Border Hydropower Project

DESIGN OF BORDER HYDROPOWER PROJECT JUNE 201 3
DESIGN OF BORDER HYDROPOWER PROJECT

GRAVITY DAM
ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
JUNE, 2013
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page i

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this report entitled, The Design of Border
hydropower project is a genuine work done and submitted by:-
1. Adane Lemma
2. Bereket Tadesse
3. Dawit Mokonen
4. Getachew Smur
5. Gebremedhin G/mariam
6. Habtamu Jima
7. Kumnegar Ayale
8. Morka Oljira
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN
HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
AT
ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY
Under the Guidance of

Ato Weldielibanos kinfe (M.Tech)
Arbaminch University
June, 2013
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page ii

Approved by
Advisor:- signature
……………………………………………. …………………….
………………………….
Date
Examiners signature
……………………………………………… ………………………
……………………………………………… ………………………
……………………………..
Date
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Above all, nothing was possible for us to accomplish in life if it were not for God’s loving and
blessing; we have passed through every conditions by the strength he gives us. That is why we
handled very glad to give all praises, glory and honor to him.
Next our sincere thanks, gratitude’s and indebtedness should to our advisors Ato Weldielibanos
kinfe (M.Tech) For their guidance and making themselves available at all times supervision,
encouragement, kindness constructive disapproval and material support for reference. We have
really enjoyed working with under their supervision to finalize our project. Last but not least our
families and friends as well as deserve special thanks for their financial and material supports
and whose voice and letters comforted and encouraged us from a far.
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page iv

ABSTRACT
This final year Hydropower project, which is conducted by 5th year Hydraulic and water
resources engineering graduate students, incorporates research-oriented studies on water resource
project design and analysis. This study comprises of identification and investigation of feasible
site for Hydropower development on Abay River at Border site, Analysing of hydrological data,
and selection of electromechanical equipment’s, and their suitable sites, economic and
environmental impact analysis of the development. Location and topography of the project near
to Abbay river (Blue Nile) some 30 km downstream of its confluence with the Beles river and 20
km upstream of the Ethiopia – Sudan border. and located between latitudes and north
and longitudinal of and east. Catchment area for the Border project comprises some
176,918 km2 of the Abbay river basin.
The land around the Border dam site is mountainous, having elevations ranging from 490 metres
above sea level (masl) in the river bed at the dam site to a local peak of 1,255 masl in hills on the
right bank and 1,241 masl in hills on the left bank. There are 30 years long flow series
established for the Border dam site with the use of flow records from kessie gauging station
located at Kessie Bridge in the Nile basin .So the stream flow recording are sufficient for
analysis. The Nile at border site has catchment area of 176918 Km2 and at the kessieBridge
gauging station has catchment’s area of 65784Km2.Therefore, using area ratio estimate the
weighted factor for the transpose of the flow data from the nearest gauged site. In total period
method, the entire available record is used for drawing the flow duration curve. Thus the 30 year
record would produce 347 values of monthly average flows. The determination of the design
flood is done by L-Moment (kurtosis Z4 and skewness Z3). The result shows that the Log
Pearson type III distribution is the nearest distribution to the observed peak flows. Hence, the
design flood is Qd=27,013 . In our case we expect the total storage greater than 60Mm2;
therefore we have taken the return period as 1000 years. For the determination of reservoir
capacity three consecutive dry years (1982-1984) are taken from the given data for flow mass
curve analysis. Based on the selecting criteria of the dam type specially availability of
construction material near by the site and the suitability of the topography and geology of the
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page v

area, roller compacted concrete gravity Dam (RCC) is proposed with total height 83m which
store 14267.33Mm3 with maximum installation capacity of 1549.22MW.
For this specific project, by considering the site condition and dam type, which is RCC gravity
dam, an overflow spillway is selected. The spillway design flood is computed by flood routing
procedure and it is equal to 11000 m3/sec at the middle of the dam having 192m crest width and
designed as ogee shaped crest profile. Before the construction of dam, cofferdam with 14.5m
height is proposed. The layout of the power plant is dictated by the search for high hydraulic
head between the reservoir area and the downstream river valley while ensuring convenient site
and very economical layout. The gross head available at the site is 60m with net head of
58.152m.The steel lined penstock of 120m length with diameter of 7m is designed to convey
discharge directly from the reservoir to the units. Since there is a desired head, generating
coefficient and turbine speed Francis turbine is considered as the appropriate turbine type with
vertical alignment to reduce surface requirement in the surface powerhouse. Fourteen units with
installed capacity of 110.65 Mw (for each) are recommended. The turbines are installed, 4.089m
below the tailrace level to reduce cavitation.
The detail dimension of the turbine runner, scroll casing and draft tube are given in the report.
The generator also designed as, 1.02m diameter, 2.48m height and 430.14 tones in weight. The
cranes required to stand the rotor part of the generator for maintenance have capacity of 150
tones and two in number.
Environmental impact with positive and negative side is identified and mitigation measures are
recommended. The cost of the project and the bill of quantities are done using the resent cost of
structures and electro mechanical equipment. The economic feasibility of the project is assessed
by benefit cost ratio method, which gives B/C ratio 1.7814, and internal rate of interest (IRR) is
found 6.045 %.
The sensitivity analysis of energy cost is also done. Finally, we give recommendation and
conclusion about the project for further studies.
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page vi

Contents
CERTIFICATE ............................................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.............................................................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. v
LIST OF FIGURE....................................................................................................................................... xii
LIST OF TABLE ....................................................................................................................................... xiii
ABBREVIATION.................................................................................................................................... xxiv
CHAPTER-ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Description of the project area .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Location and topography ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2.2 Geology of the area ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Climate and rainfall ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Data availability.................................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER- TWO ......................................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 Hydrology ............................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Availability of Hydrological Data ....................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Checking the consistency of data ...................................................................................................... 7
2.5 Transposing of hydrological Data to Dam site .................................................................................. 8
2.6 Flow duration curve ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Test for outliers ................................................................................................................................ 10
2.8 Design Flood ..................................................................................................................................... 11
2.8.1 Estimation of Designed Flood ................................................................................................... 11
2.8.2 Flood Frequency Analysis.......................................................................................................... 12
2.9 selection of return period ............................................................................................................... 16
2.10 Risk and Reliability ........................................................................................................................ 17
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page vii

CHAPTER -THREE ................................................................................................................................... 18

3.0 Reservoir planning ................................................................................................................................ 18
3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................. 18
3.2 Storage capacity determination ...................................................................................................... 18
3.2.1 Sequent peak algorithm ............................................................................................................ 18
3.3.2 Mass-curve method .................................................................................................................. 18
3.3 Reservoir Capacity determination ................................................................................................... 19
3.4 Reservoir Sedimentation ................................................................................................................ 21
3.4.1General ....................................................................................................................................... 21
3.4.2 Computation of probable life of reservoir ............................................................................... 22
3.5 Control of sedimentation in reservoirs ........................................................................................... 23
3.6 Flood routing .................................................................................................................................... 24
3.6.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 24
3.6.2 Inflow hydrograph ..................................................................................................................... 24
3.6.3. Out flow hydrograph ................................................................................................................ 25
CHAPTER -FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 28
4.0 Dam Work............................................................................................................................................. 28
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................. 28
4.2 Selection of suitable dam site .......................................................................................................... 28
4.3 Classification of Dams ...................................................................................................................... 29
4.4 Selection of type of dam .................................................................................................................. 31
4.5 Modes of failure and criteria for Structural stability of dam.......................................................... 31
4.6 Stress analysis................................................................................................................................... 33
4.7 Design of gravity dam .................................................................................................................... 35
4.7.1Forces acting on gravity dam ..................................................................................................... 35
4.7.2 Determination of section of the Dam....................................................................................... 38
4.8 Dam Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 41
4.8.1 Stability Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 41
4.9. Inspection Galleries ......................................................................................................................... 46
4.10. Foundation Treatment .................................................................................................................. 46
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page viii

4.11. Dam Construction ......................................................................................................................... 47

4.12. Dam safety instrumentation and surveillance ............................................................................. 47
CHAPTER-FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 48
5.0 Spillways and Energy Dissipator .......................................................................................................... 48
5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................. 48
5.2 Essential requirements of a spillway ............................................................................................... 48
5.3 Selection of spillway site and type .................................................................................................. 49
5.4 Cavitation ......................................................................................................................................... 49
5.5 Ogee or over flow spillway .............................................................................................................. 50
5.5.1. Crest shape of overflow spillway ................................................................................................. 50
5.5.2 Designing of the crest ogee spillway ........................................................................................ 50
5.6 Energy Dissipation ............................................................................................................................ 56
5.7 Design of bottom outlet /hydraulics of outlet/ .............................................................................. 60
CHAPTER- SIX.......................................................................................................................................... 62
6. 0 Conveyance Structures......................................................................................................................... 62
6.1. General ............................................................................................................................................ 62
6.2 Intake Structure................................................................................................................................ 62
6.1.1 Types of intakes......................................................................................................................... 62
6.1.2 Selection of intake and location of intake site ......................................................................... 63
6.1.3 Design of Bell Mouth Shape Entry ............................................................................................ 64
6.1.4. Design of Trash Rack ................................................................................................................ 65
6.1.5 Aeration in Intakes .................................................................................................................... 67
6.2 Determination of Intake Loss........................................................................................................... 68
6.3 Penstock ........................................................................................................................................... 70
6.3.1 Design of penstock .................................................................................................................... 70
6.3.2 Thickness of penstock ............................................................................................................... 72
6.4 Design of Manifolds ......................................................................................................................... 74
6.5 Diversion Structures ......................................................................................................................... 75
6.5.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 75
6.5.2 Estimation of design flood ........................................................................................................ 75
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page ix

6.5.3 Coffer Dam Design..................................................................................................................... 76

CHAPTER-SEVEN .................................................................................................................................... 83
7.0 Design of Power House and Hydropower Units ................................................................................... 83
7.1 General ............................................................................................................................................. 83
7.1.1 Gross Head (HG) ......................................................................................................................... 83
7.1.2 Estimation of Net Head (HN ) .................................................................................................... 83
7.2 Powerhouse planning ...................................................................................................................... 83
7.2.1 Firm power and installed capacity............................................................................................ 84
7.2.2 Determination of number of units ........................................................................................... 85
7.3.1 General: ..................................................................................................................................... 85
7.3.2 Selection of turbine ................................................................................................................... 86
7.3.3 Performance of turbine ........................................................................................................... 87
7.3.4 Hydraulic Design of Turbine ...................................................................................................... 88
7.3.5. Electromechanical equipments ............................................................................................... 97
7.4 The powerhouse ............................................................................................................................... 99
7.4.1 Types of powerhouse .............................................................................................................. 100
7.4.2 Dimensions of powerhouse .................................................................................................... 100
7.5 Cavitation ....................................................................................................................................... 102
7.6 Other hydropower equipment’s .................................................................................................... 104
7.6.1 Turbine governor..................................................................................................................... 104
CHAPTER- EIGHT .................................................................................................................................. 105
8.0 Environmental Impact Assessments ................................................................................................... 105
8.1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 105
8.2 Environmental impact of Border hydropower .............................................................................. 106
CHAPTER- NINE .................................................................................................................................... 109
9.0 Cost Evaluations and Economic Analysis.......................................................................................... 109
9.1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 109
9.2 Cost Evaluation ............................................................................................................................... 109
9.3 Power developed versus Operating and maintenance costs ....................................................... 114
9.4 Valuation of benefit ....................................................................................................................... 114
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page x

9.5 Sensitivity analysis ......................................................................................................................... 116

9.6 Financial cash-flow analysis ........................................................................................................... 117
CHAPTER- TEN ...................................................................................................................................... 118
10.0 Conclusion and Recommendation .................................................................................................... 118
10.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 118
10.2 Recommendation ......................................................................................................................... 118
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 120
ANNEX .................................................................................................................................................... 121
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xi

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1.1 Location of project area ............................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2.1 Double mass curve ...................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.2 Flow Duration Curve ................................................................................................................. 10
Figure 2.3 Moment ratio diagram ............................................................................................................... 15
Figure 3.1 Flow mass curve ....................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 3.2elevation area capacity curve ...................................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.3 Inflow hydrograph ..................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.4Inflow and out flow hydrographs ............................................................................................... 26
Figure 4.1Dam cross-section ...................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 5.1 spill way crest profile ................................................................................................................ 56
Figure 5.2 Water depth at pre-jump and post-jump .................................................................................... 58
Figure 5.3 Tail water rating curve ............................................................................................................... 59
Figure 5.4 Dam section at the spillway ....................................................................................................... 60
Figure 6.1 U/s and D/s cofferdam profile ................................................................................................... 80
Figure 7.1 spiral casing ............................................................................................................................... 94
Figure7.2Draft tube dimension ................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 9.1Sensitivity analysis ................................................................................................................. 117
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xii

LIST OF TABLE
Table 2.1 Gauging station ............................................................................................................................. 5
Table 2.2 Guideline for selecting the return period .................................................................................... 16
Table 3.1 Estimation of useful life by trap efficiency ................................................................................. 23
Table 4.1 Character of site and suitable dam type (NOVAK) .................................................................... 30
Table 5.1coordinates of the downstream profile ......................................................................................... 55
Table 6.1Unsupported length of bar in cm for velocities (m/s) .................................................................. 67
Table 6.2 coordinates of phereatic line for different values x and y. .......................................................... 79
Table 8.1 Summary of environmental and social impact of Border hydropower project ......................... 106
Table 9.1 Detailed cost estimate .............................................................................................................. 109
Table 9.2 Detail calculation for IRR ......................................................................................................... 116
Table 9.3 sensitivity analysis calculation .................................................................................................. 117
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xiii

ABBREVIATION
Symbols/abbreviations Descriptions
B/C Benefit cost ratio

Cm Centimeter
FDC Flow duration curve
GEV General extreme value
HFL High flood level
HRL High reservoir level
IRR Internal rate of return
kg Kilogram
KWh Kilo watt-hour
M Million
MW Mega Watt
m meter
mm millimeter
Km Kilometer
MFL maximum flood level
NPL Normal pool level
NPV Net present value
ICS Inter connected system
SCS self contained system
Ton/yr tones per yea
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xiv

CHAPTER-ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Ethiopia is gifted with ample amount of water resource that can be utilized for any water
resource development. Since the country has abundant river flow and also the topography is
suitable for power generation, hydro power can be the cheapest and the main sources of energy
in the country.
Hydropower has a great advantage as it is continuous source of energy while thermal power has
a depleted fossil fuel sources, besides hydropower doesn’t consume the water.
The total population of the country is estimated to be more than 77 Million of which about 85%
of the population lives in the rural areas and almost with no access to electricity, road, education
…etc.
In the near future sufficient energy and capacity appears to be available to satisfy the demand.
However a significant risk remains of continuing energy shortages depending on successful
completion of ongoing rehabilitation and construction project .It is clear that with the generation
project currently committed for implementation, the sustainability of electric demand of the
country will be guaranteed.
By this time inter connected system (ICS) consists of 8-hydro, 10-dieseal, and 1-geothermal
power plant with total installed capacity of 635.35MW, 22MW and 7.3MW respectively.
However due to aging of the plants the dependable total capacity is about 456.4MW excluding
the newly commissioned Gilgel-Gibe hydroelectric power plant and the peak demand is around
390MW. Over 98% of the total generation in the country comes from inter connected system
(ICS) and of the supply system 99% is from hydro.
The self-contained system (SCS) consists of three small hydropowers and several diesel power
plants. Generation in this system is mainly by diesel power plant having an aggregate capacity of
13.86MW. The contribution of the small hydropower plant is only 6.15MW.
1.2 Description of the project area
1.2.1 Location and topography
Abbay river (Blue Nile) some 30 km downstream of its confluence with the Beles river and 20
km upstream of the Ethiopia – Sudan border and located between latitudes and north
HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 1

and longitudinal of and east. Catchment area for the Border project comprises some
176,918 km2 of the Abbay river basin.
Much of the upper part of the basin comprises the highland plateau with elevation generally
exceeding 2000 m. The plateau exhibits extensive level areas with intensive agriculture divided
by incised valleys. Mountain peaks rise to over 4000 m in the North. The Abbay flows
generally within a deeply incised gorge which has a relatively gentle gradient falling some 645 m
over 600 km from an elevation of El.1030 m at Kessie bridge to El. 485 m at the kessie bridge to
El.485 m at the sudden Border.
BORDER DAM SITE
Figure 1.1 Location of project area

The land around the Border dam site is mountainous, having elevations ranging from 490 metres
above sea level (masl) in the river bed at the dam site to a local peak of 1,255 masl in hills on the
right bank and 1,241 masl in hills on the left bank. Upstream of the Border dam site, the valley
opens into a basin with low relief, typically surrounding land lying between 500 and 600 masl
with a number of areas of high ground greater than 1,000 masl.

The Abbay has confluences with two principal and perennial tributaries in this potential reservoir
area, Beles on the right bank and Dabus on the left bank. Beles river joins Abbay 30 km
upstream of the dam site. Other tributaries are shorter in length and are seasonal.
There are a series of rapids at the dam site, similar to cataracts on the Main Nile in Sudan, but no
natural waterfall. The dam itself creates the head of the project for power generation.
1.2.2 Geology of the area
At the Border dam site the Abbay river traverses an area of mountainous terrain with peaks rising
from river level at 490m up to elevation 1850m. These mountains are the topographic
expression of a complex intrusion of granite, granitic gneiss, and granodiorite gneiss. Typically
the mountains are dome shaped with concave slopes extending down to the river. The mountain
summits and upper slopes are often formed by large exfoliated domes of granite or gneiss.
Where the Abbay river crosses these granitic rocks the valley becomes quite narrow and incised
with a rocky river bed and frequent rapids, indicative of relatively fast flow and only shallow
accumulation of alluvium. Immediately upstream of the dam centre line the river valley opens
up dramatically into a wide open plain.
This contrast in morphology between the two differing rock formations ensures a relatively
narrow valley for the dam on granitic foundation, with a wide-open valley upstream of the dam,
ensuring high storage potential. This combination of morphological factors determines the
favourable characteristics of Border dam site.
Geological mapping at the site confirmed the existence of the two broad geological formations
divisions; namely the Granite /Granite Gneiss Formation and the Biotite Schist / Marble
Formations. The latter formation presents a significantly weaker rock mass than the former, and
needs to be avoided as a foundation rock for the dam.
The Border project area appears to be located in a relatively low seismic hazard zone. Mapping
of seismic activity in Ethiopia and the neighbouring regions from 1906 until 2003 indicates that
Border dam site is 300km away from the nearest epicentre.
1.3 Climate and rainfall
Climate in the Ethiopian highlands is strongly influenced by the effects of elevation, which gives
rise to distinct zones and characteristics. Traditional classifications based on altitude and

temperature indicates presence of five zones, of which three are predominant in the Abbay river
basin. Kola -tropical hot and arid type, below 1500 m altitude with mean temperature in the
range 20-28ºC. Woin Dega – sub-tropical warm, between 1500-2500 m altitudes with mean
temperature in the range 16-20ºC. Dega – temperate highland climate above 2500 m altitude with
mean temperature in the range 6-16ºC.
Rain fall
In regard to rainfall regimes and seasons, a standard nomenclature for Ethiopia has been
compiled by NMSA. In different parts of the country rainfall regimes are described as Mono-
modal, Bi-model and Diffuse. In much of the Abbay river basin the mono-modal pattern pre-
dominates, as defined by just two distinct seasons: wet and dry.
Temperature
Mean annual temperature in the border project area is between 25 and
1.4 Data availability
The stream flow data of 30 years with a few missing values are available at kessie station.

CHAPTER- TWO
2.0 Hydrology
2.1 General
Hydrology is used for designing and planning of dams, spillways reservoirs and other hydraulic
structures. All planning in hydrology terms is predicted on the assumption that the past history of
water occurrence will be repeated in the future. It helps for the design and operation of hydraulic
structures. To plan these structures we need one of the following;
i) The flood of certain frequency
ii) Daily flows for determine the storage capacity of the reservoir
iii) The discharge available for a certain percentage of time.
The design of water resource project like hydropower project , the peak magnitude of the flood are of
great important to design economical as well as structures with less probability of failure. If the
selected design flood is too high, it results in a conservative and unnecessary costly structure while
adoption of a low design flood can, if a higher than this occurs, results in the loss of the structure itself
causing there by untold misery to the people residing down steam, besides damaging valuable
immovable properties .It is because of this that a detailed study of hydrology is very important in
practice.
2.2 Availability of Hydrological Data
There are 30 years long flow series established for the Border dam site with the use of flow
records from kessie gauging station located at Kessie Bridge in the Nile basin .So the stream
flow recording are sufficient for analysis.
Table 2.1Gauging station

Station no. Station Location Drainage area (Km^2 No. of years of
record
1 Abay at Kessie 65784 30

2.3 Estimation of missing data

When under taking an analysis of run of data from gauges where monthly observations are made,
it is often to find months where no observations are recorded at one or more gauges.
Therefore, it is often necessary to estimate this missing records .The missing data can be
estimated by using the data of neighboring station.
There are different methods of filling the missing data such as
arithmetic average method,
normal ratio method,
linear regression method
For this particular project a better way is to fit a linear regression line between successive
months. If the correlation coefficients is in the range 0.6 < r<1.0 indicates good correlation.
The equation for linear regression between the preceding and the succeeded monthly runoff is
The equation for linear regression is:
Y= a+ b X
Where: X – monthly runoff of the specific month for which the data is available for the
hydrological year considered
Y – Monthly runoff of the specific month following the month for which the data is
available in which the missing data is going to be determined.
And a and b are constants.
N N N N
Y  X 2   X Y
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
a= 2
N
  N
N X 2   X 
i 1  i 1 
N N N
N  XY   X *  Y
i 1 i 1 i 1
b=
 N 
N
N  X 2    2
i 1  i 1 

N N N
N  XY   X  Y
i 1 i 1 i 1
r=
 N 2
 N 2  N  2  
  N X 2   X 
N
 N  Y    Y   
  
 i 1   i 1  i 1   
  i 1 
Where:-
a and b are constants.
r=correlation coefficient
N=number of years with available data (number of data considered in the particular
months).
2.4 Checking the consistency of data
Before using stream flow data it should be checked for consistency. If the conditions relevant to
the recording of rain gauge station have undergone a significant change during the period of
record, inconsistency would arise. The common causes of inconsistency of records are.
a. Shifting of rain gauge stations to a new location.
b. The neighborhood of the stations may have undergone a marked change.
c. Change in the environment due to calamities such as forest fired landslides and
d. Due to observational error from a certain date both personal and instrumental etc.
The most common method of checking for inconsistency of record is Double Mass Curve
analysis (DMC). The curve is a plot on arithmetic graph paper, of cumulative run off collected at
a gauge where measurement condition may have changed significantly against the average of the
cumulative run off for the same period of record collected at several gauges in the same region.
The data is arranged in the reverse order, that is the latest record as the first entry and the oldest
record as the last entry in the list .A change in the proportionality between the measurements at
the suspect station and those in the region is reflected in a change in the scope of the trend of the
plotted points.
In the double mass curve analysis of Border station the data are more consistent as we observe
from graph cumulative sum versus average cumulative run off of Kessie station is nearly a
straight line and there is no significant change in the slope.
As the curve below shows the recorded data are almost consistent.

