Paper-II

Chapter- Damped vibration

Free vibrations:

When a body continues to oscillate with its own characteristics frequency. Such
oscillations are known as free or natural vibrations of the body. Ideally, the body
vibrates with its natural frequency for an indefinite time with a constant amplitude.

Damped vibrations:

In practice, the amplitude of vibrations decays with time and finally the body
comes to rest at its mean position. So, we may conclude that there is a damping
force on the vibrating body and this may be due to viscosity of the medium or other
frictional forces. Such vibrations of decaying amplitude are referred to as resisted or
damped vibrations.

The motion of a simple pendulum is an example of a damped simple harmonic

motion, because the amplitude gradually decreases with time and the bob finally
comes to rest.

Analytical treatment of damped vibrations:

Let x be the displacement of a particle of mass m performing a damped motion

from its initial position of rest. The following forces act on the body.

(i) Restoring force (F1 ):

The restoring force (F1 ) is proportional to the displacement x and tends to bring
the particle back to its initial position. i.e.

F1 ∝ x

1
 F1 = −sx (1)
where s is called the stiffness constant.

(ii) Retarding or resisting force (F2 ):

This force is caused by friction. This force is proportional to the instantaneous

velocity of the particle.
F2 ∝ v
dx
F1 = −kv = −k (2)
dt
where k is the restoring force per unit velocity. The -ve sign indicates that the force
opposes the motion. The system is subjected to viscous friction.

So, the net force acting on the bob is

F = F1 + F2
dx
F = −sx − k (3)
dt
From Newton’s 2nd law of motion, we get
d2 x
F =m (4)
dt2
So, from (3) we get
d2 x dx
m 2 = −sx − k
dt dt
2
dx s k dx
2
=− x−
dt m m dt
2
dx k dx s
2
+ + x=0
dt m dt m
2
dx dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = 0 (5)
dt dt
k
where 2b = m and ω 2 = ms .
This is the differential equation of damped harmonic motion. Let auxiliary solution
of the equation (5) is
x = Aemt

2
So we get from (5)
m2 + 2bm + ω 2 = 0
√
m = −b ± b2 − ω 2

So, we can write

√
m1 = −b + b2 − ω 2
√
m2 = −b − b2 − ω 2

So, the solution of (4) is

x = A1 em1 t + A2 em2 t
√ √
b2 −ω 2 )t b2 −ω 2 )t
x = A1 e(−b+ + A2 e(−b−
!
√ √
−bt b2 −ω 2 t − b2 −ω 2 t
x=e A1 e + A2 e
!
√ √
−bt b2 −ω 2 t − b2 −ω 2 t
x=e A1 e + A2 e
!
√ √
−bt b2 −ω 2 t − b2 −ω 2 t
x=e A1 e + A2 e (6)

Where A1 and A2 are constant to be determined from the initial condition. Let
√
b0 = b2 − ω 2 . From (6) we get
!
−bt b0 t −b0 t
q=e A1 e + A2 e (7)

Case I: Over damped motion (b > ω0 ):

When damping is very large, i.e. b > ω0 Now, at t = 0, x = x0 , from (7) we get

x0 = A1 + A2

A1 + A2 = x0 (8)
dx
At t = 0, dt
= v0 , from (7) we get
!! !!
dx 0 0 b0 t −b0 t
= be−bt A1 eb t + A2 e−b t + e−bt b0 A1 e − b0 A2 e
dt t=0 t=0

3
 v0 = −b(A1 + A2 ) + (b0 A1 − b0 A2 )
v0 = −bx0 + b0 (A1 − A2 )
x0 b + v0
A1 − A2 = (9)
b0
Solving (8) and (9), we get
x0
 b + xv00  x0  b + xv00 
A1 = 1+ = 1+ √
2 b0 2 b2 − ω 2
x0
 b + xv00  x0  b + xv00 
A2 = 1− = 1 − √
2 b0 2 b2 − ω 2
So, we get the final solution
b + xv00  √b2 −ω2 t  b + xv00  −√b2 −ω2 t
!
x0 −bt

x= e 1+ √ 2 e + 1− √ 2 e (10)
2 b − ω2 b − ω2
1 −bt
 b + xv00  √b2 −ω2 t  b + xv00  −√b2 −ω2 t
x = x0 e 1+ √ 2 e + 1− √ 2 e (11)
2 b − ω2 b − ω2
The variation of x with time t is shown in fig.

