CHAPTER ONE

1.1 History of Obisma table Water

The name of the company where I did my Industrial Training is called Obisma

table Water, it is a water treatment industry and its location is at 47 Amaenyi

Street, Ihiala, Anambra State. The Director’s name is Mr. Ugwu Solomon. The

company has a total number twenty-four workers working under the pure water

section. All the workers are devoted in their duty.

The company has all the necessary equipment for the pure water production like;

PVC Water Tanks (Black Colour preferably), Submersible Water Pumping

Machine (1HP or more), Surface Pumping Machine (1HP or more), Aeration

faucets and PVC Pipes, plumbing fittings, conveyor belt, desk rail, the water tank

filler, shrinking machine, sealing machine, packaging machine for water

production and has perform blowing machine, label coding machine, etc for

producing a pet bottle.

Their Pet bottle has different measurement in volumes ranging from 50cl, 65cl,

80cl and 100cl.

1.2 History of industrial training fund (ITF)

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) was established in 1971 by the Federal

Government of education and it is managed by the National Board for Technical

Education. The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill

1
training program designed to expose and prepare student at Universities,

Polytechnic and other tertiary institution, they are likely to meet after graduation.

Furthermore, it is an occupational experience training programme which calls for

total dedication to duty, positive work attitude, honesty and self confidence on the

part of the student who are adjudged to be the major beneficiaries of the programs.

1.3 The objective of SIWES

The Student Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) provides numerous objectives

which includes 1, 2, & 3, enumerated below:

 To prepare student industrial work situation are expected to meet after their

graduation.

 It is aimed to expose student on work method techniques in handling

equipment and machines that may not be available in their institution.

 It causes the transition from school to world of work easier and provides

students contact for later job placement.

1.4 The scope of industrial training fund (ITF)

The scopes of ITF are outlined below;

 To provide students with industrial skills and needed experience while the

course of study;

 To create conditions and circumstances, which can be as close as possible to

the actual workflow;

2
  To teach students the techniques and methods of working with facilities and

equipment that may not be available within the walls of an educational

institution;

 To give students the ability to try and apply the given knowledge. The

objectives of SIWES programme are all about strengthening future

employees. Such program is successful attempt to help students to

understand the underlying principles of their future work. After passing the

programs, the student can concentrate on the really necessary factors of his

or her work.

 To prepare specialists who will be ready for any working situations

immediately after graduation.

1.5 The purpose of industrial training fund (ITF)

The Industrial Training Fund provides Direct Training, Vocational and Apprentice

Training, Research and Consultancy Service, Reimbursement of up to 50% Levy

paid by employers of labour registered with it, and administers the Students

Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES). It also provides human resource

development information and training technology service to industry and

commerce to enhance their manpower capacity and in-house training delivery

effort. The main thrust of ITF programmes and services is to stimulate human

3
performance, improve productivity, and induce value-added production in industry

and commerce.

1.6 Organogram of the factory

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Literature review

Water is a chemical compound consisting of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen

atom. The name water typically refers to the liquid state of the compound. The

solid phase is known as ice and gas phase is called steam. Under certain

conditions, water also forms a supercritical fluid. Water is certainly essential to the

forms of life we have on Earth, which all have a common ancestry and require

water to function. Life has been found in all kinds of extreme environments,

operating at the limits of heat and cold and even without air. But every type of life

we have discovered contains biological cells that require water to provide their

operating environment. Cells simply could not function without it. It’s not just a

matter of keeping them inflated and moving chemicals around – living cells are full

of tiny complex mechanisms. Many of these mechanisms rely on different sections

of molecules either working well with water, or not mixing with it. Proteins, for

example, are the key worker molecules in living organisms. Proteins have to fold

into particular shapes to carry out their roles, and it is the interaction with water by

4
various parts of a protein molecule that tell it how to fold. Water isn’t just a

solvent: it is intimately involved in the functioning of our magnificent cellular

machinery.

5
6
Water is an impressive solvent, which means it is extremely good at dissolving

things. This is partly why it’s so valuable for living organisms, acting as a transport

fluid for a whole host of chemicals in living cells. What makes water such a good

solvent is its ability to stick onto and separate the atoms of a substance, which is

thanks to unusually strong hydrogen bonding. This is the effect that makes water

so special: an electrical attraction between hydrogen atoms and other atoms such as

nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules also

makes them hard to separate, pushing up the boiling point. Without this effect,

water would boil at around -70°C. That would mean no liquid water on Earth – and

no life. Another essential side effect of hydrogen bonding is that when water

freezes, the hydrogen bonds between the molecules pull the crystals into a

particular shape. This is why snowflakes form with six points, and it means that

water crystals have more space in them than they otherwise would. They form

tetrahedrons – shapes with four triangular sides. As a result, solid water, or ice, is

less dense than the liquid form, which is why it’s not recommended to put a glass

bottle of water in the freezer (the water will expand and can shatter the bottle), and

why ice floats on a pond. It’s often said that this property of water is unique. This

is not quite true, as acetic acid and silicon, for example, are both less dense as a

solid than as a liquid. But it is unusual, and it’s important. If ice were denser than

7
water, lakes would freeze from the bottom, not the top, making it far less likely

that aquatic life could survive cold winters.