Figure 2.1 Double mass curve

The DMC table of Kessie station is shown in Annex(2)
2.5 Transposing of hydrological Data to Dam site
Planning and designing of hydraulic structure need adequate hydrological information of a
specific area or the region at large .This includes observed stream flow at any site .But many
sites do not have adequate number of gauging stations or that are recently established or there
may not be gauging station in the catchments at all. In such cases, transfer of required
information (flood data) from gauging site to ungauged sites becomes very important.
The Nile at border site has catchment area of 176918Km2 and at the Kessie Bridge gauging
station has catchment’s area of 65784Km2.Therefore, using area and precipitation ratio estimate
the weighted factor for the transpose of the flow data from the gauged site.
Qu = Wf * Qg Where Qu – parameter of ungauged site
Qg – parameter of gauged site
Wf – weighted factor =Au/Ag
Au – area of ungauged site
Ag – area of gauged site
Therefore, Wf =176,918/65,784=2.689377
The transposed discharge from kessie Bridge to the dam site is tabulated in Annex (3).

2.6 Flow duration curve

Flow duration curve is a useful way of treating the time variability of water discharge in
hydropower project. A flow duration curve is a plot of stream flow verses percentage of time of a
particular flow can be expected to be exceeded
There are methods in order to utilize the flow data available for the entire period, such as;
 Total period method
 Calendar year method
In calendar year method, each year’s average monthly flow is first arranged in ascending order.
Then the average flow values corresponding to the driest month, second driest month and so on
up to the wettest months are found out by taking arithmetic mean of all values of the same rank.
These average values are then used for plotting flow duration curve. Such a curve would have 12
points
In total period method, the entire available record is used for drawing the flow duration curve.
Thus the 30 year record would produce 360 values of monthly average flows. These are first
tabulated in the ascending order starting from the driest month period and ending with the
wettest month of the 30 years of duration or vice versa.
The resulting flow duration curve would then be drawn with the help of 347 values. The firm
flow is 35.8m3/s and average is 1682m3/s

Figure 2.2 Flow Duration Curve

The total period method gives more accurate results than the calendar year method which
averages out extreme events. Therefore, for this project the total period method is used.
Computation of flow duration curve using total year method is tabulated in Annex (4).
2.7 Test for outliers
An out layer is an observation that deviates significantly from the bulk of the data, which may be
due to errors in data collection, or recording, due to natural causes. The presence of outlier in the
data causes difficulties when fitting a distribution to the data.
Thus, both the high and low outlier’s threshold values should be determined in order to omit the
respective outliers using the equation give below:-
YH/L =Y mean ± KN *SY
Where YH/L = High and low outliers threshold value
SY=Standard deviation
Y mean =Average value
KN = Statistic value that depend on significance level
KN = -3.62201+ 6.28446N1/4- 2.491436N1/2+ 0.491436N3/4- 0.037911N
(Approximate Values of using 10% significance level)
The Computation of coefficient of skewness, Standard deviation and average of data is presented
on table - Annex -3
N=30 years
KN = 2.601849
1. Calculation of Average discharge in log unit
Y 
n
log10 yi
Y mean = 3.82
i 1 n
Calculation of Standard deviation ,SY
S y = 0.214725
calculation of skewness coefficient, Cs

Cs= -0.18548
calculation of coefficient of variation, C v
C v= S y/y mean =0.214725/3.82
C v= 0.0562
Therefore, the test for high outliers is applied first
YH=y mea n + k n * S y
YH = 4.382585
QH = 24131.54m3/s
From the above result test for the outliers there are no high outliers about of this flow.
Then secondly check for lower outliers
YL = Y mean – K n * S y
YL = 3.265221
QL = 1841.708m3/s
Hence no flow below this in maximum flow
As a result shows us the discharge which less than QL will no eliminated .therefore there is no
higher and lower observed data from the outliers.
2.8 Design Flood
Design flood is the maximum flood that any structure can safely pass.
Hydraulic structures such as dams demand greater attention to the magnitude of floods used in
the design. The failures of these structures cause large loss of life and great property damage on
the dawn stream of the structure.
2.8.1 Estimation of Designed Flood
To estimate the magnitude of peak flood the following alternative methods are available;
Rational method
Empirical method
Unit hydrograph technique and
Flood frequency analysis
The use of a particular method depends up on the desired objective, the available data and the
importance of the project.
The rational method is only applicable to small catchments (<70) and the unit hydrograph method is
restricted to moderate size of catchments area less than 500Km2. The empirical formula is essentially
regional formula based on statically correlation of the observed peak and important catchments
characteristics. Flood frequency analyses are the statistics method of frequency studies. Therefore, based
on the available data, project type and the size of the catchment’s area (176918 Km 2) the frequency
analysis method is selected for Border hydropower project.
2.8.2 Flood Frequency Analysis
In this method, the predictions for the future flood are made based on the available records of the past
flood. It can safely be used to determine the maximum flood that is expected on a river with a given
frequency on condition that sufficient past record data are available.
2.8.2.1 Parameter Estimator
The most commonly used parameter estimators are:
The method of moment
Method of maximum likelihood
The probability weighted moment
To select and evaluate the parent distribution, L-moment is the recent method and it gives
efficient result as compared with other methods of evaluation of parent distributions.
2.8.2.2 Estimation of L- Moment
L-moments are ways of summarize the statistical properties of hydrologic data. The first L-
moment estimator is the mean.
l1= E [x]
Let X (i/n) be the ith largest observation in a sample of size n (i= 1 corresponding to the largest).
Then, for any distribution the second L- moment is a description of scale based on the expected
difference between two randomly selected observations:
l2= ½*E[X (1/2) - X (2/2)]
Similarly L-moment measures of skew ness and kurtosis use;
l3=1/3*E[X (1/3) - 2*(X (2/3)) + X (3/3)]

l4=1/4*E[X (1/4) - 3*(X (2/4)) + 3*(X (3/4)) - X (4/4)]

L- Moment estimator: - L-moment can be written as function of probability weighted moment
(PWMs) which can be defined as
br = E{X [F(X)] r}
When unbiased ness is important one can employ unbiased PWM estimator:
b0= X
n 1
 n  j X 
j 1
j
b1=
nn  1
 n  j n  j  1X 
n2
j
j 1
b2 =
nn  1n  2
n 3
 n  j n  j  1n  j  2X 

j 1
j
b3 =
nn  1n  2n  3
For any distribution, L-moments are easily calculated interms of PWMs from;
λ1 = b0= 7464.34
λ2 = 2b1 - b0=1973.352
λ3 = 6b2 - 6b1 + b0 =391.281
λ4 = 20b3 -30b2 + 12b1- b0=71.7707
L-moment ratio
Z2= λ2/λ1 =0.264370594
Z3= λ3/λ2= 0.198282299
Z4= λ4/λ2= 0.036373173
relationship between the third and the fourth L-moment ratios for different types of frequency
distribution

Uniform distribution,
z3 =0, z4 =0
Exponential distribution
z3=1/3, z4 = 1/6
c) Normal distribution
z3= 0, z4 = 0.1226
d) Gumbel distribution
z3= 0.1699, z4 = 0.1504
e) Log- normal distribution
z4= 0.12282 + 0.77518 z32 + 0.12279 z34 – 0.13638 z36 + 0.11368 z38
z4 = 0.153502
f) General Extreme value distribution
z4 = 0.1070 + 0.11090 z3 + 0.84838 z32 – 0.06669 z33 +
0.00567 z34 – 0.04208z35 +0.03763 z36
z4 =0.161821
g) Log-Pearson Type III distribution
z4 = 0.1224 +0.30115 z32 +0.95812 z34 – 0.57488 z36 +0.19383 z38
z4= 0.135687
Based on the L-Moment estimator, the value of sample Z4 is close to the value of Z4 computed
using log pearson type III distribution. Therefore, the most fitted probable distribution for this
specific project is log pearson distribution.
The graphical representation of the relationship between L-skew ness (Z3) and kurtosis (Z4) and
the values of Z3 and Z4 of the dam site is given below.

Figure 2.3 Moment ratio diagram
2.8.2.3 Log-pearson type III distribution

In this method ,the flow values in the record are first converted the logarithmic form of base ten
Step wise the procedure is as follows:-
List the discharges vertically in descending order
Obtain a log of the discharges and list them in another column
Determine the skewness, from the following equation:
Cs=
Z=log Qp
Where:-Cs-skiwness coefficient
Qp-peak discharge
N-number of year
,σ =
Σ-= standard deviation

Obtain the frequency factor, K from table (RozgarBaban, Design of diversion head works)
Kz=f(Cs,Tp)
5. For the selected value of, the design flood is calculated by:
Qtot= mean logQp+kσ

Qd =antilog (logQtot)
Qd-design discharge
parameters used log Pearson
distribution
σ 0.21472506
Cs -0.185475943
k 2.83
Qd=27,013
2.9 selection of return period
Return period (T) is the average interval in year between events when equal or excess to a given
magnitude. It may however be clearly understood the concept of return period does not imply that the
event of any given magnitude will occur at a constant or event approximately constant interval of n
years. It only indicates average frequency of occurrence of an event over a long period of time of years.
Selecting higher return period means the corresponding flood magnitude is also very high. Such a very
high flood may never occur during the life time of the structure. On the other hand, if a very low
discharge corresponding to low return period is chosen for design, it will results in the failure of the
structure causing damage.
General guideline for selecting the return period
A. Table 2.2:Table 1.2 Guideline for selecting the return period
Type of structure Return period (year)
3
1.Spillways for project with storage more than 60Mm 1000
2.Barrage and minor dams with storage less than 60Mm3 100
3 .Spillway of small reservoir dam in 10-20

considering not endangering urban residences
Diversion weir 50-100

In our case we expect the total storage greater than 60Mm2; therefore we have taken the return period as
1000 years (SUBERMANYA).
2.10 Risk and Reliability
The design of a hydraulic structure always faces a nagging doubt about the risk of failure of
structures .This is because of the estimation of the hydrologic design values such as design flood
involves or inbuilt uncertainty and such as hydraulic risk of failure.
Risk (Ř) is the probability of occurrence of an event (X≥ XT) at least once of over a period of n
years, where n is the useful life of the reservoir (1000 years).
Reliability (Re) is the probability of nonoccurrence of the events (X≤ XT) in n years.
Ř= 1-(1-P) n =1-(1-1/T) n
Re = 1- Ř= (1-1/T) n
Where;
P =probability of event (X>XT) =1/T
Re= reliability
Ř= risk
n= expected life of the structure
T = return period
Since a useful life of 100 and a return period of 1000 years are considered.
Ř= 1-(1-1/1000)100=9.5%
Re = 1- Ř
=90.5%
Thus the possible risk of flood damage by a flood magnitude exceeding the 1000 years frequency
in the assumed life of the reservoir is about 9.5 % with the reliability of confidence of 90.5%.

CHAPTER -THREE
3.0 Reservoir planning
3.1 General
Certain hydropower projects are designed to meet the day to day fluctuations in load, for such
fluctuations a small amount of storage is required such storage is called pondage where as
storage is the quantity of water stored by creating a reservoir to meet the load deficiency in more
than one year.
3.2 Storage capacity determination
The storage capacity of a reservoir to meet the demand of continuous supply is determined with
the help of the observed discharge data of stream or river on which the dam is to be built.
Some of the methods that are used in order to determine the storage capacity include sequent
peak algorithm, and Mass-curve method.
3.2.1 Sequent peak algorithm
In sequent peak algorithm a mass curve of cumulative net flow volume against chronological
time is used. This residual mass curve will have peaks (local max) and troughs (local
minimums). For any peak ‘p’, the next following peak of magnitude greater than p is the sequent
peak. Using the data’s of the minimum flow years the required storage capacity can be
determined.
3.3.2 Mass-curve method
A mass curve is a curve of cumulative net reservoir inflow against time and as such it rises
continuously. Any point on the curve indicates total inflow from the beginning of the period up
to the given time. The slope of the tangent to the mass-curve at any time is a measure of inflow
at that time.
Demand line is a line drawn for showing the demand pattern. The mass curve thus gives the
relationship between the accumulated inflow and outflow and the water available for storage at
any given time from the beginning of the year.
Demand line drawn tangent to the high points of inflow mass curve represent rates of withdrawal
from the reservoir. The reservoir is full where ever a demand curve coincides the inflow curve.

The maximum vertical ordinate between the two curves represents the reservoir storage capacity
to meet the demand during the dry period. A demand line must intersect the mass curve when
extended forward; otherwise the reservoir is not going to fill again.
For the determination of reservoir capacity three consecutive dry years (1984-1985) are taken
from the given data for mass curve analysis.
N.B. Mass flow calculation is tabulated in Annex (7)
Figure 3.1 Flow mass curve

3.3 Reservoir Capacity determination
Area-Elevation Curve
Area –elevation curve is one of the methods used to determine the capacity of reservoir area on
the selected site. The water spread of the reservoir at any elevation is determined by measuring
the area between the contours by plan meter.
Volume determination
Volume of storage (V) or capacity of the reservoir at equal intervals (H) is calculated as under
I-Trapezoidal formula (volume between two successive contours only)
 A  A2 
V  1  * H ……………………(*)
 2 
Where, A1&A2 are areas of succeeding contours

H – The vertical distance between successive contours.
II-Cone formula (volume between two successive contours only)
V
H
3

* A1  A2  A1 A2 
Where A1&A2 are areas of succeeding contours and
H – is the vertical distance is between two alternative contours.
III-Prismodal formula (volume between two successive contours only)
*  A1  A3  4 A2 
H
V
6
Where, A1& A2 are areas of succeeding contour intervals.
H- The vertical distance between two alternative contours.
Am- Area within contours like mid way between the two adjacent contour
Figure 3.2 Elevation area capacity curve

3.4 Reservoir Sedimentation

3.4.1General
Every river carries certain amount of sediment load which is produced due to erosion in their
catchment’s areas. The amount of sediment deposition depends on the extent of erosion in the
catchment area which depends on the following factors:
i) Nature of soil in the catchment area
ii) Topography of the catchments
iii) Vegetation covers
iv ) Intensity of Rainfall
Useful Life of Reservoir
As the concentration of sediment deposition in a reservoir increases, the life of the reservoir
becomes short. Then a stage will reach that the reservoir area not able to serve for its intended
purpose.
The rate of sedimentation depends on the trap efficiency. Trap efficiency is a function of the
reservoir capacity to the total inflow.
Trap efficiency, T = total sediment retained *100

Total sediment
From most reservoirs the useful life is assumed as 50 years. For Border hydropower project
monthly sediment inflow from the local area are given at the dam site. The inflow at
36.5m^3/sec from the regulated flow of border is without bed load(i.e. desilted water).The mean
annual suspended load entered into the reservoir is calculated as below.
Annual inflow`=140M tone/yr
We take density of old sediment=1.55M tone /m3
Therefore annual sediment inflow=140 M tone/yr/1.55M tone/m3
=90.32Mm3/yr
Than dead storage=90.32Mm3/yr*50yr
=4516Mm3
Total reservoir = Dead load +Live load
=4516Mm3+9600Mm3

=14116Mm3
Therefore, from area elevation capacity curve for a storage capacity of V=14116Mm3, the
elevation of reservoir =571m.a.m.s.l and Area of the reservoir = 416.06km2
But for calculation purpose it is normally taken as two third of the maximum area of the
reservoir.
So, from the given data of annual average evaporation depth
(Et) =1639mm /yr and annual average depth of precipitation
(P mean) =1236mm/yr.
Total volume of evaporation =A mean *Et*k
Where; Amean=reservoir surface area that is used for evaporation calculation
Et= annual evaporation depth (mm/yr)
K= pan evaporation coefficient that vary from 0.6 to 0.8. So, pan coefficient of 0.7 is mostly
recommended. K. SUBRAMANYA (1994)
A mean=2/3*A max=277.4km2
Net evaporation=403mm/yr
So, volume of evaporation =277.4*(403/1000)=151.33Mm3
Therefore, total storage capacity =dead storage +live storage + net evaporation volume
= 4516Mm3 +9600Mm3 +151.3Mm3
=14267.33456Mm3 is the total storage capacity.
Therefore, from area elevation capacity curve for a storage capacity of V=14267.33Mm 3, the
elevation of reservoir =580m.a.m.s.l.
3.4.2 Computation of probable life of reservoir
Annual average sediment inflow = 90.32 Mm3/yr
Average annual inflow rate = 1550m3/sec
= 1550 *365*24*3600
= 8704.8 Mm3
Total reservoir capacity =live storage +dead storage + net volume evaporatio
= 9600Mm3 + 4516Mm3 +151.33Mm3
= 14267.33Mm3

For the 50 years the dead storage

=90.32Mm3/yr*50yr
= 4516Mm3
And live storage=9600Mm3
Table 3.1 Estimation of useful life by trap efficiency
capacity inflow At indicated annual incremental years to
capacity ratio vol. average sediment vol. fill
14267 0.291873292 95 94 84.9008 203 54.97004 55
9600 0.196396131 93
Annual sediment trapped = percentage of average for incremental * annual sediment inflow
=94/100*90.32=84.9
Number of years required for filling the dead storage capacity
= (14267Mm3-9600Mm3)/84.9Mm3=55yr
Since the estimated life is 55yrs which means that the sediment volume will take 55 years to
reach the dead storage level so our reservoir is safe for the 50 years useful life.
3.5 Control of sedimentation in reservoirs
In order to increase the life of a reservoir, it is necessary to control the deposition of sediment.
Various measures are under taken in order to achieve this aim. The various methods that are
adopted can be divided in to two parts.
The pre-constructing measures and
Post constructing measures
Pre-constructing measures they are those measures, which are adopted before and during the
execution of the project. These are
Selection of dam site
Construction of the dam in stages
Construction of check dams
Vegetation screens
Construction of under sluice in the dam

Post –constructing measures these measures are under taken during the operation of the project.
These are
Removal of post flooded water
Mechanical stirring of the sediment
Erosion control and soil conservation
3.6 Flood routing
3.6.1 General
The extent by which the inflow hydrograph gets modified, due to the reservoir storage can be
computed by a process known as reservoir routing.
Reservoir routing is a process of computing water level in the reservoir and out flow rates
corresponding to a particular inflow hydrograph at various instant of time. It is carried out to
determine the maximum water level and the corresponding out flow rates when the maximum
flow passes over the spillway. The maximum water level is required for fixing the height of the
dam while the maximum out flow rate is required for the design of spillway.
3.6.2 Inflow hydrograph
It is a graph of inflow versus time. In order to develop an inflow hydrograph
Hourly measured stream flow data or
UH (unit hydrograph) development for the basin
However such information is not available for the Border dam site locations. In order to
construct a unit hydrograph for this project empirical equations of a regional validity, which
relate the salient hydrograph, cross section to the basin are available.
The unit hydrograph derived from such relationships are known as synthetic unit hydrographs.

Figure 3.3 Inflow hydrograph
3.6.3. Out flow hydrograph

There are different techniques that are used in the determination of reservoir routing like trial and
error, modified Pul’s method, and Good rich method.
From these equations the trial and error method is adopted as it is widely used with the help of
computer programming. The equation of continuity used in all the hydrograph routing methods,
as the primary equation, states that the difference between the inflow equation and out flow rate
is equal to the rate of change of storage
I –Q= ∆S/∆t
Where I =inflow rate
Q =out flow rate
∆S = storage
∆t = time interval
Alternatively, in a small time interval ∆t, the difference between the total inflow volume and the
total out flow volume is equal to the change in a storage volume.
i.e.I∆t –Q∆t =∆S
I1  I 2
There fore I avg 
2
Q1  Q2
Qavg 
2
S  S 2  S1
Where the suffixes 1and 2 denote the beginning and the end of the time interval ∆t,
The above equation can be written as:
 I  I2   Q  Q2 
t  1   t  1   S 2  S1
 2   2 
 I  I 2   S1 Q1   S 2 Q2 
 1      
 2   t 2   t 2 
In order to determine the out flow hydrograph first the inflow hydrograph is divided in to a
number of small intervals; for this project ∆t=2hrs. Then calculate the average inflow for the
time interval. As the second term in the bracket is known, at the first time interval, the value in
the right hand side is obtained. The next head is determined by adopting computer (excel spread
sheet).
Figure 3.4 Inflow and out flow hydrographs

For the computation of the above steps the storage is determined by assuming a constant increase
in height for the horizontal surface area (normal pool level) at the top, which is assumed in the
routing technique.
Therefore; S=A*H
Where A=the surface area at normal pool level = 416.09Km2
H= head of water measured above the crest (normal pool level)
And the routing process is done for overflow spillway and discharge over it is computed by the
general equation.
Q  C * L * H 1.5
Where C- Constant B- Length of spillway H- Head above the crest
In the determination of the spillway length 190m, 192m, and 194m are taken for the comparison.
When the length of the spillway decreases the height of the outflow above the spillway will
increase, ultimately, it results in increasing the dam height, which in turn increases the dam cost.
On the other hand when the length of the spillway increases it will make the design of the
spillway more costly.
Taking in to account all the above advantage and disadvantage and considering the span that
gives large discharge reduction for small change in length the effective length of the spillway is
chosen to be 192m.
The hydro graph analysis is shown in ANNEX (8)
For C=2.2, and L=192m
From the graph of flood routing the maximum discharge over the spillway, Qmax =11000m3/s,
and the corresponding height is 9m.
Therefore for the design of the spillway Qmax=11000m3/s at an elevation of (9+571) =
580m.a.m.s.l.