The motion of the particle is clearly aperiodic. The displacement falls off and
asymptotically approaches zero with increasing time. This is the over damped motion
and is exhibited by a pendulum moving in a highly viscous liquid or by an aperiodic
moving coil galvanometer.

Case II: For b q

<ω
√ √
then b2 − ω 2 = −(ω 2 − b2 ) = j ω 2 − b2 = jω 0 . From (7) we get
b + xv00  jω0 t  b + xv00  −jω0 t
!
1 −bt

x = x0 e 1+ e + 1 − e
2 jω 0 jω 0

4
 e−bt b + xv00  jω0 t
   !!
jω 0 t −jω 0 t −jω 0 t
x = x0 e +e + e −e
2 jω 0
 jω0 t 0 
+ e−jω t b + xv00  ejω0 t − e−jω0 t 
!!
−bt e
x = x0 e +
2 ω0 2j
b + xv00
  !
−bt 0 0
x = x0 e cosω t + sinω t (12)
ω0
v
b+ x0
Let AcosΘ = 1 and AsinΘ = ω0
0
, So
 2
v0
b2 b+ x0
A2 = 1 + = 1 +
ω 02 ω 2 − b2
and
−1
b + xv00
Θ = tan √
ω 2 − b2
So we get from (12)
 
−bt 0 0
x = x0 e A cosω tcosΘ + sinΘsinω t
√ 
−bt
x = x0 Ae cos ω2 − b2 t −Θ
√ 
−bt
x = Re cos ω2 − b2 t −Θ (13)

where
q
R = x0 A Eq.(13) shows that the motion is oscillatory with an angular frequency
ω = ω02 − b2 and an amplitude Re−bt . Since the amplitude decays exponentially with
time, the motion is damped oscillatory. The variation of x with time t is shown in
fig.

Here, the oscillations soon die down as the amplitude is proportional to e−bt .

5
 If the particle is initially displaced to x0 and then released, v0 = 0.,Then
ω0
A= q
ω02 − b2

So we get √
x0 ω0

−bt 0
x= q e cos ω2 − b2 t −Θ
ω02 − b2
b
Θ0 = tan−1 √
ω2 − b2

Case II: Critical damping (b → ω0 )

√
Let b → ω0 , so we take ω 2 − b2 = δ. So we get from (11)

x0
 b + xv00  √b2 −ω2 t  b + xv00  −√b2 −ω2 t
x = e−bt 1+ √ e + 1− √ e
2 b2 − ω 2 b2 − ω 2

x0 −bt
 b + v0   b + v0 
x= e 1 + √ 2 x0 2 (1 + δt) + 1 − √ 2 x0 2 (1 − δt)
2 b −ω b −ω
 !
v0

−bt
x = x0 e 1+ b+ t
x0
This shows that the motion is aperiodic, but x approaches zero quicker than the over
damped case. The motion is now said to be critically damped, the variation of x with
t being displayed by fig.

Q. Derive the differential equation of damped motion from consideration of the

energy of the system.

We have kinetic energy of the system

2
1 dx

EK.E. = m
2 dt
and the potential energy
1
EP.E. = sx2
2

6
Let the particle be described an element of displacement δx, then the loss of ki-
netic and potential energy of the particle will be equal to the work done against the
frictional force. Hence
dx
 
−δ EK.E. + EP.E. = dw = k δx
dt
2
1 dx 1 dx
  
−δ m + sx2 = k δx
2 dt 2 dt
dx d2 x
!
dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = 0
dt dt dt
dx
But dt
6= 0 for all values of t. Hence,

d2 x dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = 0
dt dt

Forced Vibration:

A vibrating system gradually loses its amplitude since energy is dissipated due to
frictional forces. To maintain the system in vibration, energy must be supplied from
outside. If an external periodic force is applied to the vibrating system, the system
tends to vibrate with its own natural frequency. But the applied driving force tries
to impress its own frequency on the vibrating system. Initially, the system vibrates
with both the frequencies. The natural vibrations die out in course of time due to
the prevailing resisting forces and the system finally in the steady state, vibrates with
the frequency of the driving force with a constant amplitude.
Such vibration where the system oscillates with a frequency the same as that of an
externally impressed periodic force is known as the forced vibration of the system.