Water for bathing may be maintained is satisfactory microbiological

condition using chemical disinfectants such as chlorine or ozone or by the use of

ultraviolet light.

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or portable water.

Water that is not portable may be made portable by filtration or distillation or by a

range of other methods. Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful for

humans when used for swimming or bathing is called various names other than

portable or drinking water or safe for bathing. Chlorine is a skin and mucous

membrane irritant that is used make water safe for bathing or drinking. Its use is

highly technical and is usually monitored by government regulations (typically part

per million (PPM) for drinking water, and 1 – 2 PPM of chlorine not yet reacted

with impurities for bathing water). (www.who.int/topics/water/en/)

Water covers 71% of the earth’s surface, the oceans contain 96.5% of the

earth’s water. The Antarctic i.e. sheet, which contains 61% of all fresh water on

earth, is visible at the bottom. Condensed atmospheric water can be seen as clouds,

contributing to the earth’s albedo. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water).

8
2.2 Chattels of water

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O; one molecule of

water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. Water

is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient temperature and pressure. Liquid water has

weak absorption bands at wavelengths of around 750 nm which cause it to appear

to have a blue colour. This can easily be observed in a water-filled bath or wash-

basin whose lining is white. Large ice crystals, as in glaciers, also appear blue.

Unlike other analogous hydrides of the oxygen family, water is primarily a liquid

under standard conditions due to hydrogen bonding. The molecules of water are

constantly moving in relation to each other, and the hydrogen bonds are

continually breaking and reforming at timescales faster than 200 femtoseconds

(2×10−13 seconds). However, these bonds are strong enough to create many of the

peculiar properties of water, some of which make it integral to life.

2.2 Water, ice, and vapor

Within the Earth's atmosphere and surface, the liquid phase is the most common

and is the form that is generally denoted by the word "water". The solid phase of

water is known as ice and commonly takes the structure of hard, amalgamated

crystals, such as ice cubes, or loosely accumulated granular crystals, like snow.

Aside from common hexagonal crystalline ice, other crystalline and amorphous
9
phases of ice are known. The gaseous phase of water is known as water vapor (or

steam). Visible steam and clouds are formed from minute droplets of water

suspended in the air.

10
11
Water also forms a supercritical fluid. The critical temperature is 647 K and the

critical pressure is 22.064 MPa. In nature this only rarely occurs in extremely

hostile conditions. A likely example of naturally occurring supercritical water is in

the hottest parts of deep water hydrothermal vents, in which water is heated to the

critical temperature by volcanic plumes and the critical pressure is caused by the

weight of the ocean at the extreme depths where the vents are located. This

pressure is reached at a depth of about 2200 meters: much less than the mean depth

of the ocean (3800 meters).[26]

Diagram of Water treatment plant

Water has a very high specific heat capacity of 4.1814 J/(g·K) at 25 °C – the

second highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a

high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point),

both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its

molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate

12
by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Most of the additional energy stored

in the climate system since 1970 has accumulated in the oceans.[27]

The specific enthalpy of fusion (more commonly known as latent heat) of water is

333.55 kJ/kg at 0 °C: the same amount of energy is required to melt ice as to warm

ice from −160 °C up to its melting point or to heat the same amount of water by

about 80 °C. Of common substances, only that of ammonia is higher. This property

confers resistance to melting on the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before and since

the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was and still is in common use for

retarding food spoilage.

The specific heat capacity of ice at −10 °C is 2.03 J/(g·K)[28] and the heat capacity

of steam at 100 °C is 2.08 J/(g·K).

2.3 Structure of water

A single water molecule can participate in a maximum of four hydrogen bonds

because it can accept two bonds using the lone pairs on oxygen and donate two

hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia and methanol

can also form hydrogen bonds. However, they do not show anomalous

thermodynamic, kinetic or structural properties like those observed in water

because none of them can form four hydrogen bonds: either they cannot donate or

accept hydrogen atoms, or there are steric effects in bulky residues. In water,
13
intermolecular tetrahedral structures form due to the four hydrogen bonds, thereby

forming an open structure and a three-dimensional bonding network, resulting in

the anomalous decrease in density when cooled below 4 °C. This repeated,

constantly reorganizing unit defines a three-dimensional network extending

throughout the liquid. This view is based upon neutron scattering studies and

computer simulations, and it makes sense in the light of the unambiguously

tetrahedral arrangement of water molecules in ice structures.