CHAPTER -FOUR
4.0 Dam Work
4.1 General
A dam is an obstruction or a barrier built across a stream or a river. At the back of the barrier,
water gets collected forming a pool of water that is termed as up streamside and the other is the
down streamside. The sides on which water gets collected forms the reservoir that has many
applications for hydropower, water supply etc.
4.2 Selection of suitable dam site
In order to select a suitable site for constructing a dam for hydropower generation the following
points should be considered
Suitable foundation
The foundation has to carry the weight of the dam. The dam site must be thoroughly surveyed by
geologist. So as to detect the thickness of the foundation strata, presence of faults, fissured
materials and their permeability, slope and slip etc. should be checked. The reservoir basin
should be reasonably watertight and the stored water should not escape out thought its sidewalls
and bed.
General bed level
The general bed level of the dam site should preferably be higher than that of the river basin and
this will reduce the height of the dam and facilitate the drainage problem.
Spillway size and location
A suitable site for the spillway should be available in the near vicinity; if the spillway is to be
combined with the dam the width of the gorge should be such as to accommodate both.
The best dam site is one in which a narrow deep gorge is separated from the flank by a hillock
with its surface above the dam. Sometimes the spillway and concrete masonry dam may be
compositely spanned in the main gorge while the flanks are in earth at low cost.
Construction materials
Materials required for construction should be easily available either locally or in the near
vicinity, so that the cost of transporting them is as low as possible.

Other considerations
The length of the dam should be as small as possible and for a given height; it should store the
maximum volume of water. It therefore follows that the river valley at the dam site should be
narrow but should open out upstream to provide a large base for a reservoir.
The value of land and property submerged by the proposed reservoir should be as low as
possible. The dam site should be easily accessible so that it can be economically connected to
important towns and cities by rails, roads etc. Site for establishing labor colonies and healthy
environment should be available in the near vicinity. The dam site should be such that the
reservoir could not silt up soon. For this, if the river is transporting relatively large quantity of
sediment, then the dam site may be selected on upstream of the confluence of this tributary with
the river. The dam site should be such that it involves minimum overall cost of construction as
well as minimum cost of subsequent maintenance.
4.3 Classification of Dams
Dams may be classified in various ways according to
1) The material used in the construction of dams they can be classified as
Rigid dam-timber, steel arch, solid gravity etc.
Non rigid-rock fills, earth or the combination of both.
2) Hydraulic design
Non over flow and
Over flow dams
3) Function of the dam
Diversion dams
Detention dams
Storage dams
4) Design criteria / stability consideration
Gravity dams
Non-gravity dams

Table 4.1 Character of site and suitable dam type (NOVAK)

Character of site Type of dam
Foundation character
Impervious solid rock such as schist & genesis Any type
Gravel and coarse sand Earthen dam
Grit, sand and silt clay Earthen dam
Very fine and uniform sand Earthen dam
Clay, plastic clay Earthen dam with flat slope
Silt and fine sand Low gravity dam or earth dam
Heavy over-burden on rock layer Earthen or buttress dam
Character of gorge
V-shaped narrow gorge Arch dam
U-shaped narrow gorge Overflow concrete dam
Wide valley with strong foundation RCC(roller compacted gravity dam
Low wide gorge Earth or rock fill dam
Character of construction material
Sand, shingle and cement involve long distance Buttress dam
carriage
Pervious and impervious soils and stone for Earth or rock fill dam
(rip rap) locally available
Stone required specific gravity and size Stone masonry dam
available
Spillway requirement Ingredients of concrete, i.e., sand, shingle and
cement( locally available) concrete dam
Spillway location separate from the dam Earth dam
Adequate width for dam only Gravity dam with over flow spillway

Large spillway requirement Over flow concrete dam

Character of the region
Seismic zone Earth dam & concrete gravity dam
Excessive up lift pressure exerted Arch dam
4.4 Selection of type of dam

From the above table, geological section & top map seen at the dam site, the dam lays on wide
valley &the foundation is schist & genesis which is hard rock implying that we can choose any
type of dam as per the conditions listed above. But in our case in Border hydropower project, we
select RCC (roller compacted gravity dam) in order to shorten the construction period of the
project.
Because the RCC gravity dam construction method is quicker and requires less labor, it is the
most cost effective than conventionally placed mass concrete. The RCC approach is best suited
to wide valley giving scope for unobstructed end-to –end continuous placing. The construction
saving realized are at maximum for high volume dams and align from a 30% reduction in
construction time as well as from reducing unit cost for the RCC. The vertical rates of the raising
of (2-2.5) meter/week are attainable for RCC gravity dams, which can also lead to be more
economical.
4.5 Modes of failure and criteria for Structural stability of dam
A Gravity dam may fail in the following ways
 Overturning (rotation) about the toe.
 By shear failure (sliding)
 By development of tension, causing ultimate failure by crushing
 By crushing
The failure may occur at the foundation plane (i.e. at the base of the dam) or at any other plane at
higher level.
Overturning stability: - If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam at any of its sections,
passes outside the toe, the dam shall rotate and over turn about the toe.

 M  Ve
FO   M  ve Inclusive of moment generated by up lift
 M  Ve
F O > 1.25 may be acceptable, but F O > 1.5 is desirable.
Sliding stability: - sliding or shear failure will occur when the net horizontal force above any
plane in the dam or the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that level.
Factor of safety against sliding, Fs, estimated using
Sliding factor (F SS )
Friction factor (F SF ) or
Shear Limit equilibrium factor (F LE )
Sliding factor (Fss)
H
F SS = , if it has a horizontal plane F SS >  , where  = 0.75
V
If the foundation plane inclined at a small angle 
 H /  V  tan 
F SS =
1  ( H /  ) tan 
F SS Should not be permitted to exceed  , (where  = 0.75) But under (extreme load
combination) ELC it can be up to 0.9, which is acceptable.
Shear friction factor (SFF) – is defined as the ratio of total resistance to shear and sliding
which can be mobilized on a plane to the total horizontal load.
 V   * q
SFF =
H
Where, B = width of the dam at the joint.
q = average shear strength of the joint which varies from about 1400 km/m2 for poor rocks to
about 4000 km/m2 for good rocks.
- The Value of  generally varies from 0.65 to 0.75
SFF > 3 (for normal load combination) (NLC)
SFF>2 (unusual load combination) (ULC)

SFF>1 (ELC)(extreme load combination)

Limit equilibrium factor (FLE)
 This fallows conventional soil mechanics logic in defining FLE, as the ratio of shear strength
to mean applied shear stress across a plane i.e.
f
FLE = ,

  is the shear stress generated under the applied loading.
f = is the shear strength available and expressed by Mohr coulomb failure criteria.
C. By development of tension
Masonry and concrete gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no tension is
developed anywhere, because these materials cannot with stand sustained tensile stresses.
The maximum permissible tensile stress for high concrete gravity dams, under worst loadings,
may be taken as 500 kN/m2. Therefore, in order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere
in the dam, it must be proved that P min is at most equal to zero.
Hence, the maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of the center is
equal to B/6 i.e. the resultant must be with in the middle third of the base.
d. Cracking or compression
A dam may fail by failure of its materials, i.e. the compressive stresses produced may exceed the
allowable stresses, may get crushed.
V  6e 
P max/min =
B 1  B  where e = eccentricity of resultants from the center of base.
 =Total vertical force, B=base with

If P min is negative, it means that tension shall be produced at the appropriate end and Pmax must
not be greater than 3000kN/m2 for concrete.
4.6 Stress analysis
Average vertical stresses
Principal stress
Shear stress

Average vertical stress: - (P max or P min)

The vertical stresses intensity, P max or P min determined from equation shown below is not the
maximum direct stress produced anywhere in the dam.
V  6e 
P max/min =
B 1  B 
V  6e 
P min=
B 1  B  , P min=0
V  6e 
=
B 1  B  =0
1- 6e/B=0,  e=B/6
 Hence maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of the center is
B
equal to , which leads to the famous statements that the resultant must lay within the middle
6
third of the base.
Principal stress: -(σ 1 and  2 ):
The maximum normal stresses will in fact, be the major principal stress that will be centered on
the major principal plane. To study the principal stress that will develop near the toe, considering
a small element ABC the following equations are derived.
At the toe  1  P toe  sec2 
At the heel,  2  p vheel  sec 2   p w  tan 2  tan  =0.33
Shear stress: -
Shear stress on the horizontal plane near the toe
A shear stress  will act on the fact the face of CA on which vertical stress, acting.
At the toe
 otoe   Pvtoe * tan  , Where; tan   0.85
At the heel,
 oheel   Pvheel  P tan  
 Ve Sign shows that the direction is reversed.

4.7 Design of gravity dam

A gravity dam is a structure, which is designed in such a way that its own weight resists the
external forces. This type of structure is most durable, solid, and requires very little maintenance.
And as it transfers the loads to the foundations by cantilever action, good foundations are
prerequisite for the gravity dam.
4.7.1Forces acting on gravity dam
The structures integrity of a dam must be maintained across the range of circumstances or events
likely to arise in service. The gravity dam is subjected to the following main forces.
A. Primary loads
Water pressure
When the upstream face is vertical, the intensity is zero at the water surface and equal to
 w * H at the base, where  W the unit weight of water and H is the depth of water. The resultant
H
force due to this external water is 0.5 *  w * H 2 and acting at from the base.
3
When the upstream face is partly inclined, the resulting water force can be resolved in to two
components
H
The horizontal component Ph  0.5 *  W * H 2 acts at from the base and vertical component,
3
 is equal to the weight of water stored in the upper inclined portion of the dam and acts at the
center of gravity of the area.
2. Up lift pressure
The pressure variation along the base of the dam is assumed to be linear between the upstream
and the downstream faces.
Total upstream force on the base of the dam
u  Average pressure intensity* area
PU   W * ( H  H ' ) * ( L * B) / 2 And
5* H  2* H '
z From the base.
3( H  H ' )

When drainage galleries are provided to relieve the uplift, the recommended up lift at the face of
gallery u  :
u  w ’+ 1/3 (   ' )
3. Weight of the dam
The weight of the dam body and its foundation is the major resisting force. In two-dimensional
analysis of gravity dam, a unit length of the dam is considered. The cross – section can then be
divided in to rectangles and triangles. The weight of each along with their center of gravities can
be determined. The resultant of all these down ward forces will represent the total weight of the
dam.
w  c. Where, c  unit weight of concrete
  Area of dam profile acting at the centroid
Secondary loads
1. Wave pressure
Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing winds, which cause a
pressure towards the downstream side. Wave pressure depends on the wave weight.
h  0.032 UF  0.763 – 0.271 (F) ¼ … for F< 32km
h  0.032 UF For F>32km

Where, h  height of water from top of the crest to bottom of trough in meters
V = wind velocity in meters
F = Fetch or straight length of water expansion in (km); for Guder hydropower project
F= 10km.
The maximum pressure intensity due to wave may be given by
h
p he =2.4*  wh w and acts at above the still water surface
2
- The total force due to water action (F  )
i.e. Fw=2*γw*hw2and this force acts at a distance 3/8hw above the reservoir surface.
2. Ice Pressure

The ice that may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in cold countries may
sometimes melt and expand. For this particular project as Ethiopia is in tropical zone, this force
is not considered for design.
3. Silt Pressure
Silt is deposited in the reservoir on the upstream of the dam. Silt exerts the earth pressure on the
dam, similarly to that in case of an earth retaining wall. The generated horizontal thrust Ps has
vertical and horizontal component and it is a function of the sediment depth hs , submerged unit
weight  s , and active natural pressure coefficient ka.
a. s .hs
'
hs
Ps = = acts at above the base of the dam.
2 3
 s   s   w  ;
 s ' -Submerged unit weight
 s -Saturated unit weight

And ka = 1  sin  , where s , is the angle of shearing resistance
1  sin 
4. Wind load: - When the dam is full, wind acts only on the down streamside thus contribute to
stability.
C) Exceptional loads
1. Seismic load.
If the dam is to be located in a region, which is susceptible to earthquake allowance, must be
made for the stress generated by the earth. If the ground under the dam moves the dam must also
move with this to avoid rupture. Inertia force always acts opposite to the direction of earthquake
acceleration.
 Earthquake force on the body of the dam
The horizontal acceleration has effect when the reservoir is full and empty condition.
When the reservoir is full, the worst condition is if the earthquake acceleration moves towards
upward and corresponding inertia force acts on the down direction. And when the reservoir is
empty the worst case is if the acceleration moves towards the downstream direction and
corresponding inertia force moves to the upstream direction.

2. Earthquake force on the body of the water

The horizontal acceleration acting upstream towards the reservoir causes momentary increase in
water pressure. The hydrodynamic pressure is calculated by using Vankorman’s and Zingers
formula.
-For this particular project, the effect of earthquake is neglected. This is done because, the
Border hydropower project is found in zone zero and the gravitational acceleration has negligible
effect on the dam.
4.7.2 Determination of section of the Dam
1. Freeboard height ( FB )- is the margin between the maximum reservoir level and the top of
the dam. This is provided in order to avoid the possibility of water spilling over the dam top due
to wave action.
The free board is generally provided ( FB ) =3/2* hw , where
FB =3/2* hw where hw = wave length -------------------- S.K. GARG (2005)

However, these days a free board of (4-5%) of dam height is provided.
Taking FB= 4% (H)  FB (4/100)* (80) = 3.2m
Therefore  FB  3m
2. Height of water above normal pool level up to the maximum flood level
HW = MFL- NPL
Where MFL is the maximum flood level and
MFL = 580 m.a.s.m.l taken from Reservoir routing
And NPL (Normal pool level) = 571 m.a.s.m.l
H = 580-571= 9m
3. Water depth at the upstream face of the dam (H)
H = NPL – RBL
Where NPL – normal pool level
RBL – Reduced bed level
NPL = 571 m.a.m.s.l and RBL = 500 m.a.m.s.l
H = NPL– RBL = 571m-500m
H= 71m
4. Total height of the dam above the riverbed level (H Total)

H Total = water depth at upstream face of the dam + free board + height of water above N.P.L
= 71+9+3.2 = 83.2m
Total height of the dam = 83.2m = 83m
Low and high Gravity Dam
A low dam is of limiting height such that the resultant of all forces passes through the middle
third and the maximum compressive stress at the toe doesn’t exceed the permissible limit, while
the height of the high dam exceeds the limiting height.
In a high dam the maximum permissible compressive stress is exceeded, if the resultant of all
forces were to pass thought the middle third.
Approximate downstream slope in terms of its angle to vertical  d , required for no tension to
occur at vertical up stream face is given by
1/ 2
 
 
tan  d   1  ………… …………… P.NOVAK, C.NALLURI (1996)
   
  c    
   w  
Where m is an area reduction coefficient and (m=1) for analytical purpose…P.NOVAK,
C.NALLURI (1996)
  C  24KN / M 2 And  w  10kN / m2
1/ 2
 
 
tan  d   1 
  
  c    
   w  
1
tan  d  [ ]1 / 2  0.845  d  40.2 0
24
(  1)
10
Top width (crest width)

The top width of the dam is generally dictated by the requirement of roadway to be provided.

The most economical top width is taken as 0.55 H

B  0.55 H 1 … R.K Sharma (2003)
Where H1=is maximum water depth

H1 =MFL-RBL
=580-500=80 and B=0.55√80=5m
So take B=5m
Figure 4.1Dam cross-section

4.8 Dam Analysis

4.8.1 Stability Analysis
The design of a gravity dam should be checked for two cases
When reservoir is full
When reservoir is empty
Case I - Reservoir full case
With drainage (NORMAL LOAD COMBINATION)
For the most conservative design, and from purely theoretical point of view, one can say a
situation may arise when all the force may act together.
But such situation will never arise and hence, all the forces are not generally taken together
USBR has classified the normal load combinations and extreme load combination as follows …
S.K. GARG (2005)
For this particular project since earthquake is neglected, some of the load combinations are
neglected in the stability check.
A) Normal load combinations
1) Water pressure up to the normal pool level, normal up lift, silt and ice pressure (if ice is
serious
2) Water pressure up to the maximum reservoir level (high flood condition) normal up lift, silt
and ice pressure.
3) Water pressure up to maximum reservoir level earthquake & silt pressure.
Check for overturning
= 3961309/ 2168794= 1.826 > 1.5………………………………..safe
Check for sliding

Sliding factor (Fss)
H
FSS  ,  H  39197.83
V
39197.83
FSS   0.364  0.75..... safe
107493.3
II .Shear friction factor Fsf 

Fsf=
Where the foundation is sound genesis rock, then cohesion (C) =1200 KN/m2
Friction angle (ᶲ)= 59.5⁰ ( NOVAK )
Fsf = = 6.99 > (4-5)……………………safe
III. Limit equilibrium factor (Flf)
Flf = =
This is equal to Fsf because inclination of the dam foundation is zero.

Stress analysis
X‾ = = = 33.137
e= - X‾ = – 33.137=5.362 =12.83
So it is safe against tension failure.

Average vertical stress
At the toe
54093.25 6(5.362)
Pvtoe  [1  ]  996.058  3000KN / m2........OK
77 77
At the heel
Pvheel  702.509(1  0.4178)  408.9611 420KN / m2.......OK
Principal stresses
At the toe
 1  Pvtoe * sec2   Ph tan^ 2
 1  966.058(1  0..714 )  200 tan^ 2(40.2)
 1  1564.44KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 ........( ve...OK )
At the heel
 2  Pvheel * sec2   Pw tan 2 

 2  408.9611(1  0.01 )  (200) * (0.09) 2
 2  411.05KN / m 2  420KN / m 2 .......... OK
Shear stresses
At the toe
 o (toe)  ( Pvtoe  Ph) * tan  , tan   0.845
 (996.058  408.961) * 0.845  672.66KN / m 2  3000KN / m2
At the heel
 o ( heel )  ( Pvheel  Ph) tan  ]
 o ( heel )  (408.961 200)(0.1)  20.896KN / m 2  420KN / m2
B) Without drainage (Extreme load combination)
Extreme load combination
Water pressure up to maximum reservoir level (high flood condition), silt pressure, extreme up
lift without any reduction due to drainage.
Stress analysis
 M 1233982
X   29.176
V 42293.25
B
e  X , B  77
2
77
e  29.176
2
e  9.323
Check for tension B/6=12.833
Since 9.323<12.833 No tension is developed.
Principal stress
At the toe
 1  PVtoe * sec2   Ph * tan ^ 2
 1  948.293* 1  0.8452   200 * 0.714  1482.59  3000KN / m2
At the heel
 2  PVheel * sec2   PW tan 2 

 2  150.2321  0.12   200 * 0.12
 2  149.735  420KN / m2
Shear stresses
At the toe
 o toe  ( PVtoe  Ph) * tan 
tan   0.845
 otoe  (948.293  200) * 0.845  632.307
At the heel
 oheel  PVheel  Ph] * tan  
 oheel  150.232  200] * 0.1
 oheel  4.976KN / m2  420KN / m2
Case 2 Reservoir empty condition
Distance of resultant force from the toe
 M 3688068
X   48.698
V 75732
B
e  X , B  77
2
77
e  48.698
2
e  10.198
Check for tension

B
=77/6=12.833
6
Since -10.198<12.833 no tension is developed.
Check for over turning

Since there is no destabilizing moment it is safe against overturning.
Check for sliding
Since there is no destabilizing moment it is safe against overturning.

 Stress analysis
Average vertical stresses
At the toe
V  6e 
PVtoe  1  b 
B
75732  6 *10.198
PVtoe  1 +ve it is safe
77  77 
PVtoe  202.582KN / m 2  420KN / m 2
At the heel
V  6e 
PVheel  1  B 
B
75732  6 *10.198
PVheel  1
77  77 
PVheel  1764.483KN / m 2  3000KN / m 2 .....OK
Principal stress
At the toe
 1  PVtoe sec2 
 1  202.5821  0.8452 
 1  347.23KN / m 2  420KN / m 2 .....OK
At the heel
 2  PVheel sec2 
 2  1764.4831  0.12 
 2  1782.128  3000KN / m 2 ......... ok
Shear stress
At the toe
 otoe  PVtoe * tan 
tan   0.845
 otoe  202.582 * 0.845
 otoe  171.181  420KN / m 2 .....ok

At the heel
 oheel  PVheel tan  
 oheel  1764.483* 0.1
 oheel  176.448  3000KN / m 2 .......... ok
4.9. Inspection Galleries
The water which seeps through the body of the dam is collected by means of a system of
graperies provided at various elevation (say at a heights of 15 m or 50) and interconnected by
venial shafts etc- the main function of gallery are
To intercept and drain of the water seeping through the dam body
To provide enough space for carrying pipes etc. during artificial cooling of concrete
 To provide access to the dam interior for observing and contriving the behaviors
 To provide access to all outlets and spillway gates, valves etc. by having their electrical
and mechanical control.
 To provide space for drilling and grouting of the foundation, as it cannot be done from
the surface.
For Border Hydropower project galleries are provided and the galleries are placed at 5m
distances from the vertical face of the dam.
4.10. Foundation Treatment
Foundation Treatment is a technique of improving the foundation property for the construction
of high concrete structures.
Grouting: pressure grouting is the process of injecting suitable cementiuos slurries or similar
materials in to in accessible places.
In general grouting for foundation treatment may be classified as follows.
Consolidation or area grouting
Blanket grouting
Dental treatment
Contact grouting
Curtain grouting

Cut-off
Cut-off is an impervious barrier constructed at shallow depth to ensure the water tightness of the
dam foundation.
4.11. Dam Construction
RCC Dam Construction permits an intensively mechanized construction process with concrete
delivered by conveyer belt construction joints may be sawn through each successive layer of
concrete after placing. In this approach the concrete is handled as an earth fill and compacted at
or need its optimum moisture content in thin layers.
The dam following this approach is therefore optimized for construction using a lower strength
and relative permeable RCC gravity profiles in conjunctions with horizontally slip formed high
quality upstream concrete membrane.
4.12. Dam safety instrumentation and surveillance
Catastrophic failures of a dam other than as direct result of an extreme flood event, is invariably
preceded by a period of progressively increasing structural distress with in the dam and /or
foundation. Dam surveillance program and instrumentation are intended to detect and where
possible to identify symptoms of distress at the earliest possible stage. Precise surveying targets
fixed on the top of the dam, on the abutment and on the downstream face. The targets are also
fixed in galleries and in the vertical shafts. The measurements taken are used for the computation
of lift and deformation of the dam.

