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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND THE SCHOOL-TO-PRISON PIPELINE

Classroom Management's Effect on the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Alexander W. LaForest

School of EDD: Administration and Supervision: Educational Leadership, Liberty University

EDUC701: Advanced Learning Theory and Research

Dr. Ellen Black

March 4, 2022

Author Note

Alexander W. LaForest

I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Alexander LaForest.

Email: alaforest@liberty.edu
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Abstract

Examining literature related to classroom management and the school-to-prison pipeline

this paper seeks to find if there is a connection between management style and discipline rates.

Findings from the research conducted revealed a connection between stricter classrooms and an

increase in disciplinary actions. Classrooms that utilized an authoritative management style

observed better student engagement and relationships. Practices that aligned with effective and

exemplary classroom management styles were trauma-informed practices as well as practices

that sought to decriminalize students. While ample research was performed to identify effective

practices and their effects on the classroom environment and lack of suspensions, research is

lacking that strives to show the improvement between before and after implementation of

exemplary practices. This study helps to establish a future understanding of where research

should go.

Keywords: classroom management, school-to-prison pipeline, authoritarian, authoritative,

laissez-faire, permissive, indulgent, indifferent

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The school-to-prison pipeline is a systemic issue in education. This verbiage is

commonly associated with the track that many adolescents find themselves in that funnel them

from an academic setting into the juvenile and criminal justice system. Public education should

provide opportunities for adolescents that set them up for success whether in college or career.

However, Stacy Dutil (2020) writes that, “public education in the United States can be viewed

similarly to the criminal justice system, disproportionately affecting students of color through the

use of exclusionary discipline policies and practices” (p. 172). With these correlations between

the two arenas, finding success and support has become increasingly difficult for students of

color in an academic setting. The disparity between home culture and school content is widening

and is perpetuating an educational gap. In order to provide students of all backgrounds the

opportunity for success the disparity must be alleviated.

Most classrooms have a diverse spectrum of students. However, several policies have

inherently contributed to the diminishing of student individuality and needs. One of these

policies being No Child Left Behind in 2001. Winn and Behizadeh (2011) wrote, “No Child Left

Behind (NCLB) and the testing culture induced by this policy of education assume homogeneous

students” (p. 151–152). Treating all students as if they are the same, strips students of their

cultural identity, as well as individual academic needs. The array of students, from those that

need additional support to our gifted and talented, are being condensed into one group where

neither are being effectively acknowledged. Several years later in 2009, the introduction of

Common Core State Standards sought to provide a solution to the expanding knowledge gap.

Henry and Stahl (2017) proposed that, “In a nation that regularly launches grand plans to reform

education…we must ask whether another top-down scheme [Common Core] will serve the U.S.

college-going-population” (p. 615). This continual pattern of top-down reform has failed to
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improve the problem. In 2015, Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) aspired to give schools more

liberty in defining academic success. Kostyo, Cardichon, and Darling-Hammond (2018) write:

Along with measures of academic achievement (student performance on state

assessments in English language arts and mathematics, which may include growth in

proficiency), graduation rates, and English language proficiency, ESSA requires states to

include at least one indicator of school quality or student success. (p. 1)

While the inclusion of school quality and student success by the ESSA provides the opportunity

to examine school wide growth through a different perspective; mandating most of the school

success to be based on a faulted system of Common Core based standards neglects to lessen the

disparity that minority students face in the classroom.

The school-to-prison pipeline creates an unfavorable educational environment for many

minority students. Bacher-Hicks, Billings, and Deming (2017) write, “being assigned to a school

that makes heavy use of suspensions increases the number of days students are suspended and

their probability of being incarcerated as adults. These effects are largest for Black and Hispanic

students” (p. 57). A classroom should offer a safe environment for all students. Whilst classroom

and student issues should be dealt with, Schunk (2019) offers that, “Punishment suppresses

responses, but they are not forgotten. Punishment is not an effective means of altering behavior

because it does not teach students correct behaviors but rather informs them of what not to do”

(p. 82). Many studies have worked towards lessening the achievement gap, specifically focusing

on minority students, but the research behind patterns of misbehavior and forms of resolve is

lacking.

In recent years there has been a push for Restorative and Trauma-Informed Practices.

Dutil (2020) writes, “A requirement of trauma-informed school settings is that the disciplinary
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policies and practices meet the needs of all students” (p. 177). The key phrase is all students.