However, there is an alternative theory for the structure of water. In 2004, a

controversial paper from Stockholm University suggested that water molecules in

liquid form typically bind not to four but to only two others; thus forming chains

and rings. The term "string theory of water" (which is not to be confused with the

string theory of physics) was coined. These observations were based upon X-ray

absorption spectroscopy that probed the local environment of individual oxygen

atoms.

2.4 Chemical properties

At standard conditions, water is a polar liquid that slightly dissociates

disproportionately into a hydronium ion and hydroxide ion.

2 H

2 O ⇌ H

14
 3 O+

+ OH−

The ionic product of pure water,Kw has a value of about 10−14 at 25 °C; see data

page for values at other temperatures. Pure water has a concentration of the

hydroxide ion (OH−)equal to that of the hydrogen ion (H+), which gives a pH of 7

at 25 °C.

15
16
2.5 Importance of water

Water Purification: Impurities are removed from water by screening,

sedimentation, filtration, chlorination or irradiation. See also sewage disposal.

Aeration saturates water with air, usually by spraying fountains of water into the

air. Aeration removes odour and tastes caused by decomposing organic matter,

industrial wastes and some gases. Various salts and metal cause hardness may be

removed by boiling by adding sodium carbonate and lime or by filtration through

natural or artificial zeolites.

Since water contains no calories and can serve as an appetite suppressant

and helps the body metabolize stored fat, it may possibly be one of the most

significant factors in losing weight. Drinking enough water is the best treatment for

fluid retention the over. The overweight person needs more water than the thin one,

water helps to maintain proper muscle tone, water can help relieve constipation;

drinking water is essential for weight loss.

2.5.1 Water In Life: Water make up 50 to 90% of the weight living things.

Protoplasm is a solution of water and fats, carbohydrates, protein and salts. Water

transports, combines and chemically breaks down these substances. Water also

aids the metabolic breakdown of proteins and carbohydrate.

2.5.2 Composition: Because water dissolves numerous substances in large

amounts, pure water rarely occurs in nature. Precipitation absorbs carbon dioxide

17
and other gases, as well as traces of organic and inorganic material from the

atmosphere. Because water reacts with minerals in the soil and rocks, surface and

ground water may contain many different dissolved substances. Surface waters

may also contain domestic sewage and industrial wastes. Groundwater from

shallow wells may contain nitrogen compounds and chloride, but water from deep

walls generally contains only dissolved minerals.

18
19
2.6 Water treatment

Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more

acceptable for a specific end-use. The end user may be drinking, industrial water

supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses,

including being safely returned to the environment. Water treatment removes

contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that

the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. This treatment is crucial to human

health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and irrigation use.

2.6.1 Treatment for drinking water production

Treatment for drinking water production involves the removal of contaminants

from raw water to produce water that is pure enough for human consumption

without any short term or long term risk of any adverse health effect. In general

terms, the greatest microbial risks are associated with ingestion of water that is

contaminated with human or animal (including bird) feaces. Feaces can be a source

of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminthes. Substances that are

removed during the process of drinking water treatment, Disinfection is of

unquestionable importance in the supply of safe drinking-water. The destruction of

microbial pathogens is essential and very commonly involves the use of reactive

chemical agents such suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals

20
such as iron and manganese. These substances continue to cause great harm to

several lower developed countries who do not have access to water purification.

The processes involved in removing the contaminants include physical processes

such as settling and filtration, chemical processes such as disinfection and

coagulation and biological processes such as slow sand filtration. Measures taken

to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the water, but to its

conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is therefore common practice to

keep residual disinfectants in the treated water to kill bacteriological contamination

during distribution.

World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines are a general set of standards

intended to apply where better local standards are not implemented. More rigorous

standards apply across Europe, the USA and in most other developed countries.

Water supplied to domestic properties, for tap water or other uses, may be further

treated before use, often using an in-line treatment process. Such treatments can

include water softening or ion exchange. Many proprietary systems also claim to

remove residual disinfectants and heavy metal ions.

2.6.2 Processes of water treatment

A combination selected from the following processes is used for municipal

drinking water treatment worldwide:

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  Pre-chlorination for algae control and arresting biological growth

 Aeration along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron when

present with small amounts relatively of manganese

 Coagulation for flocculation or slow-sand filtration

 Coagulant aids, also known as polyelectrolytes – to improve coagulation and

for more robust floc formation

 Sedimentation for solids separation that is the removal of suspended solids

trapped in the floc

 Filtration to remove particles from water either by passage through a sand

bed that can be washed and reused or by passage through a purpose designed

filter that may be washable.

 Disinfection for killing bacteria viruses and other pathogens.