CHAPTER-FIVE
5.0 Spillways and Energy Dissipator
5.1 General
A spillway is a structure constructed at a dam site, for effectively disposing of the surplus water
from upstream side of the dam to downstream side. Spillways are provided for storage dams to
release surplus or flood water, which cannot be contained in the allotted storage space.
.There are several spillway designs. The choice of design is a function of the nature of the site,
the type of dam and the overall economics of the scheme. The importance of a safe spillway
cannot be over emphasized and a spillway of insufficient capacity has caused many failures of
dams. So, proper design of spillway is important before the implementation of the structure.
5.2 Essential requirements of a spillway
The essential requirements of a spillway are:
The spillway must have sufficient capacity
It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate
It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water, i.e. spillway discharge will not erode
or undermine the downstream of the dam.
The bounding surfaces of the spillway must be erosion resistant to withstand the high scouring
velocities created by the drop from the reservoir velocities created by the drop from the reservoir
surface to the tail water.
V) Some device will be required for dissipation of energy on the downstream side of the
spillway
Types of spill way
Depending up on the type of the structure constructed for disposing of the surplus water, the spill
way can be of the following major types.
Free over fall or straight drop spillway
Over flow or ogee spillway
Chute or open channel or trough spillway
Side channel spillway
Siphon spillway

Shaft or morning glory spillway

Conduit or tunnel spillway
5.3 Selection of spillway site and type
A spillway may be located either within the body of the dam or at one end of the dam or entirely
away from the dam as an independent structure.
The selection of type of spill way is generally based on dam type quantity of floodwater to be
discharged and the site conditions. For this specific project
The type of dam is concrete gravity dam and hence the type of spillway that is best suited for
this structure is an over flow spillway.
For this specific project, by considering the site condition and dam type, which is RCC gravity
dam, an overflow spillway is selected.
For this particular project, an Ogee type over flow spillway is selected, because in comparison to
others, it is very common in gravity dam used on valleys where the width of the river is
sufficient to provide the required crest length and the riverbed below can be protected from scour
at moderate cost.
5.4 Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of cavities in a region of liquid where the
pressure has reduced to that of vapor pressure of the liquid. When the cavities collapse near a
fluid way surface extremely high local pressure and stress in the waterway surface result and
cause pitting and erosion of the surface. It is an important factor which must be considered in the
design of high velocity outlet works where the water way alignment and every surface of
discontinuity are potential source of producing cavitations and cavitations damage. In spillway
designs, we certainly should be very worry of cavitations problems at velocity exceeding 35 m/s,
even if the spillway surface is smooth and well-constructed. However, in this particular project
the maximum velocity of water over spillway surfaces is 18.4m/s, so there is no need of
providing artificial aeration to reduce the pressure causing cavitations problem.

5.5 Ogee or over flow spillway

Over spillway are by far the most widely adopted. They are mainly used on masonry or concrete
gravity dam, and if used with earth fill need a separate concrete structure.
An over flow spillway is an improvement up on the free over fall spillway. The essential
difference between the free over fall spillway and the over flow spillway is that in the case the
former the water flowing over the crest of the spill way drops as free jet clearly away from the
downstream face of the spillway, while in the case of later the water is guided smoothly over the
crest of the spillway and is made to glide over the downstream face of the spillway.
5.5.1. Crest shape of overflow spillway
The shape of the crest or the upper curve of the ogee profile of this spillway is made to conform
closely to the profile of the lower surface of the nape (or lower nape) or sheet of water flowing
over a ventilated sharp crested weir when discharging at head equal to the design head of the
spillway.
At the design head H  H d  the water flowing over the crest of the spillway will remain in
contact with the surface of spillway as it glides over it and optimum discharge will occur.
At a head greater than the design head (H>Hd) the nape trajectory is higher than the crest profile,
and the over flowing water tends to break contact with spill way surface and zone of separation
will be formed in which negative or suction pressure will be produced.
5.5.2 Designing of the crest ogee spillway
The ogee spillways were being designed in accordance with the theoretical profile obtained for
the lower nape of a free falling jet. The head over the crest, the inclination of the upstream face
of the spillway, and the height of the spillway above the stream bed are considered in the design
of nape shaped profile of the crest. Several standard ogee shapes have been developed by U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers at their waterways Experimental station (WES). Such shape is known
as WES standard spillways shapes.
The dawn stream profile can be represented by the equation:
n 1
X n  k * Hd *y Where (X, Y) are the coordinates of profile
H d =the design head.

K and n are constants depending up on the shape of the upstream face.
The values of X and Y are taken as positive to words the downstream and in the down direction
respectively. Hence the equation of downstream profile is applicable only for positive values
from the region of other coordinate.
The profile of the spillway is reverse S-shaped and the curved profile of the crest section is
continued till it meet tangentially the straight sloping surface of the downstream face of the over
flow dam.
After having plotted most of the profile the ogee spillway has a smooth gradual reverse curvature
is provided at the bottom of downstream face which turns the flow in to the apron of stilling
basin or in to the spillway discharge channel. Radius of about one-fourth of the spillway height is
satisfactory for this reverse bottom curve.
H
i.e. R 
4
Where H=height of spillway crest above the bed level.
The location of point of tangency of the dawn stream straight-line sloppy face of the over flow
dam and the curved profile is determined from the stability requirement of the over flow section,
and the type of stilling basin at the toe of spillway.
The slope of the straight line portion of the downstream face of the over flow dam varies and
between (0.6H: 1V to 0.85H: 1V), S.K. GARG (2005)
The bucket like profile at the downstream end of the dam is also use full for the dissipation
energy and prevention of scour.
Discharge of over flow spillway.
The discharge over an overflow spill way is given by
3
Q  C * Le * H e 2
Where Q=discharge, m 3 /sec

C=Coefficient of discharge.
Le=Effective length of crest of spillway (m).
He=Total head over the crest including that due to the velocity of approach.
. He  Hd  Ha
For high ogee spillway Ha is very small and H e  H d

Coefficient of discharge, C of over spillway may be about 2.2, which is the maximum value.
This value depends on the following factors:
a. Depth of approach
b. Heads differing from design head
c. Upstream face slope
d. Downstream apron interference and downstream submergence
e. Shape of ogee profile
In the analysis of flood routing from the inflow and out flow rate effective length is selected as
(Le=192m)
From flood routing
Q peak (Peak out flow) = 10998 m3/sec
H d = 9m (maximum water level above the crest level of the spillway.)

P = 80m height of the spillway
 The velocity head (Ha) can be calculated as follows: -
Q
Velocity of approach, Va  ( )
( Le  N * t ) * ( P  H d )
For round nose pier and 90o cut water nosed piers, thickness and the number of piers was
assumed to be 1m and 4 respectively
That is t = 1m, N= 4
10998m 3 / sec
Va = = 0.63m/sec
192  4 1* 80  9
Head due to velocity of approach Ha
va 0.63
Ha    0.032m
2 g 2 * 9.81
Checking effect depth of approach
p
 1.33
Hd
80
 8.9 > 1.33 ok! High over flow spillway hence neglect Ha no effect on the value of "C”
9

b) Check effect of heads differing from the design head

Since the effect of velocity head was neglected as shown that for P> 1.33Hd, the head due to
velocity of approach is negligible and hence the total head of flow is equal to the design head i.e.
H d = H e the coefficient of discharge equal to 2.2.
c) Check for effect of downstream apron inference and submergence effect.
The coefficient of discharge is reduced due to submergence when the value of
hd  d
Exceeds 1.7 the downstream apron is found to have negligible effect on the coefficient of
He
discharge.
He  p 9  80
i.e.   9.9  1.7 so neglect the effect of downstream submergence on the
Hd 9
coefficient of discharge.
d) Check for effect of length of crest of overflow spillway:
Le  L  2NK P  K a H e
Where Le = effective length of crest, m
L = net length of crest which is equal to the sum of the clear spans of the gate bays between
piers.
He = total head on crest including velocity head
N = Number of piers
KP = pier contraction coefficient
K a =abutment contraction coefficient
For flow at design head H d , the average value of K P and Ka, for piers and Rounded abutment
which is cut at 90o to the direction of flow, K P = 0.01 and
K a = 0.1 respectively.
L  Le  2NK P  K a H e
= 192 +2 (4* 0.01 + 0.1) 9
L = 194.52 m, for L c = 192m, He =H d = 9, N= 4 in number
Take L =194.52 take L=195

But length due to thickness of piers = 4* 1m = 4m, then the total length of the spilling crest is
equal to 195 + 4 = 199m
Downstream profiles
The W.S.E downstream profile for a vertical upstream face is given by equation as
n 1
X n = K* H d *Y
But for the spillway with vertical or optimally vertical
Upstream face, the value of
K = 2.00 n = 1.85
H d = 9m
n-1
Hence, X n = k*H d X 1.85 = 2* (9) 0.85 * Y
Y = X1.85/12.95
Before, we determine the vendors coordinated of the d/s profile we shall first determine the
teenager point (x,y)
The d/s slope of the dam is given be 0.85H: 1V
dy 1
Hence =
dx 0.85
dy X  1
  =
dx 12.95  0.85
1.85 * X 0.85 1
=
12.95 0.85
12.95
X0.85 = = 8.24
0.85 *1.85
X = 11.95m
The curved profile of the downstream portion is determined by the equation
1.85
y = 0.077X is confirmed till it meets tangentially, the straight sloping surface at the
coordinate x, y  i.e. (11.95, 7.58) - tangent point (x, y)
The coordinates from x=0 to x = 11.95 are listed out in table below: -

B. Table 5.2 Table 2.2coordinates of the downstream profile
X(m) Y(m)
y= 0.077 x 1.85
0 0
0.5 0.021
1 0.077
1.5 0.163
2 0.278
2.5 0.419
3 0.588
3.5 0.782
4 1.001
4.5 1.244
5 1.512
5.5 1.804
6 2.119
6.5 2.457
7 2.818
7.5 3.202
8 3.608
8.5 4.036
9 4.486
9.5 4.958
10 5.451
10.5 5.966
11 6.502
11.5 7.060
11.95 7.579

Upstream profile
The upstream profile for an ogee spillway, having downstream and upstream slope can be
determined on the basis of its WES profile in terms of the design head H d
That is for vertical upstream face (assuming it is vertical)
r1  0.2 * H d  1.8
r2  0.5 * H d  4.5
a  0.175 * H d  1.575
b  0.282 * H d  2.538
Figure 4.2 spill way crest profile

5.6 Energy Dissipation
Water flowing over the spill way requires a lot of kinetic energy By the time it reaches the toe of
the spill way .If arrangements are not made to dissipate this huge kinetic energy of water large
scale scour can take place on the downstream side near the toe of the dam and away from it
.These arrangements are known as energy dissipation arrangements or energy dissipaters.

In general the kinetic energy of this super critical flow can be dissipated in two ways:
By converting the super critical in to sub critical flow by hydraulic jump.
By directing the flow of water in to air and then making it fall away from the toe of the structure
.The energy is dissipated by the aeration of the jet and impact of water on the river bed.
Though some scour will take place, it is too small or too far away from the dam to endanger it.
Bucket type energy dissipater work on this principles.
Design of energy dissipater
The relation between the pre jump (y1) and the post jump (y2) is as follows:
y1 
y2  1  8F1  1
2
2  
v1 2
80m   y1 ........ 
2g
But , Q  10998m 3 sec
Le  192m
H d  9m
Q 10998
q   57.28 m 3 sec/ m
Le 192
q  v1 * y1  v 2 * y 2
q 57.28
v1  
y1 y1
57.28 2
( )
y1
from.... 80   y1
2g
167.23
80  2
 y1
y1
(167.23)
y1 
2
80  y1
1
 167.23  2
y1   
 80  y1 

C.
Figure 5.3. Water depth at pre-jump and post-jump
2
V1
P  Hd   y1
2g
p  H d  80m
Hd  9
HO  0
By trial and error

Y1=1.46
Therefore
By applying Hydraulic jump
We can find the sequent depth y 2 on the horizontal apron.
y2 
2

y1
 1  1  8Fr ,2
I.e. y2 
0.5919
2
 1  1  8(10.37) 2 ]
y 2  20.69m
When tail water depth " y 2 " is too great for the formation of hydraulic jump (i.e when " y 2 " is too
large compared to " y1 " ) dissipation of the high energy of flow can be affected by the use of
submerged bracket deflector

Figure 5.4 Tail water rating curve

Dimension of stilling basin
Since our fraud is greater than 4.5 therefore we use U.SB.R stilling basin II. Fr=10.37>4.5
L=4.3*20.69=89m
Height of chute block H= y 1 =1.46m
Width of chute block b= y1 =0.15*20.69=3.1m

Space between chute blocks S2=0.15y1=0.15*1.46=0.219m
Length of chute block l=2* y1 =2*1.46=2.92m
Height of end sill h=0.2* y 2 =0.2*2.7= 4.14m

Width of the end sill = 0.15*y2=3.1m
Thickness of the denoted wall=0.02*y2=0.413m
Slope of end sill is 2:1
The floor basin set as =0.05*20.69+20.69=21.72m

Figure 5.5 Dam section at the spillway

5.7 Design of bottom outlet /hydraulics of outlet/
Since the temporary diversion pipes, which are provided in chapter 6, are situated below the dead
storage level of the reservoir they cannot serve as a permanent outlet during operation time of the
project. As a result a permanent bottom outlet adjacent to the spillway structure at elevation of
dead storage level should be provided.
This bottom outlet has different functions some of them are
As an auxiliary spillway, so that it discharge additional surplus water if maximum flood beyond
the capacity of the spillway occurred during the lifetime of the project.
To release water for downstream demand if operation of power fails.
To flash out the sediment, if the level of sediment becomes higher beyond the dead storage level
during the lifetime of the project.

The bottom outlet is designed for the discharge of wettest month of the wettest year. From the
given flow data, the wettest month and year at Border dam site is determined to be August in
1966.the average flow of the month is 14588.26 m3/s.
Q  C d A * 2 gH Where C d =0.82… S.K. GARG (2005)
H=NPL-DL=571-555=16m
Q
Q=discharge , A
cd 2 gH
14588.26
A  1004
0.82 * 2 * 9.81*16
 .D 2
A  1004
4
D  35.76m  36m
From this, it can be recommended that this size of diameter is not feasible therefore it is
advisable to provide smaller sizes. Gated bottom outlets with diameter of 6m and six in number
are provided.

CHAPTER- SIX
6. 0 Conveyance Structures
6.1. General
Intake head race tunnel, penstocks, outlets, conduits etc. drawing water from reservoir, river or
canal have to be provided with suitable arrangement to draw in required supply in a satisfactory
manner for the production of power. Structures for this purpose served are known as water
conveyance structures.
6.2 Intake Structure
The intake structure is situated at the entrance of the canals, tunnels and pipes through which the
flow is diverted from the source such as river or reservoir. It is an essential component of
hydropower schemes and provided as an integral part or in isolation from diversion weir or dam.
The main function of an intake;
Control of the flow of water into the conveyance system. This is achieved by a gate or a valve.
To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free entry water into the conveyance system to
minimize head loss. This can be achieved through providing bell‫ ־‬mouth shaped entrance.
Stopping coarsee river-borne trash matters such as boulder, ice and logs of wood from entering
into the conveyance passage. Trash racks at the bell-mouth achieve this function.
Not allowing heavy sediment loads of the river into the conveyance passage. Special devices
such as silt traps and Silt excluders are used to control and trap the slit.
6.1.1 Types of intakes
The type of intake structure depends on the type of power plant as well as its layout. Based on
these intakes are classified as:
-Run-of- river intake
-Canal intake
-Dam intake
-Tower intake
-Shaft intake
6.1.2 Selection of intake and location of intake site

Selection of intake
The type of intake structure depends up on the type of power and its layout. For Border hydro
power project which has concrete Gravity dam. The preferable intake for this dam is tower
intake.
In order to attain the required discharge capacity the intake must be placed sufficiently
below reservoir operating level and high enough to prevent entry of sediment. It should also be
arranged as high as possible to effect economy in concrete construction and cost of maintenance
of the gate.
For intake on hill sides its arrangement comprises an intake with connecting bridge, trash rack,
emergence gate at the entrance for inspection and repair of the conduit, flow regulating gate to
regulate the flow through the turbine and air vent downstream of the flow regulating gate for the
following purpose;
To nullity vacuum effect which could be created when the penstock is drained after control
gate closure. Intake gates operate under condition of balanced pressure on both Sides of the gate,
thus the conduit is required to be filled with water through a bypass pipe.
Location of Intakes
The various factors influencing the choice of location of an intake structure are
Type of edifice that is storage reservoir runoff river scheme
Location and type of dam/weir
type of water conductor system that is canal or tunnel
topographical feature of the river
Design of Intake Opening
The classification and design of intake structure is dependent in the type of the hydropower to be
developed. For high head or medium head installation, the following relation gives the opening
of intake area.

Opening area= Headrace tunnel area

CC * COS
Since Border hydropower project is high head, this equation is applicable in our case.
Where Cc- the coefficient of contraction
=0.6, for medium or high head plant.
 -angle between the centerline of headrace tunnel
With the horizontal=1.3% which is 0.75
Opening area =
Vertical lift gate with opening area =π*
6.1.3 Design of Bell Mouth Shape Entry

Entry from the intake to the penstock requires transition to reduce head loss due to separation of
flow. A bell mouth entrance is much better and superior to any other type, and extra cost
involved in shaping the entrance is usually justified.
For circular tunnel the bell mouth shape can be achieved by an equation given by
Douman.
Therefore equation of the bell mouth can be written as
4 X 2  44.4 y 2  D 2
4x2+44.4y2 =49
X Y
0 1.050525
0.4 1.043642
0.8 1.022715
1.2 0.98685
1.4 0.962822

1.8 0.90095
Depth of Intake
The intake should be located in such a way that it insures safe operation of intake as high as
possible to effect economy in concrete construction and cost of maintenance of the gate
subjected to the above requirements there should be minimum depth of water below the inlet
sufficient to give good low condition.
ht= D +2*Z
Where: htis height of inlet opening
D is diameter of shaft
Z is the value of Y at X is equal to 0.
ht= 7 + 2*1.050525
=9.1 m
Elevation of inlet center is,
= Dead storage level + D/2 + some allowance above the dead storage level
= 555 + 3.5 + 2
= 560.5m masl
6.1.4. Design of Trash Rack
It checks the entry of floating debris like grass, leaves trees and bushes, drift timber as also of
rolling and floating boulders at the intake of the water conductor for the plants. The presence of
the trash rack increases the power output.
General arrangement
Vertical division of trash racks are formed by girders. These divisions are known as panel
consists of the following:
A system of rigid frame for small grills and the fixing plates for the big areas.
A system of vertical bars generally of rectangular section.

A series of horizontal pieces, the functions of which is of prime importance. These are
intermediate supports for the vertical bars besides distributing the load it gives protection to the
bars against vibration.
Design head of trash rack
Design head for a trash rack depends up on the difference in water levels on the upstream and
downstream sides at the time of maximum clogging that is the critical head in the trash rack
structure.
Trash rack inclination
The trash rack is usually placed vertical or near vertical 0 to 25° from the vertical, usually across
the water flow in the power channel .keeping the trash rack inclined is always a better practice.
Placing the trash racks in an inclined position makes the cleaning easy apart from giving less
resistance to flow. Due to ease in construction and from consideration of economy also,
rectangular section flats are the best choice, though head loss through them is comparatively
more and cleaning difficult. Therefore, take 250 trash rack inclination.
Permissible velocity through trash rack
Velocity should be sufficiently low to avoid high head loss and should be sufficiently high to
avoid large intake and trash rack cross section. The following is suggested limiting entrance
velocities.
Justin and Creager formula permissible velocity in the range of 2 to 6m/s
V  0.12 2 gh
Where h- the difference in head between the center line of intake and normal pool level
h = 571-555=16m
V  0.12 2 * 9.81*16 v ≤ 2.12m/s…… ………….safe
So, for this project the permissible velocity of the water through the trash rack is taken as
2.12m/s
Trash rack Bar thickness
Thickness of bars is usually from 6mm to 25mm.For this project take the bar thickness
20 mm.
Length of trash rack

The maximum length of rack bars between lateral supports of stiffeners is limited by the
vibration characteristics related to bar thickness and velocity through the bars. By using the
curves given by Davis for bar thickness 20mm and Velocity 2.12 m/s the length of the bar is
Table below gives recommendation regarding the lateral unsupported length of bar in centimeter
(cm)
Table 3.1Unsupported length of bar in cm for velocities (m/s)

Thickness Velocity in (m/s)
of bar in 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
(mm)
6 50 42 32 99 24
10 75 60 47 40 35
12 100 80 63 55 45
20 150 115 100 82 65
25 175 145 125 112 88
For thickness 20mm and velocity 2.12 m/s, by using interpolation calculated length of bar from
the above table will be 79.96cm.
Spacing
The spacing of the bars usually varies from 10 to 15cm. However, in very large trash rack the
spacing may be even up to 50cm. Therefore for Border Hydropower project the spacing is taken
based on experimentally recommended limitation.
b
It is experimentally verified that  0.7 take b=20cm and also check for t, to avoid vibration of
L
the rack bars the ratio: t . This issafe
6.1.5 Aeration in Intakes

Air vent pipes are provided for the following purposes:
To admit air when the gate is closed and the water in the conduit recedes down.