Restorative Practices, Trauma-Informed Practices, and Critical Race Theory all work in tandem.

These initiatives can be put into place by having conversations with students to foster trust

between all stakeholders in the classroom. Smith, Frey, and Fisher (2018) offer that, “Restorative

practices provide a framework for building trust and rescuing trust when it has been lost” (p. 76).

This mindset of building and re-establishing trust plays into B. F. Skinner’s theories of

reinforcement within operant conditioning (Schunk, 2019). As teachers, our job is to help our

students learn content as well as appropriate societal behaviors. Through restorative practices we

can utilize positive and negative reinforcement to teach our students to self-regulate and manage

their own behaviors. Restorative practices need to be implemented between all stakeholders

within the school, with clear communicated expectations to both the violator and victim.

The research conducted in this paper will work to analyze how the school-to-prison

pipeline has been addressed. A multitude of studies on the school-to-prison pipeline have been

conducted, working to understand the common trends and patterns that cause the spike in

dropout and criminalization rates of minority students. Additionally, an examination of how a

constructivist mindset towards classroom management has impacted the learning environment.

Research conducted to determine whether there is improvement in classroom performance and

flow based upon principles of a constructivist theory tied to restorative practices will be

examined. The driving force for this paper is to determine what impact does classroom

management style have on the school-to-prison-pipeline?

Related Literature

Styles of Classroom Management

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Past studies have focused on the varying styles for classroom management. A reoccurring

theme appearing has been the four commonly noted styles of, Authoritarian, Authoritative,

Permissive/Laissez-faire, and Indifferent (Adedigba & Sulaiman, 2020). The same breakdown

has been noted by Debbag and Fidan (2020) as well. Throughout both studies, the authors have

identified discrepancies in the management styles of teachers and how there has been an impact

on student engagement and responsiveness. Teachers who have implemented more of an

authoritative approach have seen an increase in student participation and enjoyment from the

classroom environment. Milner et. al (2018) has pushed this conversation on the need for stricter

management styles, pondering if an authoritarian approach is required. Researchers have noted

that an authoritarian approach to management tends to cause more issues when building a

classroom rapport. A reoccurring trend of control is prevalent, where teachers fight to control

students within a strict bound of what is allowed and what is not. Badamas (2021) proposes that

teacher personality could be an indicator regarding management style, suggesting that those who

are resistant to change will approach management from more of an authoritarian lens. This

notion of likeliness to change has been prevalent regarding how teachers handle classroom

issues. As teachers change how their teaching to best suit their students, they need to maintain

structures, but also permit students some semblance of freedom. This has led to researchers to

identify the authoritative style as the one with the best results, however an authoritarian or

permissive may be needed for certain situations.

Indicators of the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Research surrounding the school-to-prison pipeline has continually sought out indicators

as to determine why minority students are over-represented by disciplinary measures, as well as

how alleviate this issue.

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Restorative Practices

Studies conducted by Delale-O’Connor et. al (2017) have shown that a disconnect

between home and classroom culture is a common indicator of classroom issues. This finding is

corroborated by Fenning and Rose (2007), who also found a dissonance between home and

school to be a marker of disruptions. While typical classroom disturbances are a normal issue to

overcome, they tend to exacerbate in some instances. Zoromski et. al (2021) note how a teacher’s

inappropriate response to classroom disruptions is not only common but tends to make the issue

worse. Most inappropriate responses from teachers stem from unclear directives, and not

knowing the background cultures and trauma of their students. This inevitably contributes to the

issue of the school-to-prison pipeline. However, connections made between management and

disciplinary measures has sparked initiatives to revise teaching practices. Basile (2021) has

proposed the utilization of decriminalization practices in the classroom when working with

disruptive students. This connects to Dutil (2020) and her push for trauma-informed practices in

the classroom. Fenning and Rose (2007), Delale-O’Connor et. al (2017), and Debbag and Fidan

(2020) have all noted the inclusion or the need for restorative and trauma-informed practices

Hambacher (2018) identifies that with effective implementation of said practices can result in a

positive classroom climate and a lower disciplinary rate.

Learning Theory Association

The academic world has become a melting-pot of education theories and practices;

however, behaviorism has played a major role in education since the early 1900s. The act of

retooling behaviors and conditioning proper responses has been ingrained in teacher practices.