Technologies for potable water and other uses are well developed, and generalized

designs are available from which treatment processes can be selected for pilot

testing on the specific source water. In addition, a number of private companies

provide patented technological solutions for the treatment of specific contaminants.

Automation of water treatment is common in the developed world. Source water

quality through the seasons, scale, and environmental impact can dictate capital

22
costs and operating costs. End use of the treated water dictates the necessary

quality monitoring technologies, and locally available skills typically dictate the

level of automation adopted.

Constituent Unit Processes

Coagulation/ flocculation, sedimentation, granular

Turbidity and particles
filtration

Major dissolved
Softening, aeration, membranes
inorganics

Minor dissolved
Membranes
inorganics

Pathogens Sedimentation, filtration, disinfection

Membranes, adsorption
Major dissolved organics

2.6.3 Treatment Process of drinking water

In general, the treatment of drinking water by municipal water systems involves a

few key steps:

23
Aeration: The water is mixed to liberate dissolved gases and to suspended

particles in the water column.

Flocculation: The materials and particles present in drinking water (clay, organic

material, metals, microorganisms) are often quite small and so will not settle out

from the water column without assistance. To help the settling process along,

"coagulating" compounds are added to the water, and suspended particles "stick" to

these compounds and create large and heavy clumps of material.

Sedimentation: The water is left undisturbed to allow the heavy clumps of

particles and coagulants to settle out.

Filtration: The water is run through a series of filters which trap and remove

particles still remaining in the water column. Typically, beds of sand or charcoal

are used to accomplish this task.

Disinfection: The water, now largely free of particles and microorganisms, is

treated to destroy any remaining disease-causing pathogens. This is commonly

done with chlorination (the same process used to eliminate pathogens in swimming

pools), ozone, or ultraviolet radiation. The water is now safe to drink and is sent to

pumping stations for distribution to homes and businesses.

2.6.4 Simulated Drinking Water Treatment Plant

In this activity we’ll be treating "contaminated" water to observe firsthand the

steps involved in purifying water for human consumption. The activity will use

24
everyday items to carry out the steps in drinking water treatment and you will

record changes in the water’s properties as the process progresses. The basic

version of this exercise has you record the appearance and odor of untreated water

as it moves through the various steps. In some situations, depending on available

equipment and personnel, you may also be able to measure turbidity. Turbidity

describes the clarity or “muddiness” of a water sample and is measured by

examining the transmission of light through a water sample. Turbidity is a

particularly useful measure of water quality for this exercise, as it enables one to

quantitatively track changes in the water sample as it moves through the treatment

process. Check with your lab instructor to see if turbidity measurements will be

taken when you perform the exercise. Directions for measuring turbidity, if

applicable, will be provided by your lab instructor.

2.6.5 Constructing the Filtering Apparatus

The activity requires the construction of an apparatus for filtering the water

sample. Directions for constructing the apparatus and a complete list of materials

are provided below.

(1.) Obtain a plastic two-liter soda bottle with the bottom removed.

(2.) Secure a coffee filter to the neck of the bottle with a rubber band.

(3.) Turn the bottle upside down and secure it in place as described by your

instructor.

25
(4.) Gently add 400 ml of pebbles to the bottle. Make sure the pebbles do not

puncture the coffee filter.

(5.) Gently add 800 ml of coarse sand on top of the pebbles. Avoid shaking the

bottle whenever possible.

(6.) Gently add 800 ml of fine sand on top of the coarse sand. Again, avoid

shaking.

(7.) Place a clean 500 ml beaker beneath the inverted neck of the bottle to collect

the water from the apparatus.

(8.) Clean the sand and pebbles by slowly pouring 5 liters of clean tap water (in

400 ml increments to avoid overflowing the beaker) through the apparatus.

Take steps to minimize the disturbance to the uppermost sand layer as you

pour.

(9.) Once the flushing of the filtering apparatus is complete, thoroughly rinse the

collection beaker with tap water and return it to its place beneath the bottle.

Your apparatus is now complete and ready for use.

2.7 Engineering water treatment

Two of the main processes of industrial water treatment are boiler water treatment

and cooling water treatment. A large amount of proper water treatment can lead to

the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work and boiler housing. Steam

boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated. Scale deposits can

26
lead to weak and dangerous machinery, while additional fuel is required to heat the

same level of water because of the rise in thermal resistance. Poor quality dirty

water can become a breeding ground for bacteria such as Legionella causing a risk

to public health.

Corrosion in low pressure boilers can be caused by dissolved oxygen, acidity and

excessive alkalinity. Water treatment therefore should remove the dissolved

oxygen and maintain the boiler water with the appropriate pH and alkalinity levels.

Without effective water treatment, a cooling water system can suffer from scale

formation, corrosion and fouling and may become a breeding ground for harmful

bacteria. This reduces efficiency, shortens plant life and makes operations

unreliable and unsafe.