To exhaust air when the tunnel is being filled through bye pass lines to balance the water on the
two sides of the gate prior to its being lifted up.
To control sub pressures downstream of gate at partial opening.
According to G.S. Sarkaria’s formula the diameter of the air vent pipe is given by:
d = 0.00578 D1.365 Where d – Diameter of air vent pipe in meters
D- Diameter of the pressure shaft in meters
d = 0.00578*(7)1.365 = 0.0823m
Therefore, 82mm vent pipe are provided.
6.2 Determination of Intake Loss
An intake loss includes entrance loss, trash rack loss and gate loss.
Entrance Loss: usually the entrance loss is a loss due to sudden contraction of area of intake.
The is equivalent to
V2
he  K t *
2g
Where kt-0.03, for bell mouth entry

V-velocity at inlet=2.12m/s
g- Acceleration due to gravity
Therefore,
he=
Trash rack loss

There are numerous expressions available for predicting head loss across the trash racks.
The widely used KIRSCH MAN’S formula is
t 4/3 va 2
hr  kr ( ) ( )sin 
b 2g
Where kr-trash rack loss coefficient
=2.42, for rectangular cross section
T- Bar thickness (=2.0cm)
b- Spacing between bars (=20cm)

Va-approaching velocity
Φ- Angle of inclination from the horizontal (=700)
hr-Trash rack loss
4/3
 2 (2.126) 2
hr  2.42 *   sin 70
 20  2 * 9.81
0.0243m
Gate Loss: head loss due to gates (at part gate opening) is given by
1  Q 
hg  * 
2 g  Cd A 
Where: Q – flow in the shaft (239.42m3/s)

A - Area of gate opening (64.145m2)
Cd - Discharge coefficient varies between 0.62 and 0.83 (Take 0.7)
1  239.42  2
hg  * 
2 * 9.81  0.7 * 64.145 
Bend Loss
v2
hb  kb
2g
Where kb-factor varying from 0.2to0.002, assuming 0.1
V-velocity at the inlet
(2.126) 2
hb  0.1 *  0.023m
2 * 9.81
hminor=0.0069+0.0243+1.447+0.023
hminor=1.5012m

6.3 Penstock
The penstock carries water from the pressure shaft to the turbines within the least loss of head
consistent with the overall economy of the project. There may be pressure conduit or shaft. In
underground pressure power development, these penstocks meet the spiral case, which supply
water to the machine.
Factors that must be considered for choice of material, for penstock are head, topography and
discharge. Various material used are steel, R.C, asbestos, cement, PVC, etc. but the following
have to also be considered when deciding to use for. These are required pressure, design life etc.
Steel penstock become the most common type of installation in hydropower development due to
simplicity in fabrication, strength, and has long life etc. Hence considering the above steel
penstock is selected for this particular project.
Number of penstocks
The number of penstocks used in any particular installation can be single or multiple. The design
should strike for maximum economic solution. If the number of penstock increases the total
weight of steel and the erecting cost also increases. In our project the distance from intake to
power house is short. We use seven penstocks, where each running to two units
6.3.1 Design of penstock
In hydropower scheme, the cost of penstock is very high and if the number of penstock is many,
the total weight of steel required and construction cost is expensive. On the other hand, large
diameter, for a given discharge, will result small head loss and greater available net head. As the
diameter increases the velocity decreases and the capital investment will get higher, therefore a
size, which gives least cost, should be selected.
For steel lined pressure shaft, the allowable velocity changes from 5m/s to 8m/s. according to
USBR, empirical formula for economic diameter of penstock is:
v  0.125 2 ghnet
hnet = NPL - (elevation at end of penstock) - (head loss up to the end of penstock)
Where hnet is the rated head
NPL (normal pool level) =571m.a.m.s,
Elevation at end of penstock=500m

hf =hfp + hf(minor)
Where, hf- is head loss up to the endof penstock
hfp- is head loss in the penstock
hf (minor) -minor losses
8 flQ 2
hfp  Where, f-friction factor for steel lining =0.01
 2 gD 5
l-lengthof penstock
D-diameter of the penstock
8 * 0.01*120 * (239.42) 2
h fp 
 2 * 9.81* D 5
5683.59
h fp 
D5
hminor=1.5012m (calculated above)
Therefore; hnet = NPL –Hpenstock – hf(up to penstock end)
5683.59
 571  500  (1.5012  )
D5
5683.59
 71  (1.5012  )
D5
5683.59
 69.49 
D5
V  0.125 2 gH ne t
5683.59
V  0.125 2 * 9.81(69.49  )......... .......... (1)
D5
and
Q Q 4Q 4 * 239.42
V   
A D 2
D 2 D 2
4
304.83
V .......... .......... (2)
D2
Then equating 1 & 2
5683.59 304.83
 0.125 * 2 * 9.81(69.49  5
)
D D2

Solving for D by trial and error D=7.18m; take D=7m

Check
Q Q 4Q 4 * 239.42
V      6.22m / s
A D 2 D 2  * 72
4
Take V =6.3m/s (penstock velocity)

 The velocity is between 5m/s and 8m/s, which is the permissible velocity.
Head loss in the penstock
2
flVp 0.01*120 * 6.32
hf p    0.3467m
2 gD 2 * 9.81* 7
hfp  0.3467m
Total loss (hT)
hT  hfp   (min or.loss)
 0.3467  1.5012
hT  1.848m
6.3.2 Thickness of penstock
Under normal flow, the penstock is subjected to only internal hydrostatic pressure. However,
when the turbine valves or gates at the end are closed suddenly, there is sudden pressure rise,
known as water hammer.
The appropriate wall thickness for a penstock is generally a function of penstock material
selected that is steel tensile strength, the diameter of the penstock and the operating pressure it
will experience during its use i.e. the head of water above the penstock and water hammer
pressure during sudden opening and closure of turbine.
Thus design head =static head + water hammer
Providing a steel penstock, allowable stress (s=150,000KN/m2), joint efficiency (η=0.95) for
weld and assuming thin cylinder thickness

P*D
t
2 *
CVo
hw 
g
k
C

Where, p- total pressure
D- inside diameter of penstock
t- Thickness of penstock
Vo-velocity in the penstock
C-celerity wave velocity of water
K- Bulk modulus of water (2.18*109KN/m3)
Ρ-density of water (1000KN/m3)
2.18 *109 6.3

hw  *
1000 9.81
hw  948.19m
p  h  NPL  elevationof int akeatcenter   hw * 9.81
p  69.49  571  555  948.19* 9.81  10140.4 KN / m3
10140.4 * 7
t  249.06mm
2 *150,000 * 0.95
Adding to 3mm allowance for corrosion, required thickness would be t=252.06mmcheck
whether the assumed thickness is thin cylinder or not
D
  20
t
7000
  27.77  20.......... .ok!
252.06

6.4 Design of Manifolds

Manifold are provided when a single penstock feed a number of turbines. There are fourteen
turbine units in this particular project to be provided with water by the manifold, which are
installed at the end of the main penstock (bifurcated from the main penstock).
Considering the head loss inside the penstock is the same as in both pipes.
5
fLQ 2 121D h f Q2
hf   Q 2    ....cons tan t
121D 5 fL D5
2.5
Q   D1 
Therfore...... 1    
 Q2   D2 
1
 Q  2.5
 D 2  D1 2  .......... .......... ..... 
 Q1 
Where, Q1  Discharge through the penstock
Q2  Discharge through the manifolds
D1  Diameter of the main penstock
D2  Diameter of the manifolds
Since there are fourteen units of turbine for this particular project the magnitude of flow, which
passes safely through each manifold, will be half of the designed discharge
Q1
i.e. Q1 
14
Substituting in to the above equation …… (*)
1
 Q1  2.5
 
D 2   14  * D1, butD1  7m( penstockdiameter)
 Q1 
 
 
1
D 2  0.07 2.5 * 7  D 2  2.416m
Therefore, adopt a diameter of 2.416m for each of the manifolds, which feed for each turbine.
Valves: Valves are controlling structures installed at different points where the flow is to be
regulated and controlled. For Border hydropower project a valve is needed at the entry of each

penstock to prevent the back flow of water from the turbine in times when the units are not
functional.
A butterfly valve is recommended to be provided just upstream of the turbine as its primary use
is a service or guard gate in the power penstock.
6.5 Diversion Structures
6.5.1 General
A dam is major structure closing the lower portion of a valley. Both during construction and later
in service, the dam should not completely block the valley. For example, floods may arrive
during construction and are particularly dangerous, because the structure is not finalized and thus
prone to damage. Although the structure under discussion is often provisional during
construction, they should be done correctly. Their failure may have catastrophic consequences. A
substitute water way, the so called dam diversion, must be ready in order that the river can
bypass the dam site and the floods cause no harm to the area under construction. The purpose of
diversion structures are;
- For construction purpose
- For water use purpose
Diversion facilities such as tunnels or canals provided to divert the flow from the site area are
sometimes used as part of permanent facilities.
The selection design flood for these diversion works depend on the risk that one is prepared to
take so to determine the best diversion the following may be considered.
Stream flow characteristics, That is the nature of run of influences
Size and frequency of division flood, that is the largest flood ever occurred should not be taken
consider flowed frequency of 5, 10, 25 years period.
6.5.2 Estimation of design flood
Design flood for the diversion tunnel and taken for a return period of 10,15,20 and 25 years
period for flood analysis
From the previous hydrological analysis in (chapter two) the design flood of 20 yrs was chosen
for the design of cofferdam.
Ztot =zavg + k*σ where k=1.546

σ =0.2147
ztot =3.82 +1.546*0.2147
=4.151
QTot =10^ztot =
Qtot =14167.13m3/s
Risk of cofferdam due flooding
Risk  1  (1  1 ) n , wher, R  risk

T
T  return perid(20 yrs)
n  constuction poriod  (5 yrs)
1 5
Risk  1(1  )  1  0.773  22.62%
20
For this % of Risk, the u/s and the d/s force of the cofferdam has to be made concrete facing.
6.5.3 Coffer Dam Design
A cofferdam is temporary dam or barrier used to divert the stream flows and enclose the
area dry during constriction.
The design of an adequate cofferdam involves the problem of construction economics. The
height at which cofferdam should be constructed may involve an economic study of cofferdam
height versus diversion work capacity, including diversion of design flood. These small dams are
also used to raise the river water level, in order to feed an off- taking tunnel and some other
conveyance system.
Generally for Border river cofferdams are constructed from materials available at the site
i.e. Rock fill cofferdam with central core of earthen material.
To allow the main cofferdam to be built dry, a smaller dam is built up first u/s of the dam. A
d/s cofferdam above the tail water is also provided to prevent the backwater effects.
For 20yrs design flood,

3
Q  14167 m
sec
n  0.05
s  0.024
from topomap
m  0.75(iv : 0.75H )
B  500m
Q=design flood
n=natural stony stream bed
s=stream channel bed
Therefore, using flow master software, the depth of flow is y=12m and the free board is
taken 2.5m from the range (b/n 2 to3). (USBR) method
Total height of the coffer dam will be. H =14.5m
In general the cofferdam is required at u/s and d/s of the dam site. And the available material at
the dam site is rock for the construction that Rock fill dam is recommended for both u/s and d/s
cofferdam construction due to 15% risk u/s face for the u/s cofferdam and d/s face for d/s
cofferdam should be protected by concrete facing line.
Due to the scarceness soil and of the rock test and the analysis is made based on the following
assumption ---Irrigation and waterpower Arora (2001)
Bu = u/s bed width =21.0m
BD =D/s bed width=17.5m
RD =D/s resisting force
RU =u/s resisting force
Unit weigh of water rw=10kN/m 2
Saturated unit weigh, rsat  22 KN

m3
Angle of friction   250
Unit cohesion, c  20KN / m 2

Stability checking
1. Overall stability of the dam

Re sistaceforce
Fs 
slidindforse
 Force tending to curve sliding of dam is the horizontal component of the water pressure
acting on u/s.
h 2
Pu 
2
w tan 
 Fs 
h 2
2
2. Stability of d/s slop total horizontal force (He)

2
r H2 d rh
Hu  s tan 2 (45  )  1
2 2 2
rs h 2   2 ( H  h1 )
rs  Weight unit neigh(rs )
H
Rd  Ws tan   cbd
Rd
F .S  2
Hd
3, stability of u/s slope

Horizontal force acting on u/s (Hu)
 rh
2
rs H 2
Hu  tan 2 (450  )  1
2 2 2
Ru  u tan   cbu
Ru
Fs   2.0
Hu
Selection of suitable preliminary section for the coffer dam
The preliminary design of an earth dam is done on the basis of existing dam of the selected
section for the worst loading conditions.

 Freeboard: Freeboard or minimum free board is the vertical distance between the maximum
reservoir level and top of the dam.
USBR recommendation for freeboard in rock fill dam that are uncontrolled (free) spillway of any
height is between 2 and 3
.  Top width: for small dams, the top width is generally governed by minimum roadway width
requirements.
The top width (T) of the cofferdam for dams longer than 30m
T  0.55 H to0.2 H ...... *
H-is the height of the dam
T =0.2*14.5 =2.9m
U/s and d/s slopes (Recommended side slope by Terzaghi)
Since the material at the dam site is composed of 2m sand in depth and generous rock, u/s side
slope 1V:3H and d/s side slope 1V:2.5H is taken for the design .
The coordinate of any point (x, y) on pheratic line equation.
= x +s for side slope 1V:2.5H
X =12/tan(1/2.5)
=30m
Y =12m
=30 + s
S =2.6
At x=0 y = s=2.6
+ =
y=
Table 6.2 coordinates of phreatic line for different values x and y.
x y=
2 * x * 2.6  (2.6) 2  6.76  5.2 x
0 2.6
5 5.738

10 7.683
15 9.227
20 10.547
25 11.72
30 12.785
With h1=9.709m, where h1 is the point at which the vertical line through u/s extremities intersect
phreatic line measured from the base of the dam
h2=3.129m, where h2is the point at which the vertical line through d/s extremities intersect
phreatic line measured from the base of the dam.
3 2.5
12 1 1
79.75
Figure 6.1U/s and D/s cofferdam profile
Stability analysis requirements of the coffer dam
The cofferdam must be in overall equilibrium. It should not move in any direction .The
downstream and upstream slope stability has to also be maintained in the safest side or limit. It
includes: -
Overall stability of the cofferdam
D/s slop stability
u/s slope stability
over all stability of the cofferdam
A= A=

A =648.577m2
Fs =
Downstream slope stability

Total horizontal force
 sub H 2   * h1 2
Fhd  [tan 2 (45  )] 
2 2 2
2
12 * (14.5) 25 22 * (9.709) 2
Fhd  [tan (45  )] 
2
2 2 2
Fhd  511.99  1036.911
Fhd  1548.901KN
m
Rd  wd tan   cbd
wd  rA  22 * (327.091)
wd  5781.812 m
2
 5781.975 tan 250  20 * 36.25

Rd  3421.13 KN
m
Rd 3421.13
F .S    2.2087  2....ok
Fhd 1548.901
U/stream slope stability

Horizontal force acting up on u/s (Fhu)
 rh 2
2
r H2
Fhu  s tan 2 (450  )  1
2 2 2
2
12 * (14.5) 25 (9.709) 2
 * tan (45  )  22 *
2
2 2 2
 511.91  1036.91
Fhu  1548.901KN m

RU  ArU tan   cbu

whereA  area...of( ABC )
43.5 *14.5
( ) * 22 tan 25  (20 * 43.5)
2
3235.359  870
Ru  4105.35KN / m
R 4105.35
F .S  U   2.6504
FhU 1548.901
F .S  2.6504  2.0.......... .OK !
Therefore, the cofferdam is stable by using approximate method.
This analysis is also used for u/s and d/s coffer dam, which is dimensionally similar.

CHAPTER-SEVEN
7.0 Design of Power House and Hydropower Units
7.1 General
Turbines are machines which convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy (shaft power).The
shaft power developed is used in running electricity generators which are directly coupled to the
shaft of the turbine, thus producing electrical power.
7.1.1 Gross Head (HG)
The gross head is the vertical distance the water falls through in generating power, i.e. between
the upper and lower water surface levels.
H g  NPL  TWL NPL  normal Pool level
where TWL  Tail water level
Hg  580  520
Hg  gross head
Hg  60
7.1.2 Estimation of Net Head (HN )

The net head is the available head to drive the turbine and calculated as the gross head minus the
sum of all the losses arising from trash rack, tunnel friction, bends, transition etc.
Therefore for Border hydropower project;
It is the head available for power generation and it is the difference between the gross head and
the total loss.
where h f  total head loss
Hnet  H g  h f H net  the net head

H g  the grosshead
60  1.848
 58.152
7.2 Powerhouse planning
The basic requirement of the powerhouse is the functional utility and aesthetic requirements.
Planning the power house should be harmonious with the surrounding powerhouse of
hydropower maybe:
Surface powerhouse
Underground powerhouse
Surface powerhouse is often used in areas with no mountainous and this powerhouse has no
space limitations. Whereas underground powerhouse is used in mountainous areas where
there is limited space available to locate a power plant. For border hydropower project the
powerhouse should be a surface powerhouse.
7.2.1 Firm power and installed capacity
Before any power plant is contemplated, it is essential to assess the inherent power available
from the discharge of the river and the head available at the site.
Therefore, the theoretical potential power is expressed as
p   oQH ,
no  the over all efficincey

where   The specific weight of water
H  the net head
Firm power is the minimum continuous power that can be generated for 100 percent of the time
and corresponds to the minimum stream flow. Secondary or surplus power is the additional
power that can be generated at a plant in excess of the primary, depending on the plant capacity
provided over the constant load.
Load factor: - is the ratio of the average load over a certain period to the peak load during the
same period. A high load factor is indicative of the better utilization of the installed capacity and
consequently the unit generating cost is less and vice versa.
Averageload
Load factor = Maximumload
Installation capacity:
Installed capacity refers to the full capacity of the power plant. The installed capacity can be
determined by multiplying the unit weight of water ( ) , net head (H), over all efficient and
maximum discharge (Qmax).
Firm power

P   o *  * Qevg * H
teking  o  (0.90to0.94) For Fracis turbines (P. Novak, 1996)
o  0.92(overage)
Qovy .  1682.56m3 / s
p  0.92 * 9.81*103 *1682.56 * 58.152

PFirm  883.061MW
and Installed capecity
Pist   . f .Qmex . H
Pfirm
but,  powerfactor
Pist
Pfirm
 Pi nst 
P.F
883.061/ 0.57
1549.22MW
 Pinst  1549.22MW
According to sharma, load factor can be taken within the range of (0.4-0.6) for developing
countries.
7.2.2 Determination of number of units
For a given total plant capacity, total costs will generally increase with an increase in the number
of units. Efficiency of large units is generally higher than the smaller and for uniform power
demand; it is practicable to install large units. Factors such as space limitations by geological
characteristic and difficulty in transportation are sometimes necessary to limit the size.
From a graph of head versus specific speed for H=58.152, Ns=284 and Number of poles is
selected on the effect of head variation. For headless than 200m, Number of poles is divisible by
7.3 Hydraulic turbines and electromechanical equipment’s
7.3.1 General:
Hydraulic turbines may be considered as hydraulic motors or prime motors or prime movers of
waterpower development, which convert water energy in to mechanical energy (shaft power).

The shaft power developed is used in running electricity generators directly coupled to the shaft
of the turbine, thus producing electrical power.
All types of turbine, basically fall into two categories
Impulse turbine
Reaction turbine
Impulse turbine:
All the available potential energy is converted in to kinetic energy with the help of contracting
nozzles. The water after impinging on the curved vanes or bucket is discharged freely to drown
stream channel, example: pelton wheel.
Reaction turbine:
In this type, the water enters the turbine in a circumferential direction in to the scroll case and
makes in to the runner through a series of guide vanes called wicket gates.
The available energy partly converted to kinetic energy and substantial magnitude remains in the
form of pressure energy example Francis, Kaplan, propeller etc.
7.3.2 Selection of turbine
The selection of the best turbine for any particular hydro sites depends on the head available, the
power required to develop and the specific speed of the turbine.
The various considerations in the selection of type of units are
1. Head: maximum net head acting on turbine is an important consideration in the selection of
type of turbine for a power plant.
For heads less than 60m (propeller)
For heads 26-450 Francis and
For heads, more 250m pelton turbines are selected.
2. Specific speed: it is defined as the speed at which a geometrically similar runner would rotate
if it were so proportional that it would develop 1 KW when operating under a head of 1m.
Low specific speed turbine (11-43) pelton.
medium specific speed turbine (57 -450) Francis
high specific speed turbine ( 230-860) Kaplan

Efficiency: the turbine efficiency varies with power output and head. Francis and propeller
turbines have high fall of efficiency in comparison to pelton and Kaplan.
Load: the turbine selection is also influenced by the variability of load. The type of turbines
dictates minimum load up to which turbines may be continuously operated without any
cavitations and vibration.
5. Cavitation’s: cavitation is an important consideration in the selection of turbine for the given
head and specific speed. It is an account of capitations limit that high-speed turbine are not used
for high heads, but low speed
Turbines can work under high heads. In general cavitation coefficient for Francis turbines is
much less than that for Kaplan turbines.
6. Overall cost: it includes initial cost and running cost. As much as possible it should be
adopted minimum overall cost turbine unit.
For this project, considering all the above parameters and using the performance curves, Francis
turbine is selected.
7.3.3 Performance of turbine
1. Specific speed
A geometrically similar runner would rotate if it were so proportional that it would develop 1
KW power when operating under a head of 1m, and expressed as at the speed
Where N s = specific speed

N P
Ns 
H 1.25 Where, N= rotational speed (RPM)
P= power develop (KW)
H= effective head (m)
2. Synchronous speed
Since the generator and turbine are fixed, the rated speed of the turbine is the same as synchronic
speed of the generator. The speed N -for synchronic running is given by
120 f
N
p
Where f= frequency by cycle per second (50-60cycl/sec)

p= number of poles
divisible by 2 for head above 200m
divisible by 4 for heads up to 200m
3. Peripheral Velocity
It is the ratio of the peripheral speed of the bucket or vanes at the minimal diameter, D to the
theoretical velocity of water under the effective head H acting on the turbine. It is given by
DN

60 2 gh
Where D= diameter of the turbine

H= net head in (m)
N=turbine speed (rpm)
7.3.4 Hydraulic Design of Turbine
Determination of turbine parameters
Specific speed:
The specific speed of the unit can be calculated with the help of a number of formulas as shown
below:
I. R.W. Abett’s formula
1700 1700
Ns    222.92 , For Hnet =58.152
H 58.152
II, P.C. Nag and K. Modhvan’s formula
1640
Ns   215.06
H
III, Moody formula
6780
Ns   83.6  182.84
H  9.75
IV, Norwegian turbine factory
5000
Ns   290.92
H 0.7
V. T.L white‘s formula

1540
Ns   201.94
H
Taking the average of the above values
NS  222.76 , take N S  223
B. Turbine speed
N s (H 5 )
N 4
P1
(223)(58.152)5 / 4
N
112
N  284rpm
C. Synchronous speed
The selection of number of poles is done on the effect of head variation. According to
DONALD if the head is expected to vary less than 10% from the design head, numbers of poles
are taken as lower multiple of 4. If variation is >10% then the higher multiple of 4 poles is
adopted giving lesser speed. The number of poles should be even number so as to have proper
magnetic field. However as per latest trends the numbers of poles are used as multiple of 4 for a
better dispersion of magnetic flux through some standard generators having multiple of 2 poles
only.
120 f
N
NP Where f=50 Hz
NP 
120 * 50 N P  No.poles =44, take N  44 which are divisible by 4 for
P
N
H<200m=> N P  44
120 f 120 * 50
Therefore; N   =136.4rpm
NP 44
The number of units can be obtained as

Therefore, P=[ ]² =[ ]²=112 MW
Number of units= = =13.83 14units
The new specific speed
N* P
Ns 
H 5/ 4
136.4 * 110.64 *103

Ns  5
 284
4
(58,152)
Therefore N s  284 and N  136.4
D. Determination of peripheral co-efficient (  )

1. Kruger’s formula (for Francis turbine)
  0.0197 * Ns 2 / 3  0.09
  0.941
2. P.C Nag and K. Modhvan’s formula for Fancies turbine
  0.036 * Ns 7 /12
  0.9714
3. D.Zonobelti’s formula
Ns
  0.656   0.737 
2500
Taking the average of the above three values
  0.894
The table below shows various values of , N s , H and efficiency (  ) for the three main types of
turbines.
Types of runner  Ns H (m) Efficiency (  )
Impulse 0.43-0.48 8-17 85-90

17 > 250 90
17-30 90-82

Francis 0.6-0.9 40-130 90-94

130-350 25-450 94
350-452 94-93
Propeller 1.4-2 380-600 <60 94
600-902 94-85
Based on the above parameters, operation head of 58.152m, generating coefficient 0.894,
generating power of 110.06Mw and the turbine speed of 136.4rpm makes Francis turbine
suitable for this project.
E) Run away speed
If the external load on the machine suddenly drops to zero (sudden rejection) and the governing
mechanism fails at the same time, the turbine will tend to race up to the maximum possible
speed, known as runaway speed. This limiting speed under no load, maximum flow must be
considered for safe design.
The following formula may also be used to determine proportion of runaway speed as compared
to normal speed.
H max 12
Nr  K n .N ( )
U.S.B.R. Formula Hd
Where Kn= (0.1475Ns + 145) in %age

=(0.1475*284 + 145)
=186.89%
Hmax= Hgross= 60m
Hd= Hnet= 58.152m
N=136.4 rpm
Nr = *136.4*( )^0.5=258.935 rpm
i.e. Hence the nearest commercial value is taken.