Schunk (2019) writes that, “punishment suppresses a response but does not eliminate it; when

the threat of a punishment is removed, the punished response may return…punishment also
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conditions responses that lead one to escape or avoid punishment” (p. 99). The notion of

punishment is not foreign to education, whether corporal punishment, suspension, or expulsion.

Barbosa (2021) notes, “the exposure to corporal punishment in school can be a traumatic

childhood event” (p. 52). While this is true, the same can be said for suspension and expulsion.

The idea of removing unfavorable responses, classroom disruptions, by using consequences

seems like it would be a productive system, however it is flawed.

There are multiple alternatives to avoid punishment, such as altering stimuli, ignoring

unwanted behaviors, or reinforcing alternative behaviors (Schunk, 2019). While the alternatives

may work, time and time again punishment has been utilized in the school system. This ample

use of punishment without recourse leads to students beginning to view teachers as the

opposition, hindering future learning, as the motivation behind their drive for leaning becomes

corrupted. As the desire to learn dwindles, so does the drive to retain and learn. The

meaningfulness behind the classroom begins to fade and different motivations come to the

forefront, such as getting out of the classroom and away from the teacher. While this notion of

declining motivation and a drop in meaningfulness of education align with information

processing theory and self-worth theory, it all connects back to behaviorism and the introduction

of new responses to avoid punishment.

Classroom management can take on a variety of views, whether the teacher invites

student collaboration, or seeks to control the classroom. Modern day education tends to focus on

student collaboration and student-led discourse. This view aligns with constructivism, proposing

the learners should create their own understanding. Whether through exogenous, endogenous, or

dialectical constructivism students are urged to take the lead in their education through action,

interaction, and conversation. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory is a prime example of how

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classroom instruction can be formulated. Schunk (2019) writes, “social interactions are critical;

knowledge is co-constructed between two or more people…the zone of proximal development

(ZPD) is the difference between what children can do on their own and what they can do with

assistance” (p. 332). Both student discourse and scaffolding are prominent in classroom

management. The degree that both are being implemented and how they are used can determine

a teacher’s management style. Teachers that refuse to relinquish control of the classroom

omitting student interaction will opt towards an Authoritarian style. Those teachers that allow

students too much conversation and time and continue to over-scaffold supports will gravitate

towards a Permissive/Laissez-faire style. However, teachers who allow students to run the show

and refuse to intervene with scaffolding for both academic and behaviors will exhibit an

Indifferent/Indulgent management style. Teachers that can find a harmonious blend between

scaffolding support and allowing student discourse will be able to implement an Authoritative

style.

While classroom management takes on a constructivist approach, with teachers helping

students learn to develop their own learning, the implementation of classroom management plays

into conditioning and self-regulation. This is on the part of the teacher as well as the student.

Both parts need to actively self-regulate and work on understanding the meaning behind the

actions. This reflective teaching drives educators to develop practices that involve student

backgrounds and influences, as well as continuing to question and evolve their own instruction

(Schunk, 2019). The notion of an ever-evolving practice requires teachers to be able to adapt and

recognize or acknowledge the faults in their practices and then work towards making

improvements. Hambacher (2018) writes:

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Culturally responsive classroom managers understand the role of culture in student

behavior and use preventative, not reactive practices…educators who become vigilant

about their own blind spots are better able to dismantle deficit thinking and work to

provide equitable opportunities for the students they serve. (p. 115).

As teachers eliminate their biases, work towards including student background and culture into

their practice and implement methods of understanding the trauma behind student actions, they

can strive to dismantle the school-to-prison pipeline.

Define Key Terms

1. Authoritarian Management – management where teachers are in constant control over

the classroom and student participation is limited by teacher permission (Debbag &

Fidan, 2020).

2. Authoritative Management – management where student involvement and teacher

control are balanced. A set system of expectations in place where students cultures

and beliefs are recognized and learning can happen (Debbag & Fidan, 2020).

3. Permissive/ Laissez-faire management – where teachers allow students to act as they

please. Student behaviors tend to escalate, while the teacher fails to mediate issues

(Debbag & Fidan, 2020).

4. Indifferent/ Indulgent Management – management where teachers extend an overt

amount of freedom to students. Lessons and activities are typically off topic and out

of hand (Debbag & Fidan, 2020).

5. School-to-Prison Pipeline – the track that is commonly associated with students of

color that follows those affected by disciplinary methods to the criminal justice

system (Basile, 2021).

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6. Trauma-Informed Practices – initiatives that focus on understanding the backgrounds

of students that influence actions and work towards restoring mindsets and behaviors

(Delale-O’Connor et. al, 2017).