2.7.1 Desalination

Saline water can be treated to yield fresh water. Two main processes are used,

reverse osmosis or distillation. Both methods require more energy than water

treatment of local surface waters, and are usually only used in coastal areas or

where water such as groundwater has high salinity.

27
2.7.2 Portable water purification

Living away from drinking water supplies often requires some form of portable

water treatment process. These can vary in complexity from the simple addition of

a disinfectant tablet in a hiker's water bottle through to complex multi-stage

processes carried by boat or plane to disaster areas. This methods can be extremely

convenient when disasters take place, and should be limited while preserving the

remaining freshwater on earth.

2.7.3 Ultra pure water production

Some industries such as the production of silicon wafers, space technology and

man high quality metallurgical process require ultrapure water. The production of

28
such water typically involves many stages, and can include reverse osmosis, ion

exchange and several distillation stages using solid tin apparatus. This method is

extremely useful by making water production extremely pure by the EPA water

quality standards.

2.8 Factors affecting water treating plant location

The following factors should be considered in choosing plant site;

1. Raw Material: Source of raw materials includes water treatment membranes,

UV systems, high-pressure pumps, multiport values, FRP vessels, membrane

housings and cartridge filters, sand activated carbon and iron remove filter.

Plant should be located near the source of raw material to permit

considerable reduction in transportation and storage charges. The raw

material must be cost effective and readily available and reliability supply at

all time.

Our main source is water (underground water) it can be obtained by digging

deep into the soil minimum of 150ft.

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2. Markets: They should be availability of market of the product. Water is a

very heavy product, the cost of shipping will be high, so market is an

important consideration in the selection of a plant site, because the buyer

usually finds it advantageous to purchase from nearby source.

3. Energy Availability: Water treatment plant should be located where chief

source of power and steam which is necessary to guild water treatment

machinery. In some factory, the cost of power is high if purchased so in some

cases self – generating is regard to supply utilities.

4. Transportation Facilities: In water treatment it does not require

transportation because the main source is the water which is gotten from the

ground (soil). Motor trucking facilities is very important in water treatment

plant. It serves as aid to purchase the raw material required in water treatment

plant.

5. Water Supply: Water is the main raw material, heavily wooded land should

be avoided since it can habour rodent and insects and also provide breeding

ground for micro – organism which will cause difficulty in digging the soil

deep.

The water treatment plant should not be located near sewage which

serve as a contaminant to the water.

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 The water treatment plant should not be located near/close to the

cementery / burial ground because the decay body may serve as contaminant

to the water.

6. Waste Disposal: Waste water should be channel in a pressure pipe through a

sink into a deep hole where it will be sunk.

7. Labour Supply: A trained personnel should be employed in quality control

analysts, the plant should be located where service of public analyst is

available. They should be skilled and intelligent workers supply in water

treatment plant.

8. Taxation and Legal Restriction: In every site or location there is a

payment of taxation. If the tax of particular site or location is very high, the

location is not good to locate your plant there because due to the high

taxation will also affect the price of the finished product.

9. Site Characteristics: Nature of the soil should be considered, if the soil is a

marshy area the bore hole should be deep into the soil minimum of 150ft

because the decay vegetation will cause a lot of contamination to the water,

which will also enhance the growth of micro – organism, so the cost of

treating the water will be high.

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 Dry area will also cause a lot of contamination to the water and the

cost of treating the water will be high. The water treatment plant should not

be located to a residential area. Woody area should be avoided.

The plant should be constructed at a location where additional space is

available as future changes may make it desirable or necessary to expand the

plant facilities.

10. Flood and Fire Protection: A plant location should not be located in

flooded area due to the risks of flood or hurricane damage, these are the

factors need to be considered before constructing a water treatment plant.

11. Community Factor: The Water treatment plant is set to employ some youth

of the host community in the factory to work. This is done to avert sectoral

violence are an attack on the personnel.

2.9 Process in water treatment

Clean, safe water is vital for everyday life. Water is essential for health, hygiene

and the productivity of our community.

The water treatment process may vary slightly at different locations, depending on

the technology of the plant and the water it needs to process, but the basic

principles are largely the same. This section describes standard water treatment

processes.

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2.9.1 Coagulation / Flocculation

During coagulation, liquid aluminium sulfate (alum) and/or polymer is added to

untreated (raw) water. When mixed with the water, this causes the tiny particles of

dirt in the water to stick together or coagulate. Next, groups of dirt particles stick

together to form larger, heavier particles called flocs which are easier to remove by

settling or filtration.

2.9.2 Sedimentation

As the water and the floc particles progress through the treatment process, they

move into sedimentation basins where the water moves slowly, causing the heavy

floc particles to settle to the bottom. Floc which collects on the bottom of the basin

is called sludge, and is piped to drying lagoons. In Direct Filtration, the

sedimentation step is not included, and the floc is removed by filtration only.