7.3.4.1 Runner Discharge diameter
The discharge diameter can be found with help of the peripheral coefficient  . The value of
 (calculated before),
  0.89
I. Mosonyi’s formula
H
D1  84.6 *
N
58.152
D1  84.6 * 0.89 *  4.209
136.4
Ns
D3  D1 (0.5  Ns )  D1 (0.5  )
N
 D3  5.092
whereD1=diameter of entering edge of runner blade
D3=diameter at the discharge
7.3.4.2 Turbine scroll case
A scroll case is the conduit directing the water from the intake or penstock to the runner in
reaction type turbines installation. A spiral shaped scroll case of the correct geometry ensures
even distribution of water around the periphery of the runner with the minimum possible eddy
formations. For this project, since it is medium head installation full spiral case is adopted.

Dimension of spiral case According to F.desiervo and F.deleva, water velocity at spiral case inlet
0.4428
V  844N s  844(284)^0.44  70.28
19.56)
A  D3 (1.2   3.759m
Ns
54.8
B  D3 (1.2  )  7.09m
Ns
49.25
C  D3 (1.32  )  27.6m
Ns
48.8
D  D3 (1.5  )  8.51m
Ns
63.6
E  D3 (0.98  )  6.13m
Ns
131.4
F  D3 (1  )  7.44m
Ns
96.5
G  D3 (0.89  )  6.26m
Ns
81.75
H  D3 (0.79  )  5.48m
Ns
section for Ns=284. I  D3 (0.1  0.00065Ns )  1.449m
L  D3 (0.88  0.00049Ns )  5.189m

M  D3 (0.6  0.000015Ns )  3.07m
Where the designations of the above letters are shown on the fig below

Figure 7.1 spiral casing

7.3.4.3 Draft tube
A draft tube is a conduit discharging water from the turbine runner to the tailrace. It is employed
in conjunction with reaction type turbines and has two fold purposes.
To recover as much as possible of the velocity energy of the water leaving the runner, which
otherwise would have gone to waste as an exit loss, thus increasing the dynamic draft head.
ii. To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and the tail water level called the
static draft head.
For this particular project elbow type draft tubes is selected since it has the following advantages
compared to conical type draft tube.
Minimizes the required depth of excavation
Directs the flow in the direction of the tail water flow
Allows the provision of gate at the outlet of the tube

Dimensions of elbow type draft tube

According to F.desiervo and F.deleva have given the formula for draft tube dimensions.
248
V1=8.74+  m / s , Where V1=water velocity at draft tube inlet section.
Ns
The dimensions are given below;
140.7
O  D3 (0.83  )  6.74m
Ns
P  D3 (1.37  0.00056Ns )  6.16m
22.6
Q  D3 (0.58  )  3.35m,
Ns
0.0013
R  D3 (1.6  )  8.147m
Ns
S  D3 Ns (9.28  0.25Ns )  23.4m
T  D3 (1.5  0.00019Ns )  7.91m

U  D3 0.51  0.0007N S   1.58m
53.7
V  D3 (1.1  )  4.63m
Ns
33.8
Z  D3 (2.63  )  13.99m
Ns
Where the designations of the above letters are shown on the fig below

Figure 7.2 Draft tube dimension

Weight of the turbine and shaft diameter;
Wt =0.05* =0.05* =725.437t nns
For steel spiral case Francis turbine

Schoklitsch formula Ds=0.111 =0.111*(
= 1.035m

7.3.5. Electromechanical equipments

The following items of equipment are considered for planning and dimensioning of the
powerhouse:
Hydraulic equipment
Turbines
Gate and gate valves
Relief valves of penstocks
Governors
Flow measurement
Electrical equipment
Generator
Exciters
Transformers, pumps, cooling systems, connections, funs and plate forms
Switching equipment
low tension buses
switch board panels
switch board equipment and instruments
oil switching
4. Miscellaneous equipment
Crane
Work Office rooms
Other facilities (clinic, store, etc)
7.3.5.1 Generators
General
Generators transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. They are essentially designed to
suit the characteristics of the turbine to which these are connected. The speed of generator varies
widely as the head on the turbine and it’s rating. Generators are usually designed for full
runaway speed of the turbine.
The dimensions of the generator and its weight are calculated as follows

Diameter of generator
J.J.Dolands formula
Dg  0.119P 0.466 K 0.233
Where Dg=diameter of generator in meter

P=number of poles =44
K=capacity of generator in KN
P( KN ) 11640
K  * 0.735  101650.5KN
0.8 0.8
 Dg  0.119 * (44) 0.466 (101650.5) 0.233  1.02m
Weight of the generator

Wg  g K / N  85
Where g=coefficient that varies between 20&32, taking the average =26
101650.5
Wg  26  85  430.14tons
750
Crane capacity
Weight of the rotor = 50 to 55% of Wg
= 52%* Wg = *430.14 =223.67tonns
Weight of rotor = Weight of crane = 224 tonns

Two cranes of 150 tone capacity each will be easy to be provided and will be used together when
lifting the rotor.
The advantage of having two cranes is
Two cranes of 150 tone capacity will be easy to manufacture than a single crane with 224 tone
capacity.
224 tone crane will need heavier gantry beam compared to smaller cranes.
In case of one crane being out of order the other can be utilized.
Height of the generator
Dg
Hg  K '  2.3
Np
Where K’ varies from 5.5 to 12.57; take 8
1.02
Hg  8 *  2.3  2.48
44
J.H.Walker has given elaborate curves and relations to determine the dimensions of the
D' g
generator. If is the gap between poles and stator and this diameter in meter is
P  32.5 
Dg '    k
62  p 
44 32.5
D' g  [  7]  8.44m Where, K=varies from 5to 9(take k=7)
62 44
P=number of poles
Df
Diameter of generator frame ( )
 2.1 
Df= Dg '   1  1.55  10.4m
P 
Df 
10.4m
Generator pit diameter
The generator pit diameter required is given by
DP  D f  2  10.4  2  12.4m
Therefore the different dimensions of the generator are

Hg =height of the generator =2.48m
Wg =weight of the generator =430.14tons
Dg =diameter of the generator =1.018m
Dg  =gap between the poles and the stator =8.44m
Df=diameter of the generator frame=10.4m

Dp =generator pit diameter =12.4m
7.4 The powerhouse
The powerhouse is a structure, which shelters the turbines, generating units, control and auxiliary
equipment and sometimes erection and service areas. The powerhouse would be located to

economically maximize available head while observing site physical and environmental
constraints.
7.4.1 Types of powerhouse
The basic requirement of a powerhouse is the functional utility and aesthetic requirements.
Planning the powerhouse should be harmonious with the surrounding. A powerhouse of a
hydropower may be: -
Surface or over ground power house: in this type of power house the surface power stations, the
units and all other equipments are located in the power house and the power house is situated on
the ground surface.
Underground powerhouse: this type of powerhouse is often used in mountainous areas where
there is limited space available to locate a power plant. If there is a gorge and a valley an
underground powerhouse may be economical and it is also safer during war attacks.
Important characteristics of underground power house:
Flexibility in power house location and plant layout
Cost saving potential
Total plant efficiency and operational stability and also operational reliability and personal safety
For Border hydropower project over ground powerhouse type is selected due to suitability of
topography and homogeneity.
7.4.2 Dimensions of powerhouse
The three essential constituents of powerhouse are unit bay or machine hall, erection bay and
control bay.
A. UNIT SPACING: unit spacing can be determined using the following empirical formulas
1).E.MOSONY’S FORMULA
 N 
 5.5  S  * D3
Unit spacing=  100 
 20.775m
2).J.J.DONALD’S FORMULA
Unit spacing = 3.5 to6D 3
=3.75D 3

=19.095m
3).N.VENKATA ROWS FORMULA
Unit spacing =3.8to5D 3
=4D 3
=20.368m
Taking the maximum value, unit spacing=20.7m
B. Length
The center-to-center distance between the units, is from (4.5-5) D + (2-3) m for minimum
clearance.
Hence the total length=unit*center-to-center distance + center-to-center(D/2) unit + center-to-
center errection + center-to-center for control room.
L=14*26.42+2(5.092/2) +26.42+26.42 =427.812m
C. Width:-The width of machine hall can be determined by the size and the clearance space
from the walls needed as a gangway.
i- width- center-to-center distance of the unit spacing.
Width=D+E+1.85*D
Width=8.51+6.13+1.85*5.092=24.77M
D. Height: the height of the machine hall is fixed up by the head room requirement of the crane
operation .The hall must have the height which will enable the cranes to lift the rotors of the
generator clear of the floor without any other machine sets forming obstruction.
Height of power house (H)=Hg+3mclearance(say)+2m allowance for crane +4.5m for crane
grider
H=4.27+3+2+4.5=13.77m
11640* 0.735
Generator capacity =  101650.5KN
0.8
Using a table for a generator capacity of 101650.5KN and net head (H)=58.152m by two step
interpolation the height to crane rail from generator floor in water is calculated as ------------------
-----(R.S Varshney 2001).

Height from the generator floor =13.77m

Height from power house (H)
H =13.77m+2m (clearance) =15.77m
And also H=Height of generator +clearance (4m)+allowance for free movement of crane (say
2m) + allowance for crane girders (say 4.5 m)
H =4.813+4+2+4.5
H =13.77 say 15.77m  Taking the larger value for safety purpose
H =15.77m
Therefore the dimensions of the power house are =Length * width *height
=427.812m*24.77m*15.77m
7.5 Cavitation
is formation of voids within the body or moving liquid when the local pressure is lower than
vapor pressure.
Cavitation results pitting, vibration and reduction in efficiency and is certainly undesirable.
Cavitation may be avoided by suitably designing, installing and operating the turbine in such a
May that the pressure within the units are above the vapor pressure of water. Dr Thomas of
Germany has developed a factor of cavitation, to determine the zone where a turbine can work
without being affected by cavitation’s.
Ha  Hv  Hs Hb  H s
   H s  Hb  * H
H H
Where σ= Average atmospheric pressure in m of water
Hv = vapor pressure, in m of water
Hs = suction head, height of runner outlet above tailrace
H = working head of a turbine
H b  H a  H v  usually10
Where Hb= Barometric pressure in meter of water=10.1

H=altitude of turbine location (m a.m.s.l)

According to Dr.Thoma, cavitation can be avoided if the value of σ is not less than the critical
value, which depends up on the specific speed of the turbine, Ns.
The value of σc for different turbines may be determined by using the following empirical
relations:-
For Francis turbines
Ns 2
 C  0.0432( )
100
For propeller turbines
3
 Ns 
 c  0.28    * 0.0024
 100 
For Kaplan turbine
Increase by 10% in the value obtained with the formula for propeller turbine.
1) For the case of Border hydropower project Francis turbine have been selected and the value is
2
 Ns 
 c  0.0432 
 100 
2
 284 
 c  0.0432   0.3484
 100 
2) Roger & R.E.B Sharp’s formula
σc = = =0.163
3) USBR formula
σc= = =0.211
4) C.V Davis & K.E Sorengens formula

σc= 0.006 +0.38( )^1.8 = 0.006 +0.38( )^1.8 =0.2547
Taking the average of σc values, σc=0.244

H s  Hb  c H
 10.1m  0.244 * 58.152m
 4.089m

In this particular project the value of Hs=-4.089m. The negative value means the turbine has to
be set at 4.089m below tail water level for its proper operation.
The effects of cavitations can be reduced by-
setting the turbine near the tailrace level using hydraulic calculation
Making the runner blades from especially chosen resistant metals such as stainless steel and
nickel steel.
Spraying thin layers of erosion resistance materials in place where cavitation is most likely to
occur.
7.6 Other hydropower equipment’s
7.6.1 Turbine governor
The governor is a mechanism of controlling the rotational speed of the turbo generator unit;
constant speed must be maintained in order to obtain the a.c supply with constant frequency. As
the turbine and hence its interconnected generator tend to decrease or increase speed as the load
varies, the maintenance of an almost constant speed requires regulation of the amount of water
allowed to flow through the turbine by closing or opening the gates of the turbines automatically,
through the action of a governor.

CHAPTER- EIGHT
8.0 Environmental Impact Assessments
8.1 General
EIA is the process of predicting the consequence and ways of human development by planning
appropriate measures to eliminate or reduce the adverse effect of any project.
It also identifies the potential problems and outlines the ways to improve the project Suitability
for the proposed site.
The development of any water resource project is to improve the quality human life and the
conservation of the natural environment, which is indicator of the level of one Countries’
development.
The strategy for small hydropower development relies on clean recycling and use of renewable
resources with the minimum cost to protect the existing impact.
Hydropower projects producing an electric energy may have an irreversible environmental
change over a wide geographic area. This has a potential for significant impacts. Even though its
aim is to bring about positive change, it may also lead to conflict that requires an assessment of
the existing problem. Therefore, there should be a balance between environment protection and
the sustainable development required considering the health and productive life in harmony with
nature.
The EIA not only predicts potential problems but also identifies measures to minimize the
problems and out lines ways to improve the project suitability for its proposed environment.
The aim of environmental impact assessments is:
To understand the likely environmental consequences of new developments.
To understand the amplification of proposed interventions.
To identify measures by which the impacts can be mitigated.
To present the results in such a way that they can provide answers needed by stakeholders.
Generally, EIA can be described in short as an instrument used to identify, predict and assess the
environmental consequences of a proposed major development project. Moreover, EIA is used to
plan appropriate measures to reduce adverse effects.

8.2 Environmental impact of Border hydropower

The Border project will inundate an area of some 574 km2 consisting mainly of open savannah
and woodland. The reservoir area has relatively low population density and the displaced
population has been estimated at approximately 14,000 people.
The Border project encroaches on the Dabus Valley Controlled Hunting Area (1,227 km2).
Information about the wildlife habitat and wildlife of this area is scanty, and it is understood to
be a part of the 84% of protected areas in Ethiopia that are unmanaged. It has therefore been
proposed that future detailed ecological surveys include this area, and that the Border project
considers its adoption, with a sustainable environmental management and monitoring plan, as an
environmental offset for the loss of wildlife habitat and wildlife in the project’s reservoir area
(540 km2). Such surveys would also contribute markedly to the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural
History Society that wishes to determine the status of the area regarding its future designation as
an Important Bird Area.
Table 4.1 Summary of environmental and social impact of Border hydropower
project
Positive Impacts Principal Benefits Negative Impacts Mitigation measures
Ethiopia
Border project Border power generation, a Involuntary Resettlement and
major national energy resettlement development
benefit and increase in program
foreign exchange earnings
Border project Construction employment, Loss of wildlife habitat New reservoir
new skills for the future and wildlife wetland and
management of
environmental
offset(s)
Border project New roads, Abbay bridge, Loss of natural Development of
promoting regional resources reservoir fisheries

development and
Border project Extension of rural

electrification
Sudan
Regulated flows and Uplift of energy at River morphology River training works
reduced sediment Roseires, Sennar and changes
Merowe
Regulated flows Additional irrigation
Regulated flows and higher Reduction in energy costs
dry season river levels for pumping for irrigation
Reduced sediment Reduction in dredging costs
at Roseires
Reduced sediment, e.g. at Reduction in irrigation
Rahad and Gezira-Managil canal and drainage canal
desilting maintenance costs
Reduced sediment Reduction in water supply
treatment costs
Reduced sediment Reduction in pump
replacement costs
Regulated flows and Incremental fisheries
reduced sediment production
Regulated flows, higher in Navigation Higher Blue Nile river Facilitate river
dry season levels in dry season crossings for
pedestrians and
livestock, or
compensation
Reduction in flooding Reductions in health Reduction in flooding Conversion of flood
problems, urban flooding, recession agriculture

property flooding, and to irrigation, and two

infrastructure maintenance crops per year
Reduction in sediment Application of

artificial fertilizers
Egypt
Reduced sediment Extension in life of High
Aswan Dam
Opportunity to operate Reduction in evaporation Opportunity to operate Reduction in
High Aswan Dam at lower losses and conversion to High Aswan Dam at evaporation losses
level usable water supply yield lower level and conversion to
usable water supply
yield may more than
offset reduction in
power generation
Regional
Border project Carbon emissions savings

of some 210 million tonnes
compared with equivalent
thermal generation
Count of benefits and 16 7
mitigations

CHAPTER- NINE
9.0 Cost Evaluations and Economic Analysis
9.1 General
Economic analysis of hydropower project is a technique of analyzing cost expended and benefit
from the project. The benefit includes tangible and intangible benefits those, which cannot be
determined in economic term. Based on accounting analysis, when total benefit acquiring from
project exceeds the total cost expended, the project is believed to be economically viable. (i.e.,
the project has ability to obtain funds for implementation and repay these funds at realistic
interest rate.)
Therefore economic analysis is used to determine whether the project is worth to be implemented
or not.
9.2 Cost Evaluation
Before economies of an engineering project can be evaluated, it is necessary to reasonably
estimate the various cost and revenue components that describe the project
So, the costs of all civil works have been determined from the quantities of each and every
component of structures. However the cost of powerhouse equipment’s other auxiliaries are
taken from ongoing hydropower construction project. .
Table 5.1 Detailed cost estimate
Item Quantity in unit Rate in Cost in Total in
1000 million $ million $ million $
ENVIROMENTAL MITIGATIONS
Environmental mitigations Sum 30 30 30
Contingencies (10%) 3
TOTAL 0.001 33

INFRASTRUCTURE
New roads in mountainous terrain
Construction access roads
Upgrading to existing roads
Major bridge crossing
Minor bridge crossing
Operators village & infrastructure
Subtotal
Contingencies (10%)
TOTAL INFRASTRUCTURE 0.088 Km 0.53 46.64 46.64
RESERVOIR
Clearance
TOTAL RESERVOIR 56.32 Ha 8*10^-4 45.056 45.056
RCC DAM AND SPILLWAY
Clearing and grubbing 0.033 m^3 5*10^-3 0.165
Soft excavation(unconfined) 2136.2 m^3 7*10^-6 14.95
Soft excavation(confined/difficult) 210.7 m^3 8*10^-6 1.6856
Rock excavation(unconfined) 328.45 m^3 15*10^-6 4.926
Rock excavation(confined/difficult) 418.81 m^2 1.8*10^-5 7.538
Foundation preparation 95.524 m^2 2*10^-4 19.10
Drilling and grouting 30.1 m^3 8.5*10^-5 2.55
Roller compacted concrete 28.8 m^3 8.5*10^-5 2.448
Grout enriched roller compacted concrete 2600 m^3 8.5*10^-5 221
Form work 132.58 m^2 7*10^-5 9.286
Mass concrete 351.55 m^3 1.2*10^-4 42.186
C35; Reinforced concrete(parpet, crest) 548.23 m^3 1.3*10^-4 71.269
C45; Reinforced concrete(Spillway) 348.25 m^3 1.4*10^-4 48.75
reinforcement 79.8 t 1.8*10^-3 143.64

Penstock steel 3.07 t 8.72*10^-3 26.774

Unmeasured items (5%) 365.6 m^3 4*10^-6 1.462
Sub total 617.72
CIVIL WORKS
Diversion works
Clearing and grubbing 9 Ha 6*10^-3 0.054
Soft excavation(confined/difficult) 69287 m^3 7*10^-6 0.485
Foundation preparation 12654 m^2 9*10^-6 0.113
Drilling and grouting 3215 m 2*10^-4 0.643
Roller compacted concrete 153987 m^3 8.5*10^-5 13.089
Form work 24600 m^2 7*10^-5 1.722
Coffer dam removal 710200 m^3 6*10^-6 4.261
Unmeasured items (5%) 63603 m^3 4*10^-6 1.192
Subtotal 21.559

Item Quantity Unit Rate(in Cost in Total

million $) millions($) cost(in
millions
$)
POWER HOUSE AND TAIL RACE
Clearing and grubbing 7 Ha 7*10^-3 0.049
Soft excavation (unconfined) 140748 m^3 6*10^-6 0.844
Soft excavation (confined/difficult) 48060 m^3 8*10^-6 0.384
Rock excavation (unconfined) 150450 m^3 1.5*10^-5 2.256
Rock excavation (confined/difficult) 233264 m^3 2.2*10^-5 5.131
Compacted fill 290125 m^3 7*10^-6 2.030
Foundation preparation 14560 m^2 9*10^-6 0.131
Drilling and grouting 4900 m 2*10^-4 0.98
Form work 175600 m^2 7*10^-5 12.29
Mass concrete 0 m^3
Reinforced concrete 283100 m^3 1.5*10^-5 4.246
Reinforcement 25439 t 1.8*10^-3 45.79
Structural steel 305 t 6.25*10^-3 1.906
Subtotal 76.31
WORKSHOP AND STORES BUILDIN
Common excavation 5 Ha 6*10^-6 0.03
Compacted fill 98658 m^3 7*10^-6 0.69
Reinforced concrete 221006 m^3 1.8*10^-4 39.78
Form work 2875 m^3 7*10^-5 0.2012
Reinforcement 7789 m^2 1.2*10^-3 9.346
Structural steel 224 t 6.25*10^-3 1.4
Crushed rock facing 40 t 5.9*10^-3 0.236