Analytical treatment of forced vibration:

Let a particle of mass m, capable of executing a damped simple harmonic mo-

tion, be subjected to an external simple harmonic forced of constant amplitude and
frequency. Let x is the displacement of the particle from its mean position at time t.

7
The forces acting on the particle are the following:

(i) The restoring force Fs = −sx tending to bring the particle back to its mean
position, s being the stiffness factor.

(ii) The resisting force Fr = −k dx

dt
, k being the resisting force per unit velocity.

(iii) The driving periodic force Fd = F cosωt, where F is the amplitude and ω is
the angular frequency of the force.

The net force in the +ve x-direction is

F = Fd + Fr + Fs
dx
F = F cosωt − k − sx
dt
From Newton’s laws of motion, we get

d2 x dx
m 2
= F cosωt − k − sx
dt dt
d2 x F k dx s
2
= cosωt − − x
dt m m dt m
2
dx dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = f cosωt (1)
dt dt
F
where 2b = k/m and ω02 = s/m and f = m . The quantity ω0 is the undamped natural
angular frequency of the particle and b is the decay constant.

For the natural motion of the particle, the differential equation is

d2 x dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = 0
dt dt
So the complementary function is
√ 
−bt
x1 = Re cos ω2 − b2 t −Θ (2)

8
where R and Θ are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial conditions.

Let xr is the displacement for the driving force F cosωt. So the equation of motion
for this case
d2 x dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = f cosωt (3)
dt dt
If xi is the displacement for the driving force F sinωt. So the equation of motion for
this case
d2 x dx
2
+ 2b + ω02 x = f cosωt (4)
dt dt
√
Multiplying (4) by i( −1) and adding (3), we get Let xr is the displacement for the
driving force F cosωt. So the equation of motion for this case

d2 (xr + ixi ) d(xr + ixi )

2
+ 2b + ω02 (xr + ixi ) = f cosωt + if sinωt
dt dt
d2 X dX
2
+ 2b + ω02 X = f eωt (5)
dt dt
where X = xr + ixi . Let the particular integral of (5)

X = X0 eiωt

where X0 is a complex quantity. Substituting in (5), we get

!
2
X0 − ω + 2ibω + ω02 eiωt = f eiωt

f
X0 =
(ω02 − ω 2 ) + i(2bω)
 
f (ω02 2
− ω ) − i(2bω)
X0 = (6)
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (2bω)2
Let
acosφ = ω02 − ω 2

and
asinφ = 2bω

9
Hence, q
a= (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2

and
2bω
tanφ =
(ω02 − ω2)
From (6) we get]  
f acosφ − iasinφ)
X0 =
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
 
f a cosφ − isinφ)
X0 =
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
f e−iφ
X0 = q
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
So, the solution
X = X0 eiωt
f e−iφ
X=q eiωt
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
f
X=q ei(ωt−φ)
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
f
 
xr + ixi = q cos(ωt − φ) + isin(ωt − φ)
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
So for the driving force for F cosωt, the particular integral is
f
xr = q cos(ωt − φ)
(ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2

F
xr = q cos(ωt − φ)
m (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + 4b2 ω 2
F
xr = q cos(ωt − φ)
(mω02 − mω 2 )2 + 4b2 m2 ω 2
F
xr = q cos(ωt − φ)
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2

10
Similarly, for the driving force F sinωt, we get
F
xi = q sin(ωt − φ)
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2

So, the general solution

x = x1 + xr
√
F

−bt
x = Re cos ω2 − b2 t −Θ + q cos(ωt − φ)
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2
The first term on the right hand side gives the natural damped simple harmonic
motion of a particle. The second term gives the forced vibration. Initially, both the
terms are operative and their superposition gives an irregular motion. After a few
time constants, the natural vibration dies out since its amplitude falls off exponentially
with time with the decay constant b. Thus, finally only the forced vibration given by
the second term persists. This is the steady state motion. SO, in steady state
F
x= q cos(ωt − φ)
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2

Amplitude or displacement resonance:

When the displacement amplitude is a maximum for some frequency of the driver,
we have the phenomenon of amplitude or displacement resonance.
We have at the steady-state displacement amplitude of forced vibration as

F
A= q (1)
k 2 ω 2 + (mω 2 − s)2
The amplitude A is maximum for that value of ω for which the denominator on the
right-hand side of (1) is a minimum. So, we get

k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2 = minimum
!
d
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2 = 0
dω

11
 2k 2 ω + 4(mω 2 − s)ωm = 0

k 2 + 2(mω 2 − s)m = 0
s k2
ω2 = −
m 2m2
ω 2 = ω02 − 2b2

Substituting the value of ω 2 in (1), we get the maximum displacement amplitude

F/m
Am = q
2b (ω02 − b2 )

The variation of the displacement amplitude with the angular frequency of the driver
different values of the decay constant is shown in fig.

Velocity resonance:

When the velocity amplitude attains a maximum for a certain frequency of the
driving force, we have velocity resonance.

If the forcing function is F cosωt, the steady-state displacement

F
x= q sin(ωt − φ)
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2

So, the velocity

dx Fω
v= =q cos(ωt − φ)
dt k 2 + (mω 2 − ωs )2

12
 s
when ωm − ω
= 0, then v attains its maximum value

F
vm =
k
Hence velocity resonance occurs when
s
ωm − =0
ω
s
ωm =
ω
ω = ω0

i.e. when the forcing frequency equals the undamped natural frequency of the forced
system. Plot of the velocity amplitude of the forcing system versus angular frequency
of the driver for differen values of the decay constant is shown in fig.

Power relations in Forced vibration:

We have work done

W = (F cosωt)dx

In the steady state, the power of the driver in forced vibration is

dx
P = (F cosωt)
dt
F 2ω
F =q cosωtcos(ωt − φ)
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2
F 2ω
 
2
F =q cos ωtcosφ + sinωtcosωtsinφ
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2
F 2ω 1
 
P =q cos2 ωtcosφ + sin2ωtsinφ
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2 2

The average power over a complete cycle is

1ZT
Pav = P dt
T 0

13
 1ZT F 2ω 1
 
2
Pav = q cos ωtcosφ + sin2ωtsinφ dt
T 0 k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2 2

1 F 2ω T
 
Pav = q cosφ + 0
T k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2 2

1 F 2ω
Pav = q cosφ
2 k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2

Again
k
cosφ = q
k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2
So, average power
F 2 ωk

Pav = 
2 k 2 ω 2 + (s − mω 2 )2

q
At resonance we have k 2 + (s − mω 2 )2 = k. So the average power at resonance

F2
(Pav )res =
2k

Sharpness of resonance: We have average power

F 2k
Pav =  2 ! (1)
s
2 k2 + mω − ω

q
s
At resonance i.e. at ω = ω0 = m

F2
(Pav )max =
2k
If Pav is plotted against ω, clearly, Pav will attain its maximum value. and will fall
off on either side of this frequency as shown in fig.

14
 Hence, resonance is sharp when damping (k) is small.

For large damping, the resonance is broad or flat which is shown in fig.

The sharpness of resonance gives the rapidity with which the average power Pav
drops off as ω differs from its value at resonance. Hence, higher sharpness of resonance
is for low damping.

Average power at resonance

F2
(Pav )res = (2)
2k
Dividing (1) and (2), we get
Pav k2
! =  2 !
s
Pav k 2 + mω − ω
res

Pav k2
! =  
s 2
Pav k2 + (mω − ω
)
res
Pav k2
! =  2 !
ω02
Pav k2 + m2 ω− ω
res
Pav 4b2
! =  2 
ω ω02
Pav 4b2 + ω02 ω0
− ω
res

15
 Pav 4b2
! =  
Pav 4b2 + ω02 ∆2
res
ω ω0
where ∆ = ω0
− ω
.

At ω = ω0 , i.e. at ∆ = 0,
Pav
! =1
Pav
res
Bellow or above resonance
∆ 6= 0

and
Pav
! <1
Pav
res

The sharpness of resonance is quantitatively defined as the reciprocal of |∆| at which

Pav 1
! =
2
Pav
res

The above fig. shows that for a given value of k or b, there are two values of ω,
namely, ω1 and ω2 for which the average power of Pav is half its value at resonance.
These frequencies are called the half-power frequencies. At the half-power frequencies,