33
2.9.3 Filtration

Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water. The filters

are made of layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases, crushed anthracite.

Filtration collects the suspended impurities in water and enhances the effectiveness

of disinfection. The filters are routinely cleaned by backwashing.

2.9.4 Disinfection

Water is disinfected before it enters the distribution system to ensure that any

disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites are destroyed. Chlorine is used

34
because it is a very effective disinfectant, and residual concentrations can be

maintained to guard against possible biological contamination in the water

distribution system.

2.9.5 Sludge Drying

Solids that are collected and settled out of the water by sedimentation and filtration

are removed to drying lagoons.

2.9.6 Fluoridation

Water fluoridation is the treatment of community water supplies for the purpose of

adjusting the concentration of the free fluoride ion to the optimum level sufficient

35
to reduce dental caries. Hunter Water is required to fluoridate water in accordance

with the NSW Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies Act 1957.

2.9.7 pH Correction

Lime is added to the filtered water to adjust the pH and stabilise the naturally soft

water in order to minimise corrosion in the distribution system, and within

customers’ plumbing.

2.10 Equipment for water treatment

There are completely automated combo units with RO Filter systems for water

treatment, these are more expensive. The fibre filter plant is the next best filter

module followed by the regular carbon and sand filter units. Dosing can be

manually done, however, dosing pumps make for easy addition of chlorine and

other chemicals during the treatment process.

36
 Reverse Osmosis (RO) Module

 Industrial Water Filtration Modules (Fibre Plants, Activated Carbon Bed &

Sand Bed Filters)

 Ozone Generator

 Micro-Filter Cartridge Housing/Casing

 Micro-Filter Cartridges (0.5µ (Micron), 2µ and 5µ pore Size)

 Ultra-Violet (UV) Sterilizer

 Ultraviolet (UV) Lamps (Switches should be placed outside the rooms!)

 Dosing Pumps

37
2.11 Quality Assurance Equipment (In House)

In house quality assurance requires at least physically checking of water products

for odour, colour, particles and taste. The measurement meters such as pH meters

and conductivity meters are used to check the pH, conductivity, Total Dissolved

Solids and a few other parameters that help indicate the quality of the produces

water. Full Laboratory analyses for the water products are outsourced to IPAN

registered laboratories.

 pH Meter (hand held or bench top)

38
  Conductivity/TDS Meter

 Weighing Balance (from 2kg Load capacity above)

 Glass Beakers (600ml/1000ml capacity)

 Glass Measuring Cylinder (500ml capacity)

 Water Testing Kit

2.12 Cleaning & Sanitation

 Bottle Washer Brush

 Long-Handle Hard Brush (for cleaning the storage tanks)

 Food Grade Liquid Detergent

 Cleaning Mop

 Dust Brush/Sweeping Brush

 Cobweb Brush

 Disposable Wipes

 Waste Bin

 Pallets (Plastic)

39
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Methodology for pure water production

Series of analysis was carried out in the analysis laboratory in order to taste and to

determine the quality of overflow of filtrated unclean collected water samples at

40
different depths of the sand filter media and by investigating the efficiency of

purification. The study considered three analyses which are: Alkalinity, pH and

turbidity.

3.2 Laboratory Test to determine Water Turbidity

A. Objectives

(i) To perform turbidity and colour tests on a given set of water samples and to

examine their progressive change as the water flows from one treatment unit

to another in a waterworks;

(ii) To perform pH and alkalinity analyses on a given set of water samples and to

examine the results with respect to the water treatment processes.

B. Theory

3.2.1 Turbidity: Turbidity is caused by suspended materials which absorb and

scatter light. These colloidal and finely dispersed turbidity-causing materials do not

settle under quiescent conditions and are difficult to remove by sedimentation.

Turbidity is a key parameter in water supply engineering, because turbidity will

both cause water to be aesthetically unpleasant and cause problems in water

treatment processes, such as filtration and disinfection. Turbidity is also often used

as indicative evidence of the possibility of bacteria being present. Turbidity

measurements performed using proprietary nephelometric instruments are

expressed as Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). The nephelometric apparatus

41
is designed to measure forward scattering of light at 90o to the path of an

incandescent light beam. Suspended particles present in a water sample reflect a

portion of the incident light off the particle surface. The light reflected at 90o is

measured by a photoelectric detector and is compared against light reflected by a

reference standard. No interference exists for the turbidity test. Locally, the Public

Utilities Board (PUB) of Singapore requires all water treatment facilities to

produce water containing less than 1 NTU.