Gaps in the Research

Research has been performed at length to prove and define indicators of the school-to-

prison pipeline as well as identify exemplary teaching practices. However, there are still

questions left to be answered. The inclusion and implementation of trauma-informed practices

has shown a significant drop in disciplinary rates as well as an increase in student engagement

(Hambacher, 2018). Moving forward the execution of restorative practices with fidelity should

be evaluated as well as how the shifting of management styles effects the classroom dynamic.

Basile’s (2021) study identified structure and procedure, honoring space, assuming brilliance,

highly respectful interactions, positive reframing, and repair as six practices that work towards

decriminalizing students. A common trend in Basile’s findings is that teacher behaviors would

shift when noting or remembering they were being observed, which begs the question if the

observations reflect true teacher practices?

Future research could exhibit a coaching model where both exemplary teachers and

teachers who are perceived as struggling could have their practices examined. As time went on

different aspects of their management style can be altered and improved, utilizing trauma-

informed practices. This type of study would not only work to seek out improvement in

classroom management and engagement, see a decrease in school discipline numbers, but also

establish a baseline which is something many studies have failed to accomplish. Many studies

have highlighted poor or exemplary practices and their correlation to disciplinary numbers but
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have failed to go a step further and mark the improvement that can be made from a dynamic shift

in management style.

Biblical Worldview

Behaviorist theories and sociocultural theories while having connections to scripture and

a biblical worldview also have some issues. The operant conditioning of behaviorism

consistently reinforces responses with stimuli. However, there is a difference between reteaching

and retooling to get desired responses. One approaches with the mindset of improvement while

the other is of manipulation. Students are people teacher desire to teach and help. If we continue

to treat students like lab rats, trying to get a desired result, then we are not being fair to our

students, as they are merely being treated like pawns to be manipulated.

Sociocultural theory, while stemming from interaction is designed to have environmental

influences impart on a person’s growth. However, this growth may not always be favorable, as

humans easily fall to temptation. This requires constraints to be put in the classroom, such as

classroom management, but this can quickly devolve into a battle for power. If this persists then

we fall back into the same cycle of students being treated as objects to be manipulated instead of

learners to be fostered.

A sociocultural theory regarding classroom management aligns with postmodernism.

Learning occurs from interaction, therefore, is based in narrative and discourse. Teaching styles

align with a play for power, whether it is authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, or indulgent.

Individual growth is based in societal constraints. The classroom expectations that are agreed

upon by both teacher and student decide what is deemed social good.

The notion of equality is prominent throughout scripture. In Lev 19:33-34 (New Living

Translation, 2013), Israelites are told “do not take advantage of foreigners who live among you
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in your land. Treat them like native born Israelites, and love them as you love yourself.” This

mindset of treating everyone equally is a reoccurring theme in both scripture as well as

education. However, there is a difference in treating people with respect, and treating them as a

homogeneous group. We can work towards this goal by implementing trauma-informed practices

that respect our students by acknowledging their ideas, cultures, and achievements in the

classroom.

Conclusion

The school-to-prison pipeline is a major factor plaguing students of color leading to

apprehension to authority, and teachers forming biases towards their students. Utilizing both

behaviorist and sociocultural theories it can be understood why there was an escalation regarding

disciplinary rates. As focus was placed more on test scores rather than students’ social

development as years have gone by, the proverbial pendulum now needs to swing back and

concentrate on social and emotional growth for students. The ongoing battle for control of the

classroom in order to prioritize standardized tests deviated from the goal of educating the whole

child. While different management styles yield different reactions from students and can each

find some ground in the classroom, punishment needs to take a backseat as trauma-informed

practices proceed to the forefront. Additionally, the days of an authoritarian approach need to be

shelved as educators stray away from the sage on the stage mentality and favor the guide on the

side mindset for student interaction to take root. With teachers working towards facilitating

student-to-student discourse, their practice can also shift to use examples that are rooted in

student cultures and beliefs. Educators can continue to evolve their practices by including

students in establishing classroom expectations and utilizing restorative practices to revisit

established norms. By viewing classroom disruptions as areas of learning instead of obstacles to

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teaching, teachers can not only work towards eliminating future disruptions but also create bonds

with their students. As teachers work on implementing exemplary classroom management and

building trust to understand the motives behind student actions, then we as educators can work

towards dismantling the school-to-prison pipeline.

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