /uː/, the corresponding independent vowel is added.
あ おかあさん
Thus: (a), い にいがた
, "okaasan", mother; (i), "Niigata", city in northern Japan
(usually 新潟 う りゅう
, in kanji); (u), 竜
"ryuu" (usu. ), dragon. The mid-vowels /eː/ and /oː/ may
be written with え ねえさん 姉さん
(e) (rare) ( ( お おおきい
), neesan, "elder sister") and (o) [ (usu
大きい), ookii, big], or with い (i) (めいれい (命令), "meirei", command/order) and う (u) (おうさ
ま (王様), ousama, "king") depending on etymological, morphological, and historic grounds.
Most long vowels in the katakana syllabary are written with a special bar symbol ー
(vertical in vertical writing), called a chōon, as in メーカー mēkā "maker" instead of メカ
 meka "mecha". However, some long vowels are written with additional vowel characters,
as with hiragana, with the distinction being orthographically significant.
In the Korean Hangul alphabet, vowel length is not distinguished in normal writing. Some
무
dictionaries use a double dot, ⟨:⟩, for example : "Daikon radish".
In the Classic Maya script, also based on syllabic characters, long vowels in monosyllabic
roots were generally written with word-final syllabic signs ending in the vowel -i rather than an
echo-vowel. Hence, chaach "basket", with a long vowel, was written as cha-chi (compare chan
"sky", with a short vowel, written as cha-na). If the nucleus of the syllable was itself i, however,
the word-final vowel for indicating length was -a: tziik- "to count; to honour, to sanctify" was
written as tzi-ka (compare sitz' "appetite", written as si-tz'i).

See also
Gemination
Length (phonetics)

References
1. Liddell, H. G., and R. Scott (1996). A Greek-English Lexicon (revised 9th ed. with supplement).
Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.1
2. Odden, David (2011). The Representation of Vowel Length. In Marc van Oostendorp, Colin J.
Ewen, Elizabeth Hume, & Keren Rice (eds.) The Blackwell Companion to Phonology. Wiley-
Blackwell, 465-490.
3. Wells, John C (1982). Accents of English. Cambridge University Press. p. 119.
4. Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (2011). The Cambridge English
Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge. p. vii. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
5. Wells, J.C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. p. xxiii.
6. Jones, Daniel (1967). An Outline of English Phonetics (9th ed.). Heffer. p. 63.
7. Giegerich, H. (1992). English phonology: an introduction. Cambridge. p. para 3.3.
8. Kluender, Keith; Diehl, Randy; Wright, Beverly (1988). Vowel-length Differences Before Voiced
and Voiceless Consonants: An Auditory Explanation. Journal of Phonetics. p. 153.
9. Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Volume 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466).
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52128540-2.
10. "Part 3: Reading: Foundational Skills" (https://www.mheonline.com/ccssehandbook/grade2/ccs
lh_g2_fs_3_1a_l1.html). www.mheonline.com. McGraw-Hill Education. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
11. "Guide to Pronunciation" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/assets/mw/static/pdf/help/guide-to-
pronunciation.pdf) (PDF). Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2018-10-18.
12. "Short Vowels and Long Vowels Lesson Plan" (https://www.actionfactor.com/pages/lesson-pla
ns/v1.05-short-and-long-vowels.html#:~:text=The%20short%20vowels%20can%20represente
d,%2C%20%C4%AB%2C%20%C5%8D%2C%20%C5%AB.).
13. "OB-UGRIC LANGUAGES: CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURES, LEXICON, CONSTRUCTIONS,
CATEGORIES TRANSLITERATION TABLES FOR NORTHERN MANSI : Counterparts of
Cyrillic, FUT Counterparts of Cyrillic, FUT Cyrillic, FUT and IPA characters and IPA characters
and IPA characters for Northern Mansi" (http://www.babel.gwi.uni-muenchen.de/media/downlo
ads/grammar/NorthernMansi/Phonology/Northern-Mansi_Phonemes_unified.pdf) (PDF).
Babel.gwi.uni-muenchen.de. Retrieved 30 May 2018.
14. Carlo Porta on the Italian Wikisource

External links
 Some Features of the Vernacular Finnish of Jyväskylä (https://web.archive.org/web/200511250
44824/http://www.cc.jyu.fi/~tojan/rlang/finn2.htm)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vowel_length&oldid=1069538802"

This page was last edited on 2 February 2022, at 20:17 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.