C. Equipment

3.2.2 Turbidity by HACH Turbidimeter

(i) Select the operating range at”AUTO” mode. 4

(ii) Fill a clean sample cell to the mark with the test sample and place it in the

cell holder. The sample cell must be clean, dry and free of fingerprints. Wipe

the outside of the cell with a lens tissue and align the dot on the sample cell

with the raised mark on the spill ring around the cell holder opening. Be sure

the cell is kept 5down completely and held in place by the spring clip. Cover

the sample with the light shield.

(iii) The digital readout is in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

3.3 Laboratory test to determine pH and Alkalinity

3.3.1 pH

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pH is a way of expressing the hydrogen-ion concentration of a solution. As acids

and bases in solution dissociate to yield hydrogen ions [H+] and hydroxyl ions

[OH-] respectively, pH is used to indicate the intensity of the acidic or alkaline

condition of a solution. Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of

dissolved substances in water and equals the amount of strong acid required to

lower the solution from initial pH to about 4.5. Many materials may contribute to

the alkalinity of water. For most practical purposes, it is due primarily to presence

of salts of weak acids (mainly bicarbonate and carbonate) and hydroxide (at high

pH). pH and alkalinity are key water quality parameters in environmental

engineering practice. In the water supply and treatment fields, these parameters

have great influence on the chemical coagulation, disinfection and softening

processes, and corrosion control for water distribution pipe networks. Effective

chemical coagulation of water, for instance, occurs only within a specific pH

range. Chemicals used for coagulation release, as a by-product of their reactions

with water to form insoluble hydroxide precipitates, hydrogen ions (acid-causing).

If unchecked, these hydrogen ions could lower the pH of the water sufficiently to

render the coagulants ineffective. The presence of sufficient amount of alkalinity in

the water can react and remove the hydrogen ions released by the coagulants, thus

buffering the water in the pH range where the coagulant can be effective. In pure

water, water molecules dissociate into equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxyl

43
ions (10-7 moles/L). From the law of mass action, it can be shown that, for pure

water at about 25°C:

10=K=]OH[]H[-14 (1)

The pH value of a solution has been defined to be the negative log of the hydrogen

ion concentration: (2)]H[log-=pH+The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, with pH 7

representing neutrality. Acid conditions increase as pH values decrease, and

alkaline (base) conditions increase as the pH values increase. Measurement of the

hydrogen ion concentration is made by pH meters via a glass electrode and a

calomel reference electrode. The alkalinity of water is its quantitative capacity to

neutralize acids. The three major forms of alkalinity ranked in order of their

association with high pH values are

(1) Hydroxide alkalinity, [OH-],

(2) Carbonate alkalinity, [CO32-], and

(3) Bicarbonate alkalinity [HCO3-]. Their ability to react with H+ ends at pH 4.5

when both have turned into carbonic acid (H2CO3). In nature, bicarbonates are the

major form of alkalinity because they result from the reactions of CO2 on calcium

and magnesium rocks. Some CaCO3 (up to about 20 mg/L) may also go into

solution as Ca2+ and CO32- ions. For all practical purposes, alkalinity due to other

sources in natural waters may be ignored. Alkalinity of waters is measured by

means of titration with a standard solution of a strong acid (usually H2SO4) to

44
designated pHs, and is reported in terms of equivalent CaCO3. Alkalinity depends

on the end-point pH or indicator used. Either titration curve technique or colour

indicators can be used for the determination.

For samples whose initial pH is above 8.3, the titration is made in two steps. In the

first step, the titration is conducted until the phenolphthalein indicator end-point is

reached (i.e. pH of about 8.3) with a colour change from pink to colourless. During

this first phase, the acid added to the sample reacts with [OH-] alkalinity, if

present, and [CO32-] alkalinity as follows: (3) O2H+H+-OH→ (4) -3HCO+H+-

23CO→In the second phase, the titration is continued until the methyl orange

indicator end-point is reached with a colour change from yellow to red (i.e. pH of

about 4.5). During this phase, the addition of acid changes the HCO3- ions,

initially present as well as those produced by Reaction (1-4), into carbonic acid; (5)

COHH+HCO32+-3→In the above titration, the result of first step is known as

"phenolphthalein alkalinity" and the overall titration is known as "total alkalinity"

(the amount of acid required to react with all the hydroxide, carbonates and

bicarbonates in the sample) respectively. When the pH of a sample is less than 8.3,

a single titration is made to the methyl orange end point. Also for routine work, it

is common that only the total alkalinity is determined. It is possible to determine

the various components of alkalinity (i.e. hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate

fractions) from a combination of titration, pH measurements and chemical

45
equilibrium equations. An understanding of the buffering capacity of alkalinity can

be derived from an evaluation of Figure 1. At the inflection points of pH 8.3

(phenolphthalein alkalinity) and pH 4.5 (total alkalinity), the carbonate system will

react with a considerable pH change when only a small fraction of titrant is added.