16
we get
Pav 4b2
! = 
Pav 4b2 + ω02 ∆2
res

1 4b2
= 
2 4b2 + ω02 ∆2

ω02 ∆2 = 4b2

ω0 ∆ = ±2b

This gives the sharpness of resonance as

1 ω0
Sr = =
|∆| 2b

ω02
ω− = ±2b
ω
ω 2 ∓ 2bω − ω02 = 0

So, two half-power frequencies are

q
ω1 = b2 + ω02 − b

and q
ω2 = b2 + ω02 + b

So, we get
ω2 − ω1 = 2b

Hence, the sharpness of resonance

1 ω0 ω0
Sr = = =
|∆| 2b ω2 − ω1
Again q q 
ω1 ω2 = b2 + ω02 −b b2 + ω02 −b
 
2
ω1 ω2 = b + ω02 − b2

ω1 ω2 = ω02

17
 Doppler Effect:

The pitch of a note i.e. its frequency as perceived by a listener, appears to change
when there is a relative motion between the source of sound and the listener. The
apparent inequality between the emitted and the perceived frequencies is referred to
as Doppler effect.

(i) Source moving, observer at rest:

Let O be the observer at rest. S be the source moving with a velocity Vs along
SO. The waves of frequency n propagate towards the observer with a velocity V , if
the source is stationary.

So, the original wavelength of sound

V
λ=
n
Now, in t = 1 sec the wave travels the distance

SO = V t = V

Let the source S moves to S’ in t = 1 sec.,

SS 0 = Vs t = Vs

So, the waves of n frequency will occupy the distance in t = 1 sec

S 0 O = V − Vs

18
So, the changed wavelength
S 0O V − Vs
λ0 = =
n n
As the velocity of sound remain constant, the apparent frequency of the note is
V V
n0 = 0
= n (1)
λ V − Vs
Hence, the apparent change in frequency
!
V

0
n −n= −1 n
V − Vs

Vs
n0 − n = n
V − Vs
So, the fractional change in frequency

n0 − n Vs
=
n V − Vs
Case I: If the source moves away from the observer, Vs is -ve, so apparent frequency
of the note
V
n0 = n
V + Vs
Case II: When the wind blows with velocity Vw in the direction of sound, the sound
velocity is increased to V + Vw . So, we get the apparent frequency from (1)

V + Vw
n0 = n
V + Vw − Vs
Case II: When the wind blows with velocity Vw in the opposite direction of sound,
the sound velocity is decreased to V − Vw . So, we get the apparent frequency from
(1)
V − Vw
n0 = n
V − Vw − Vs

II. Observer moving, source at rest:

Let the observer O moves with velocity VO away from the source.

19
 If the observer is at rest, then the waves crossing O in t = 1 sec would occupy a
length OA = V . So, the original wavelength of sound
OA V
λ= =
n n
Now, in t = 1 sec the observer moves to O’. Hence

OO0 = V0

So, in t = 1 sec. the observer receives the waves occupying the length

O0 A = V − VO

So, the apparent frequency of the note is

V − VO V − VO
n0 = = n (2)
λ V

Case I: If the observer approaches the source, VO is -ve, so apparent frequency of

the note
V + VO
n0 = n
V
Case II: When the wind blows with velocity Vw in the direction of sound, the sound
velocity is increased to V + Vw . So, we get the apparent frequency from (1)
V + Vw − VO
n0 = n
V + Vw
Case II: When the wind blows with velocity Vw in the opposite direction of sound,
the sound velocity is decreased to V − Vw . So, we get the apparent frequency from
(1)
V − Vw − VO
n0 = n
V − Vw

(III) Both source and observer moving:

When the observer is at rest and the source moves, the apparent frequency is
V
n1 = n (1)
V − Vs

20
When the source of emitting frequency n1 is stationary, but the observer is moving
towards the source, the apparent frequency is
V + VO
n0 = n1 (2)
V
V + VO
n0 = n (3)
V − Vs

Case I: When the wind blows with velocity Vw in the direction of sound, the sound
velocity is increased to V + Vw . So, we get the apparent frequency from (3)

V + Vw + VO
n0 = n (4)
V + Vw − Vs

21