Subtotal 51.95
TOTAL 772.939
Contingencies (15%) 115.94
TOTAL CIVIL WORKS COST 888.87
MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL &

HYDROMECHANICAL WORKS
Generating plant 1 Sum 210 210
Hydro mechanical equipment 1 Sum 69 69
Switch gear 1 Sum 43.5 43.5
Subtotal 322.5
Contingencies (5%) 16.125
TOTAL M & E AND HYDRO 338.625
MECHANICAL
TOTAL 1352.191
Engineering, administration &
Construction management (10%) 135.21
Owner’s administration (4%) 54.08
TOTAL PROJECT COST ($) 1541.498

9.3 Power developed versus Operating and maintenance costs

Operating costs - are incurred by purchasing assets to be used in production and services.
Maintenance cost- includes cost of labor for wages of operating and maintenance of power plant
components.
Therefore O&M cost (in dollar) can be obtained as follow:
O&M=17200(Pmw)0.543 ………(Lee H Sheldon)
Where P is power developed in (MW)
O and M = 17200(1549.22)^0.543 =$928452.85 annually
9.4 Valuation of benefit
The aim of benefit cost analysis is to maximize the equivalent value of benefit or
Minimize all the costs (expressed in present value or annual value.)
According to Ethiopian Electric power corporation (EEPCO)
Energy consumption is grouped into two
i.e. Domestic consumption …(rate~0.2809 Birr/Kwh)
Industrial consumption …(rate~0.4301 Birr/Kwh)
The average energy price according to recent (EEPCO) on hydropower is 0.34 Birr/kwH
Therefore, for evaluation of the project the following data are required.
Total project cost= 1541.498 M Birr
Life of project n = 50 years
Construction period = 6 years
Discount rate i=6%
Price energy =0.35Birr/kwh
Installed capacity P = 1549.22 MW
Utilization time =8760*0.8=7008
Mean annual energy = 1549.22*7008=10856.93*106 Kwh
= 0.35Birr/ Kwh * 10856.93*106 Kwh
=3799.927*106 Birr.
In dollar =$207.08M/yr
I, Benefit cost Ratio

From the above results

Annual Benefit=$207.08M /year.
Annual O&M cost =$928452.85/yr

Project cost = $1541.498 M/yr
Interest during construction (for 6 years)
1541.498*(3*0.06) =$277.469M
Total investment Cost=$(project cost + interest during cons.)M/yr
=$(1541.498+277.469)M/yr =$1818.96M/yr
A/P factor (n=50,I=6%) factor =0.0634
Annual construction cost=0.0634*$1818.96 M/yr =$115.32M/yr
Total annual cost=(Annual cons. cost+Operation & M. cost)M/yr
=(115.32 + 0.928452) = $116.24M/yr
B/C RATIO = $207.08M /yr = 1.7814
$(116.24)M/yr
. # Sine the B/C ratio of the project is greater than 1.0 the project is economically feasible.
II. The internal rate of return
Basically, a project’s return is referred to as internal rate of return (IRR) or the yield promised by
an investment project over its useful life. Or
The internal rate of return (IRR)is the discount rate at which the net present value is equal to
zero.
n Bj  C j
NPV=   0 Where B j  Benefit at j time
j 0 1  IRR  j
C j  Cost at j time
IRR is calculated through an iterative process, which is done by computer processing

and it is found that at i=6.045% NPV=0 hence IRR=6.045 %

Table 9.2 Detail calculation for IRR
TOTAL INV COST

Total Energy
10856.93*10^6(Kw/year) P=$1818.96 M
In In Dollar
costBirr/KWhBirr(benefit) $(befit) IRR A/P A(annual) Net Benefit B/C
0.45 4885.619 266.246 0.06045 0.060489 109.956 156.28 2.4213
0.4 4342.772 236.663 126.706 2.152
0.35 3799.926 207.08 97.123 1.883
0.3 3257.079 177.49 67.533 1.614
0.27 2931.371 159.74 49.783 1.452
0.24 2605.663 141.998 32.041 1.291
0.21 2279.955 124.248 14.291 1.129
9.5 Sensitivity analysis

One way to glean a sense of possible outcomes of an investment is to perform sensitivity
analysis. Sensitivity analysis determines the effect of the NPW or Net Benefit of variations in the
input variables (cost of energy, rate of return).A sensitivity Analysis reveals how much the Net
present value (NPV) will change in response to a given change in an input variable.
A Convenient and useful way to present the results of a sensitivity analysis is to t plot sensitivity
graphs. The slop of the line shows how sensitive the Net benefit (NB) is to changes in each of
inputs.

Table 9.3 sensitivity analysis calculation
Cost of energy (Birr/KWh)IRR values (%)
0.45 8.925
0.4 7.485
0.35 6.045
0.3 4.645
0.27 3.89
0.24 3.02
0.21 2.01
Figure 9.1 Sensitivity analysis calculations

9.6 Financial cash-flow analysis
The outflow cash includes the capital cost of the project, the annual operation and maintenance,
financing for the renewal of electromechanical equipment during the calculation period, tax and
insurance. The following cash includes mainly the revenue. The cash-flow analysis is shown in
annex 11.
CHAPTER- TEN
10.0 Conclusion and Recommendation
10.1 Conclusion
 The Border hydropower project is a critical project which offers an opportunity of
fulfilling energy demands in the country especially in eastern region. The river has mean
annual flow of 1194 M m3 with in the range of 5424Mm3 to 293Mm3. This variation of
discharge results in the provision of Roller compacted concrete (RCC) gravity dam of
height 83m to regulate the flow for maximum possible power generation.
 The project will provide a regulated firm regarding enhancement of agricultural
production. Alleviation of flood along Blue Nile and main Nile River is also positive
contribution of the project.
 The Border project is also believed to reduce the cost of pumping at existing pumped
irrigation projects and the cost of removal of sediment from irrigation canal systems. As
there are many positive impacts, the Border hydropower project has also negative impact
regarding displacement of population (approx. 1400 persons) around the site and shortage
of water at the downstream till the reservoir is full
However, this impact is small compared to the benefits that can be gained.
10.2 Recommendation
 The required data that can be gained from topo map contour is crucial. Therefore, every
contour should be read carefully to be accurate.
 A gauging station should be established near the dam site to record evaporation,
temperature, rainfall and other parameters. This would be useful such that the error
occurring due to transposing data is reduced.
 Since the population around the dam site is leaving their village preparation of
resettlement plan should be carried out.
 Major pregame of sediment measurements at the Kessie station should be carried out to
determine the current sediment discharge with confidence.

 The department of Hydraulic and water resource engineering should establish a way of
providing computers.
 Most of our project work is done using computer application; however, we face shortage
of computer.

REFERENCES
1. Chow, V.T (1988), Applied Hydrology .Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, Singapore.
2. Garg, S.K (1979), Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures. Khanan publishers, New
Delhi
3. Sharma, K.N (1999), Water Power Engineering. Vikas Publishers. House PVT.LTD,.
NewDelhi
4. Subramanya,K(1984), Engineering Hydrology Mc Graw-Hill Publishers. Company Ltd, New.
Delhi
5. Adam Harvey (1993),Micro-Hydro Design Manual, Sontramgton row, London 4CIBHH,UK.
6. P.Novak, A.I.B.Moffat, C.Nelluri & R.Nayayan ;( 1996), Hydraulic Structures (4 )E& FN
Spon, London
7. M.M Pandeker and K.N.Sharma; 1979 Water Power Engineering, Vikas Publish house P VT
8. Rozgar Baban; 1995, Design of Diversion Weirs, J ohnwiley and sons, Newyork New Delhi.
9. Abbet R.W(1963), Engineering Cotracts and Specifications, Johnwilley and Sons, Newyork
10. John Giasson ,Riki Therivel, Andrew Chadwick(1994),Introduction to Environmental Impact
Assessement .UCL Press, L ondon.

ANNEX
Annex1.Summary of Mean Monthly Discharge
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1973 121. 117. 72.1 67 124. 621. 1986. 657.8 4758. 2387. 867. 457.4
5 2 0 1 3 4 7 4 8
1974 123. 118. 123. 82.1 157. 756. 2955. 621.3 4621. 2011. 785. 476.5
1 2 4 4 4 7 2 2 6
1975 119. 92.7 60.2 38.8 26.4 123. 1061 3023. 2524 773.2 417. 271.6
2 5 4 1 9
1976 180. 113. 90.7 75.7 73.9 63.7 685.7 2610 1165. 452.3 366. 202.8
8 1 5 4
1977 127. 91.7 76 38 26.6 48.5 1048. 2354. 1453. 628.4 509. 242.9
7 2 5 4 7
1978 153. 102. 66.4 44.9 35.8 54.3 1039. 1971. 1007. 564.2 269. 178.4
6 5 1 8 2 2
1979 125. 80 48 29.4 46.8 87.8 1420. 1679. 705.5 338.4 210 135
5 3 5
1980 85.5 57.8 43.8 45.2 57.1 48.1 572.7 2028. 1660. 582.2 312. 189
7 3 2 8
1981 115. 169. 212 76.5 83.3 132. 1427. 1951. 1103. 409.4 256. 168
7 8 3 4 6 5 5
1982 120. 76.3 64.8 55.4 52.3 42.7 261.5 1568 720.6 525.5 218. 135
9 5
1983 82.9 55.9 50.7 62.2 97.2 85.7 274.9 1936 840.5 422.6 217. 124.2
2
1984 59.7 52.7 21.2 14.8 33.4 114. 539.8 697.6 390.5 121.4 70.2 50.7
9 2
1985 34.4 22.7 17.5 47.5 103. 46.6 537 2026. 1381. 413.6 215. 134.4

6 1 1 7
1986 85.5 64.6 53.9 71 46.5 211. 1161. 1980. 1092. 426.3 213. 124.4
6 2 6 6 5
1987 75.4 50.2 79.2 68.9 87.6 115. 180.9 1066. 418.9 254.1 179 93.4
9 5
1988 73.4 44.3 26.7 22.3 13.3 29.4 1636 4235. 1944. 869.2 400. 230.5
8 8 1 3
1989 152. 93.4 87.5 105. 51.4 59 605.3 1682. 963.9 431.6 238. 183.6
6 2 2 8
1990 96.1 69.3 52.3 49.8 30 30.1 527.9 1567. 925.8 393.3 185. 109.7
2 1
1991 68.9 52.6 39 45.2 47 79.3 808.6 2020. 1142 474.9 267. 160.7
9 3
1992 106. 77 58.1 42.4 44.9 40 420.4 2409. 1212. 718 399. 219.3
9 8 1 9
1993 125. 76.5 50.4 179. 157. 153. 1439. 1748. 1857. 765.9 382. 208.4
7 2 3 2 4 7 5 2
1994 118. 68.9 53.1 31.8 68.4 134. 2079. 4565. 2159. 693.9 385. 148.6
7 6 2 9 1 6
1995 61.4 44 50.8 91 73.7 79 1169. 2802 1169. 290.5 182. 121.3
1 8 5 6
1996 71.1 48.7 84 108. 185. 412 2248. 4113. 1483. 647 363. 247.3
8 8 8 2 6 6
1997 80.7 53.3 117. 126. 297. 745 3328. 5424. 1797. 1003. 544. 384.1
3 7 8 6 4 4 5 8
1998 179. 124. 184. 161. 191. 337 1520. 1989. 550.7 626.4 489 236.1
2 3 5 8 8 6 4
1999 223. 184. 114. 101. 53.4 119. 2826. 4752. 1728. 1258. 583. 340.1
9 2 4 2 3 5 6 5 6 9
2000 227. 158. 63.1 165. 89.2 95 1608. 4407. 1535. 1086. 656 324.8

5 4 6 9 9 5 2
2001 135. 141. 293. 300. 253. 384. 3520. 4763. 1431. 591.3 366. 285.4
7 2 4 3 3 8 6 6 1 8
2002 331. 292. 268. 277. 219 309. 1175. 2897. 1009. 324.4 235. 215.8
4 6 3 4 5 5 9 8 8
Missing value obtained by linear regression
Annex-2 Double mass curve of dam site
annual stream cumm.annual str av'g stream

flow flow flow cummulative
1973 12238.7 12238.7 1019.81 1019.81
1974 12832.1 25070.8 1069.34 2089.15
1975 8531.554 33602.354 710.96 2800.11
1976 6080.6 39682.954 506.71 3306.82
1977 6645.6 46328.554 553.8 3860.62
1978 5487.4 51815.954 457.28 4317.9
1979 4906.2 56722.154 408.85 4726.75
1980 5682.76 62404.914 473.56 5200.31
1981 6106 68510.914 508.83 5709.14
1982 3841.5 72352.414 320.125 6029.265
1983 4250 76602.414 354.16 6383.425
1984 2166.28 78768.694 180.52 6563.945
1985 4980.2 83748.894 415.016 6978.961
1986 5531.7 89280.594 460.97 7439.931
1987 2670 91950.594 222.5 7662.431
1988 9525.38 101475.974 793.78 8456.211
1989 4654.5 106130.474 387.87 8844.081
1990 4036.6 110167.074 336.38 9180.461
1991 5206.4 115373.474 433.86 9614.321
1992 5748.8 121122.274 479.06 10093.381

1993 7144.4 128266.674 595.366 10688.747

1994 10507.8 138774.474 875.65 11564.397
1995 6135.15 144909.624 511.262 12075.659
1996 10013.9 154923.524 834.419 12910.078
1997 13903.6 168827.124 1158.63 14068.708
1998 6590.8 175417.924 549.23 14617.938
1999 12286.6 187704.524 1023.88 15641.818
2000 10418.1 198122.624 868.17 16509.988
2001 12467.5 210590.124 1038.95 17548.938
2002 7557.4 218147.524 629.78 18178.718
Annex-3 Transposed monthly inflow at Border dam site

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
197 326. 315. 193.9 180. 333. 1670. 5342. 1769.0 12797. 6420. 2333. 1230.
3 76 19 0 19 75 91 18 7 94 62 84 12
197 331. 317. 331.8 220. 423. 2034. 7948. 1670.9 12428. 5408. 2112. 1281.
4 06 88 7 80 31 24 99 1 15 88 77 49
197 320. 249. 161.9 104. 71.0 331.8 2853. 8130.2 6787.9 2079. 1123. 730.4
5 57 31 0 49 0 7 43 6 9 43 89 3
197 486. 304. 243.9 203. 198. 171.3 1844. 7019.2 3134.4 1216. 985.3 545.4
6 24 17 3 59 74 1 11 7 7 41 9 1
197 343. 246. 204.3 102. 71.5 130.4 2819. 6332.1 3908.7 1690. 1370. 653.2
7 43 62 9 20 4 3 00 4 4 00 78 5
197 413. 275. 178.5 120. 96.2 146.0 2794. 5302.9 2708.7 1517. 723.9 479.7
8 09 66 7 75 8 3 53 1 4 35 8 8
197 337. 215. 129.0 79.0 125. 236.1 3819. 4516.8 1897.3 910.0 564.7 363.0
9 52 15 9 7 86 3 72 1 6 9 7 7
198 229. 155. 117.7 121. 153. 129.3 1540. 5454.8 4464.9 1565. 841.2 508.2
0 94 45 9 56 74 6 21 6 0 76 4 9
198 311. 456. 570.1 205. 224. 355.8 3838. 5248.5 2967.7 1101. 689.8 451.8

1 16 66 5 74 03 0 82 9 3 03 3 2
198 325. 205. 174.2 148. 140. 114.8 703.2 4216.9 1937.9 1413. 587.6 363.0
2 15 20 7 99 65 4 7 4 7 27 3 7
198 222. 150. 136.3 167. 261. 230.4 739.3 5206.6 2260.4 1136. 584.1 334.0
3 95 34 5 28 41 8 1 3 2 53 3 2
198 160. 141. 57.01 39.8 89.8 307.1 1451. 1876.1 1050.2 326.4 188.7 136.3
4 56 96 0 3 3 73 1 0 9 9 5
198 92.5 61.0 47.06 127. 278. 125.3 1444. 5448.9 3714.3 1112. 580.1 361.4
5 1 5 75 62 2 20 5 0 33 0 5
198 229. 173. 144.9 190. 125. 569.0 3122. 5326.5 2938.4 1146. 574.1 334.5
6 94 73 6 95 06 7 90 8 1 48 8 6
198 202. 135. 213.0 185. 235. 311.7 486.5 2868.2 1126.5 683.3 481.4 251.1
7 78 01 0 30 59 0 1 2 8 7 0 9
198 197. 119. 71.81 59.9 35.7 79.07 4399. 11391. 5228.4 2337. 1076. 619.9
8 63 14 7 7 82 66 2 61 56 0
198 410. 251. 235.3 282. 138. 158.6 1627. 4524.0 2592.2 1160. 642.2 493.7
9 40 19 2 92 23 7 88 7 9 74 2 7
199 258. 186. 140.6 133. 80.6 80.95 1419. 4214.7 2489.8 1057. 497.8 295.0
0 45 37 5 93 8 72 9 3 73 0 2
199 185. 141. 104.8 121. 126. 213.2 2174. 5434.9 3071.2 1277. 718.8 432.1
1 30 46 9 56 40 7 63 6 7 19 7 8
199 287. 207. 156.2 114. 120. 107.5 1130. 6480.8 3259.7 1930. 1075. 589.7
2 49 08 5 03 75 8 61 6 9 97 48 8
199 338. 205. 135.5 481. 423. 412.0 3871. 4702.9 4995.5 2059. 1027. 560.4
3 05 74 4 94 04 1 09 1 2 79 88 7
199 319. 185. 142.8 85.5 183. 361.9 5591. 12279. 5806.6 1866. 1037. 399.6
4 23 30 1 2 95 9 75 43 3 16 02 4
199 165. 118. 136.6 244. 198. 212.4 3144. 7535.6 3146.0 781.2 490.8 326.3
5 13 33 2 73 21 6 15 3 3 6 1 7
199 191. 130. 225.9 292. 499. 1108. 6047. 11061. 3989.9 1740. 977.8 665.0

6 21 97 1 60 69 02 87 95 6 03 6 8
199 217. 143. 315.4 340. 800. 2003. 8951. 14588. 4833.8 2698. 1465. 1032.
7 03 34 6 74 90 59 86 26 9 79 17 99
199 481. 334. 496.1 435. 515. 906.3 4089. 5350.2 1481.0 1684. 1315. 634.9
8 94 29 9 14 82 2 47 5 4 63 11 6
199 602. 495. 307.6 272. 143. 320.8 7601. 12781. 4648.5 3384. 1570. 914.6
9 15 38 6 16 61 4 52 53 9 85 33 6
200 611. 426. 169.7 445. 239. 255.4 4326. 11854. 4129.5 2921. 1764. 873.5
0 83 00 0 36 89 9 94 50 4 20 23 1
200 364. 379. 789.0 807. 681. 1034. 9468. 12811. 3848.7 1590. 986.4 767.5
1 95 74 6 62 22 87 22 12 7 23 6 5
200 891. 786. 721.5 746. 588. 832.3 3161. 7793.5 2715.7 872.4 634.1 580.3
2 26 91 6 03 97 6 36 5 3 3 6 7
Annex-4 Flow duration curve data

Descending order Rank Frequency Exceedance
14588.26 1 1 0.287356322
12811.12 2 1 0.574712644
12797.94 3 1 0.862068966
12781.53 4 1 1.149425287
12428.15 5 1 1.436781609
12279.43 6 1 1.724137931
11854.50 7 1 2.011494253
11391.66 8 1 2.298850575
11061.95 9 1 2.586206897
9468.22 10 1 2.873563218
8951.86 11 1 3.16091954
8130.26 12 1 3.448275862
7948.99 13 1 3.735632184

7793.55 14 1 4.022988506
7601.52 15 1 4.310344828
7535.63 16 1 4.597701149
7019.27 17 1 4.885057471
6787.99 18 1 5.172413793
6480.86 19 1 5.459770115
6420.62 20 1 5.747126437
6332.14 21 1 6.034482759
6047.87 22 1 6.32183908
5806.63 23 1 6.609195402
5591.75 24 1 6.896551724
5454.86 25 1 7.183908046
5448.95 26 1 7.471264368
5434.96 27 1 7.75862069
5408.88 28 1 8.045977011
5350.25 29 1 8.333333333
5342.18 30 1 8.620689655
5326.58 31 1 8.908045977
5302.91 32 1 9.195402299
5248.59 33 1 9.482758621
5228.42 34 1 9.770114943
5206.63 35 1 10.05747126
4995.52 36 1 10.34482759
4833.89 37 1 10.63218391
4702.91 38 1 10.91954023
4648.59 39 1 11.20689655
4524.07 40 1 11.49425287
4516.81 41 1 11.7816092
4464.90 42 1 12.06896552

4399.82 43 1 12.35632184
4326.94 44 1 12.64367816
4216.94 45 1 12.93103448
4214.79 46 1 13.2183908
4129.54 47 1 13.50574713
4089.47 48 1 13.79310345
3989.96 49 1 14.08045977
3908.74 50 1 14.36781609
3871.09 51 1 14.65517241
3848.77 52 1 14.94252874
3838.82 53 1 15.22988506
3819.72 54 1 15.51724138
3714.30 55 1 15.8045977
3384.85 56 1 16.09195402
3259.79 57 1 16.37931034
3161.36 58 1 16.66666667
3146.03 59 1 16.95402299
3144.15 60 1 17.24137931
3134.47 61 1 17.52873563
3122.90 62 1 17.81609195
3071.27 63 1 18.10344828
2967.73 64 1 18.3908046
2938.41 65 1 18.67816092
2921.20 66 1 18.96551724
2868.22 67 1 19.25287356
2853.43 68 1 19.54022989
2819.00 69 1 19.82758621
2794.53 70 1 20.11494253
2715.73 71 1 20.40229885