However, at the points where only half of the initial carbonate has been converted

to bicarbonate and only half of the result ant bicarbonate has been converted to

carbonic acid, considerably more titrant is required to effect a pH change. It is

during these conditions that the buffering capacity is exhibited. Quantifying the

alkalinity to the inflection points is a measure of this buffering capacity.

pH

(i) Calibrate the pH meter according to instructions supplied by the Lab staff.

(ii) Pour sample into a clean beaker.

(iii) Rinse the probe thoroughly with distilled water to prevent any carry-over.

Switch to pH mode.

(iv) Immerse the probe in the sample.

(v) (Establish equilibrium between probe and sample by stirring to insure

homogeneity. Gently drop a stirring bar into the sample and place the beaker

on a magnetic stirrer. Start the magnetic stirrer and adjust the speed to give

thorough but gentle mixing.

(vi) Read and record the pH.

46
(vii) Rinse the electrode thoroughly with distilled water.

(viii) When not in use, the electrode should be replaced in the beaker containing

water.

3.3.2 Alkalinity (Total Alkalinity)

(i) For each sample, place 100 mL of sample in an Erlenmeyer flask.

(ii) Add 3 drops of methyl orange indicator solution to the flask.

(iii) Titrate sample with 0.02 N H2SO4 (sulphuric acid), constantly swirling the

flask content above a white surface until just after the colour of the flask

content change from yellow to red.

(iv) Record the volume of titrant used.

(v) Calculate Total Alkalinity as follows:

Where:

A = mL 0.02 N H2SO4 used for methyl-orange end point. N = Normality of

H2SO4, 0.02 N.

C. Experiment

Four water samples (3 from Choa Chu Kang (CCK) Waterworks, each taken at a

different stage of the water treatment process and the other one from NTU) will be

determined for turbidity, colour, pH, and alkalinity. The samples are: From CCK:

Raw water Settled water Filtered water From NTU: Tap water

D. Reports

47
Enter the results in the worksheet similar to that shown in Table 1 and submit them

together with the report including the discussion given below.

CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Conclusions

48
From the derived results after the laboratory analysis been carried out, I came to

the conclusion that;

a. Used sand filter was able to completely remove fecal coliforms at depth of 150

cm and was able to produce effluent having acceptable concentration of suspended

solid at depth 65, less than 20mg/l. 3.Percent removal of fecal coliforms by

infiltration using sand filter media increased as the depth of the sand filter

increased.4.Using sand filter for the removal of suspended solid is effective and

there is a significant effect of increasing the filter depth.5.About 80% of the

removal of fecal coliforms occurred at depth 65cm, and about 83% percent

removal of suspended solid occurred at depth 37.5cm.6.Highconcentrations of

suspended solids or fecal coliforms were not the major factor in term of removal

efficiency. At short term, it had a positive role in increasing the percent of removal

at upper depths of sand filter. At long term however it had a negative impact as it

accelerated the occurrence of clogging in the filter.

b. This laboratory research studied and investigated the capability of sand filters to

purify storm water through using a 3m sand filter. Two parameters were used in

this investigation; suspended solids and fecal coliforms. Finding, the sand filter

was capable of achieving good results in term of suspended solids and fecal

coliforms removal.

4.2 Recommendations

49
Furthermore after the laboratory test, the following recommendations were made:

 Through the work of laboratory tests, it is seemed the importance of the

subject of maintenance for sand filter, there for it is recommended to giving

this issue a priority by bodies which responsible to operation such treatment

facility.

 It is recommended to use other parameters in the investigation to better

measure the percent removal achieved by sand filter such as (Metals, BOD,

NH3...).

 It is recommended to apply the experiment in large scale for example using

tank filled with media.

 It is also recommended that water treatment industries should acquire the

useful chemicals that are not harmful to human consumption in the

purification of drinking water.

References

Christman, Keith (September 1998). "The history of chlorine". WaterWorld. Tulsa,

OK: PennWell. 14 (8): 66–67.

50
Cicek, V. (2013). "Corrosion and corrosion prevention in boilers". Cathodic
protection: industrial solutions for protecting against corrosion. Hoboken,
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118737880.
Frerichs, Ralph R. "History of the Chelsea Waterworks". John Snow. Fielding
School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles. Retrieved
2016-07-09.
Huisman, L.; Wood, W.E. (1974). "Chapter 2. Filtration of Water Supplies". Slow
Sand Filtration (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-
154037-0.
Warsinger, David M.; Mistry, Karan H.; Nayar, Kishor G.; Chung, Hyung Won;
Lienhard V, John H. (2015). "Entropy Generation of Desalination Powered
by Variable Temperature Waste Heat". Entropy. 17 (11): 7530–7566.

Appendices

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