2708.74 72 1 20.68965517
2698.79 73 1 20.97701149
2592.29 74 1 21.26436782
2489.83 75 1 21.55172414
2337.61 76 1 21.83908046
2333.84 77 1 22.12643678
2260.42 78 1 22.4137931
2174.63 79 1 22.70114943
2112.77 80 1 22.98850575
2079.43 81 1 23.27586207
2059.79 82 1 23.56321839
2034.24 83 1 23.85057471
2003.59 84 1 24.13793103
1937.97 85 1 24.42528736
1930.97 86 1 24.71264368
1897.36 87 1 25
1876.11 88 1 25.28735632
1866.16 89 1 25.57471264
1844.11 90 1 25.86206897
1769.07 91 1 26.14942529
1764.23 92 1 26.43678161
1740.03 93 1 26.72413793
1690.00 94 1 27.01149425
1684.63 95 1 27.29885057
1670.91 96 1 27.5862069
1670.91 97 1 27.87356322
1627.88 98 1 28.16091954
1590.23 99 1 28.44827586
1570.33 100 1 28.73563218

1565.76 101 1 29.02298851

1540.21 102 1 29.31034483
1517.35 103 1 29.59770115
1481.04 104 1 29.88505747
1465.17 105 1 30.17241379
1451.73 106 1 30.45977011
1444.20 107 1 30.74712644
1419.72 108 1 31.03448276
1413.27 109 1 31.32183908
1370.78 110 1 31.6091954
1315.11 111 1 31.89655172
1281.49 112 1 32.18390805
1277.19 113 1 32.47126437
1230.12 114 1 32.75862069
1216.41 115 1 33.04597701
1160.74 116 1 33.33333333
1146.48 117 1 33.62068966
1136.53 118 1 33.90804598
1130.61 119 1 34.1954023
1126.58 120 1 34.48275862
1123.89 121 1 34.77011494
1112.33 122 1 35.05747126
1108.02 123 1 35.34482759
1101.03 124 1 35.63218391
1076.56 125 1 35.91954023
1075.48 126 1 36.20689655
1057.73 127 1 36.49425287
1050.20 128 1 36.7816092
1037.02 129 1 37.06896552

1034.87 130 1 37.35632184

1032.99 131 1 37.64367816
1027.88 132 1 37.93103448
986.46 133 1 38.2183908
985.39 134 1 38.50574713
977.86 135 1 38.79310345
914.66 136 1 39.08045977
910.09 137 1 39.36781609
906.32 138 1 39.65517241
891.26 139 1 39.94252874
873.51 140 1 40.22988506
872.43 141 1 40.51724138
841.24 142 1 40.8045977
832.36 143 1 41.09195402
807.62 144 1 41.37931034
800.90 145 1 41.66666667
789.06 146 1 41.95402299
786.91 147 1 42.24137931
781.26 148 1 42.52873563
767.55 149 1 42.81609195
746.03 150 1 43.10344828
739.31 151 1 43.3908046
730.43 152 1 43.67816092
723.98 153 1 43.96551724
721.56 154 1 44.25287356
718.87 155 1 44.54022989
703.27 156 1 44.82758621
689.83 157 1 45.11494253
683.37 158 1 45.40229885

681.22 159 1 45.68965517

665.08 160 1 45.97701149
653.25 161 1 46.26436782
642.22 162 1 46.55172414
634.96 163 1 46.83908046
634.16 164 1 47.12643678
619.90 165 1 47.4137931
611.83 166 1 47.70114943
602.15 167 1 47.98850575
589.78 168 1 48.27586207
588.97 169 1 48.56321839
587.63 170 1 48.85057471
584.13 171 1 49.13793103
580.37 172 1 49.42528736
580.10 173 1 49.71264368
574.18 174 1 50
570.15 175 1 50.28735632
569.07 176 1 50.57471264
564.77 177 1 50.86206897
560.47 178 1 51.14942529
545.41 179 1 51.43678161
515.82 180 1 51.72413793
508.29 181 1 52.01149425
499.69 182 1 52.29885057
497.80 183 1 52.5862069
496.19 184 1 52.87356322
495.38 185 1 53.16091954
493.77 186 1 53.44827586
490.81 187 1 53.73563218

486.51 188 1 54.02298851

486.24 189 1 54.31034483
481.94 190 2 54.59770115
481.40 191 1 54.88505747
479.78 192 1 55.17241379
456.66 193 1 55.45977011
451.82 194 1 55.74712644
445.36 195 1 56.03448276
435.14 196 1 56.32183908
432.18 197 1 56.6091954
426.00 198 1 56.89655172
423.31 199 1 57.18390805
423.04 200 1 57.47126437
413.09 201 1 57.75862069
412.01 202 1 58.04597701
410.40 203 1 58.33333333
399.64 204 1 58.62068966
379.74 205 1 58.90804598
364.95 206 1 59.1954023
363.07 207 2 59.48275862
361.99 208 1 59.77011494
361.45 209 1 60.05747126
355.80 210 1 60.34482759
343.43 211 1 60.63218391
340.74 212 1 60.91954023
338.05 213 1 61.20689655
337.52 214 1 61.49425287
334.56 215 1 61.7816092
334.29 216 1 62.06896552

334.02 217 1 62.35632184

333.75 218 1 62.64367816
331.87 219 2 62.93103448
331.06 220 1 63.2183908
326.76 221 1 63.50574713
326.49 222 1 63.79310345
326.37 223 1 64.08045977
325.15 224 1 64.36781609
320.84 225 1 64.65517241
320.57 226 1 64.94252874
319.23 227 1 65.22988506
317.88 228 1 65.51724138
315.46 229 1 65.8045977
315.19 230 1 66.09195402
311.70 231 1 66.37931034
311.16 232 1 66.66666667
307.66 233 1 66.95402299
307.13 234 1 67.24137931
304.17 235 1 67.52873563
295.02 236 1 67.81609195
292.60 237 1 68.10344828
287.49 238 1 68.3908046
282.92 239 1 68.67816092
278.62 240 1 68.96551724
275.66 241 1 69.25287356
272.16 242 1 69.54022989
261.41 243 1 69.82758621
258.45 244 1 70.11494253
255.49 245 1 70.40229885

251.19 246 2 70.68965517

249.31 247 1 70.97701149
246.62 248 1 71.26436782
244.73 249 1 71.55172414
243.93 250 1 71.83908046
239.89 251 1 72.12643678
236.13 252 1 72.4137931
235.59 253 1 72.70114943
235.32 254 1 72.98850575
230.48 255 1 73.27586207
229.94 256 2 73.56321839
225.91 257 1 73.85057471
224.03 258 1 74.13793103
222.95 259 1 74.42528736
220.80 260 1 74.71264368
217.03 261 1 75
215.15 262 1 75.28735632
213.27 263 1 75.57471264
213.00 264 1 75.86206897
212.46 265 1 76.14942529
207.08 266 1 76.43678161
205.74 267 2 76.72413793
205.20 268 1 77.01149425
204.39 269 1 77.29885057
203.59 270 1 77.5862069
202.78 271 1 77.87356322
198.74 272 1 78.16091954
198.21 273 1 78.44827586
197.63 274 1 78.73563218

193.90 275 1 79.02298851

191.21 276 1 79.31034483
190.95 277 1 79.59770115
188.79 278 1 79.88505747
186.37 279 1 80.17241379
185.30 280 3 80.45977011
183.95 281 1 80.74712644
180.19 282 1 81.03448276
178.57 283 1 81.32183908
174.27 284 1 81.6091954
173.73 285 1 81.89655172
171.31 286 1 82.18390805
169.70 287 1 82.47126437
167.28 288 1 82.75862069
165.13 289 1 83.04597701
161.90 290 1 83.33333333
160.56 291 1 83.62068966
158.67 292 1 83.90804598
156.25 293 1 84.1954023
155.45 294 1 84.48275862
153.74 295 1 84.77011494
150.34 296 1 85.05747126
148.99 297 1 85.34482759
146.03 298 1 85.63218391
144.96 299 1 85.91954023
143.61 300 1 86.20689655
143.34 301 1 86.49425287
142.81 302 1 86.7816092
141.96 303 1 87.06896552

141.46 304 1 87.35632184

140.65 305 2 87.64367816
138.23 306 1 87.93103448
136.62 307 1 88.2183908
136.35 308 2 88.50574713
135.54 309 1 88.79310345
135.01 310 1 89.08045977
133.93 311 1 89.36781609
130.97 312 1 89.65517241
130.43 313 1 89.94252874
129.36 314 1 90.22988506
129.09 315 1 90.51724138
127.75 316 1 90.8045977
126.40 317 1 91.09195402
125.86 318 1 91.37931034
125.32 319 1 91.66666667
125.06 320 1 91.95402299
121.56 321 2 92.24137931
120.75 322 2 92.52873563
119.14 323 1 92.81609195
118.33 324 1 93.10344828
117.79 325 1 93.3908046
114.84 326 1 93.67816092
114.03 327 1 93.96551724
107.58 328 1 94.25287356
104.89 329 1 94.54022989
104.49 330 1 94.82758621
102.20 331 1 95.11494253
96.28 332 1 95.40229885

92.51 333 1 95.68965517

89.83 334 1 95.97701149
85.52 335 1 96.26436782
80.95 336 1 96.55172414
80.68 337 1 96.83908046
79.07 338 2 97.12643678
71.81 339 1 97.4137931
71.54 340 1 97.70114943
71.00 341 1 97.98850575
61.05 342 1 98.27586207
59.97 343 1 98.56321839
57.01 344 1 98.85057471
47.06 345 1 99.13793103
39.80 346 1 99.42528736
35.77 347 1 99.71264368
Annex. 5 Outlier test

(Z-
Year Qpeak Qpeak desce Z=log(Qpeak) (Z-Zmean)^2 Zmean)^3
1973 12797.94 14588.26 4.16400339 0.118338 0.04070879
1974 12428.15 12811.12 4.10758697 0.082706 0.02378524
1975 6787.99 12797.94 4.10714001 0.082449 0.02367452
1976 7019.27 12781.53 4.10658295 0.082130 0.023537
1977 6332.14 12428.15 4.09440645 0.075299 0.0206625
1978 5302.91 12279.43 4.08917808 0.072457 0.01950379
1979 4516.81 11854.50 4.07388342 0.064457 0.01636451
1980 5454.86 11391.66 4.05658713 0.055973 0.0132426
1981 5248.59 11061.95 4.04383151 0.050101 0.01121408
1982 4216.94 7793.55 3.89173508 0.005146 0.00036914
1983 5206.63 7535.63 3.87711982 0.003263 0.00018636

1984 1876.11 7019.27 3.84629219 0.000691 1.8175E-05

1985 5448.95 6787.99 3.83174104 0.000138 1.6185E-06
1986 5326.58 6480.86 3.81163269 0.000070 -5.858E-07
1987 2868.22 6332.14 3.80155038 0.000340 -6.28E-06
1988 11391.66 5454.86 3.73678388 0.006925 -0.0005763
1989 4524.07 5448.95 3.73631256 0.007004 -0.0005861
1990 4214.79 5434.96 3.73519651 0.007192 -0.0006099
1991 5434.96 5350.25 3.7283738 0.008395 -0.0007692
1992 6480.86 5326.58 3.72644846 0.008752 -0.0008188
1993 4995.52 5302.91 3.72451455 0.009117 -0.0008706
1994 12279.43 5248.59 3.7200425 0.009992 -0.0009987
1995 7535.63 5206.63 3.71655704 0.010700 -0.0011069
1996 11061.95 4995.52 3.69858051 0.014743 -0.0017901
1997 14588.26 4524.07 3.65552932 0.027051 -0.004449
1998 5350.25 4516.81 3.65483169 0.027281 -0.0045059
1999 12781.53 4216.94 3.62499774 0.038026 -0.0074151
2000 11854.50 4214.79 3.62477611 0.038112 -0.0074404
2001 12811.12 2868.22 3.45761255 0.131325 -0.0475904
2002 7793.55 1876.11 3.27325816 0.298927 -0.1634357
3.82 1.337099 -0.0497016
Annex.6 Selection of frequency analysis method that is best suited for our site (L-moment)
Qpeak Qpeak desce rank b1 b2 b3
1973 12797.94 14588.26 1 486.2752 486.27522 486.2752
1974 12428.15 12811.12 2 412.3118 397.5863672 382.8609
1975 6787.99 12797.94 3 397.1774 368.8075824 341.4885
1976 7019.27 12781.53 4 381.9769 341.0507609 303.1562
1977 6332.14 12428.15 5 357.1307 306.1120441 260.7621
1978 5302.91 12279.43 6 338.7428 278.253013 226.7247
1979 4516.81 11854.50 7 313.395 246.2388944 191.5191

1980 5454.86 11391.66 8 288.065 216.0487829 160.0361

1981 5248.59 11061.95 9 267.0125 190.7231979 134.2126
1982 4216.94 7793.55 10 179.162 121.5741926 81.04946
1983 5206.63 7535.63 11 164.5713 105.7958518 66.6122
1984 1876.11 7019.27 12 145.2264 88.17314593 52.25075
1985 5448.95 6787.99 13 132.6388 75.79362123 42.10757
1986 5326.58 6480.86 14 119.1882 63.85084428 33.10785
1987 2868.22 6332.14 15 109.1748 54.58739781 26.28282
1988 11391.66 5454.86 16 87.77941 40.75472632 18.11321
1989 4524.07 5448.95 17 81.42104 34.89473282 14.21637
1990 4214.79 5434.96 18 74.96499 29.45053289 10.9076
1991 5434.96 5350.25 19 67.6468 24.15957005 8.05319
1992 6480.86 5326.58 20 61.22506 19.67948308 5.830958
1993 4995.52 5302.91 21 54.85773 15.67363616 4.063535
1994 12279.43 5248.59 22 48.26288 12.06571989 2.681271
1995 7535.63 5206.63 23 41.89246 8.976954952 1.662399
1996 11061.95 4995.52 24 34.45185 6.15211549 0.911425
1997 14588.26 4524.07 25 26.0004 3.714343177 0.412705
1998 5350.25 4516.81 26 20.76694 2.225028902 0.164817
1999 12781.53 4216.94 27 14.54118 1.038655945 0.038469
2000 11854.50 4214.79 28 9.689176 0.346042006 0
2001 12811.12 2868.22 29 3.296805 0 0
2002 7793.55 1876.11 30 0 0 0
Annex-7 Estimation of Design discharge using log-pearson distribution

Qpeak Qpeak Z=log(Qpeak) (Z-Zmean)^2 (Z-Zmean)^3
desce
12797.94 14588.26 4.164003394 0.118338 0.040708789
12428.15 12811.12 4.107586973 0.082706 0.023785245

6787.99 12797.94 4.107140013 0.082449 0.023674518

7019.27 12781.53 4.10658295 0.082130 0.023536997
6332.14 12428.15 4.094406451 0.075299 0.020662504
5302.91 12279.43 4.089178082 0.072457 0.019503793
4516.81 11854.50 4.07388342 0.064457 0.01636451
5454.86 11391.66 4.056587132 0.055973 0.013242603
5248.59 11061.95 4.043831514 0.050101 0.011214081
4216.94 7793.55 3.891735081 0.005146 0.000369143
5206.63 7535.63 3.877119817 0.003263 0.000186363
1876.11 7019.27 3.846292194 0.000691 1.81753E-05
5448.95 6787.99 3.831741037 0.000138 1.61852E-06
5326.58 6480.86 3.811632686 0.000070 -5.85812E-07
2868.22 6332.14 3.801550381 0.000340 -6.28004E-06
11391.66 5454.86 3.736783877 0.006925 -0.000576265
4524.07 5448.95 3.736312563 0.007004 -0.000586112
4214.79 5434.96 3.73519651 0.007192 -0.000609875
5434.96 5350.25 3.7283738 0.008395 -0.000769235
6480.86 5326.58 3.726448461 0.008752 -0.000818753
4995.52 5302.91 3.724514549 0.009117 -0.000870586
12279.43 5248.59 3.720042496 0.009992 -0.000998726
7535.63 5206.63 3.716557039 0.010700 -0.001106886
11061.95 4995.52 3.698580509 0.014743 -0.00179005
14588.26 4524.07 3.655529315 0.027051 -0.004449032
5350.25 4516.81 3.654831695 0.027281 -0.004505885
12781.53 4216.94 3.624997745 0.038026 -0.007415132
11854.50 4214.79 3.624776109 0.038112 -0.007440445
12811.12 2868.22 3.457612546 0.131325 -0.047590412
7793.55 1876.11 3.273258158 0.298927 -0.163435702

Annex-8 Flow mass curve

Q(m3/s) Vol,Mm3 comu.volu demand cum.demand
325.15 870.8818 870.88176 2030.613 2030.61288
205.2 496.4198 1367.3016 2030.613 4061.22576
174.27 466.7648 1834.06637 2030.613 6091.83864
148.99 386.1821 2220.24845 2030.613 8122.45152
140.65 376.717 2596.96541 2030.613 10153.0644
114.84 297.6653 2894.63069 2030.613 12183.67728
703.27 1883.638 4778.26906 2030.613 14214.29016
4216.94 11294.65 16072.9212 2030.613 16244.90304
1937.97 5023.218 21096.1394 2030.613 18275.51592
1413.27 3785.302 24881.4418 2030.613 20306.1288
587.63 1523.137 26404.5787 2030.613 22336.74168
363.07 972.4467 27377.0254 2030.613 24367.35456
222.95 597.1493 27974.1747 2030.613 26397.96744
150.34 363.7025 28337.8772 2030.613 28428.58032
136.35 365.1998 28703.0771 2030.613 30459.1932
167.28 433.5898 29136.6668 2030.613 32489.80608
261.41 700.1605 29836.8274 2030.613 34520.41896
230.48 597.4042 30434.2315 2030.613 36551.03184
739.31 1980.168 32414.3994 2030.613 38581.64472
5206.63 13945.44 46359.8372 2030.613 40612.2576
2260.42 5859.009 52218.8459 2030.613 42642.87048
1136.53 3044.082 55262.9278 2030.613 44673.48336
584.13 1514.065 56776.9928 2030.613 46704.09624
334.02 894.6392 57671.6319 2030.613 48734.70912
160.56 430.0439 58101.6758 2030.613 50765.322
141.96 343.4296 58445.1055 2030.613 52795.93488
57.01 152.6956 58597.8011 2030.613 54826.54776
39.8 103.1616 58700.9627 2030.613 56857.16064
89.83 240.6007 58941.5633 2030.613 58887.77352

307.13 796.081 59737.6443 2030.613 60918.3864

1451.73 3888.314 63625.9579 2030.613 62948.99928
1876.11 5024.973 68650.9309 2030.613 64979.61216
1050.2 2722.118 71373.0493 2030.613 67010.22504
326.49 874.4708 72247.5202 2030.613 69040.83792
188.79 489.3437 72736.8638 2030.613 71071.4508
136.35 365.1998 73102.0637 2030.613 73102.06368
Annex -9 Reservoir routing

S1/t-
Time Inflow(m^3) (I1+I2)/2 Q(m^3) S=A*H 0.5Q1 S2/t+0.5Q2 Head Cell-target
0 1000 0 0 0 0
2 7640 4320 8.621126 31072963.96 4311.379 4320 0.074684 4320
4 7640 7640 39.63098 85907264.32 11911.75 11951.38 0.206478 11951.38
6 8061 7850.5 84.20811 141985050.8 19678.04 19762.25 0.341261 19762.25
8 8373 8217 141.1332 200336208.5 27753.91 27895.04 0.481508 27895.04
10 8818 8595.5 209.8224 260960391.4 36139.59 36349.41 0.627218 36349.41
12 9291 9054.5 290.7451 324350765.8 44903.34 45194.09 0.779577 45194.09
14 9785 9538 384.2192 390594458.8 54057.12 54441.34 0.938794 54441.34
16 10822 10303.5 493.6464 461619337.1 63866.97 64360.62 1.109502 64360.62
18 11636 11229 621.8859 538452194.9 74474.08 75095.97 1.29417 75095.97
20 12588 12112 769.5898 620649252.7 85816.49 86586.08 1.49173 86586.08
22 15294 13941 951.2477 714829436.4 98806.24 99757.49 1.718092 99757.49
24 19759 17526.5 1197.238 833285382.1 115135.5 116332.7 2.002801 116332.7
26 23198 21478.5 1522.618 978139373.8 135091.4 136614 2.350957 136614
28 27657 25427.5 1937.91 1148759603 158581 160518.9 2.761043 160518.9
30 33318 30487.5 2475.363 1352381891 186593.1 189068.5 3.250449 189068.5
32 38399 35858.5 3156.485 1590288175 219295.1 222451.6 3.822257 222451.6

34 42213 40306 3975.948 1854814507 255625.2 259601.1 4.458046 259601.1

36 44075 43144 4904.82 2133480888 293864.4 298769.2 5.12782 298769.2
38 42478 43276.5 5874.962 2406264618 331265.9 337140.9 5.783456 337140.9
40 40290 41384 6822.591 2658517952 365827.3 372649.9 6.389747 372649.9
42 36939 38614.5 7709.637 2884226266 396732.2 404441.8 6.932236 404441.8
44 33644 35291.5 8507.542 3079943490 423516.2 432023.7 7.402643 432023.7
46 29698 31671 9197.27 3244237667 445989.9 455187.2 7.797524 455187.2
48 25854 27776 9763.091 3375967354 464002.8 473765.9 8.114136 473765.9
50 21661 23757.5 10196.55 3475166568 477563.7 487760.3 8.352561 487760.3
52 18535 20098 10506.95 3545339221 487154.8 497661.7 8.521221 497661.7
54 16150 17342.5 10723.01 3593777718 493774.3 504497.3 8.637643 504497.3
56 14216 15183 10864.76 3625379422 498092.5 508957.3 8.713598 508957.3
58 12530 13373 10944.74 3643150519 500520.8 511465.5 8.77631 511465.5
60 11802 12166 10983.76 3651803423 501703 512686.8 8.787108 512686.8
62 11036 11419 10999.67 3654886773 502124.3 513122 8.994519 513122
64 10192 10614 10985.41 3652168296 501752.9 512738.3 8.788985 512738.3
66 9585 9888.5 10950.36 3644396780 500691 511641.4 8.769306 511641.4
68 8910 9247.5 10896.03 3632331502 499042.5 509938.5 8.730307 509938.5
70 8373 8641.5 10824.23 3616357572 496859.8 507684 8.691914 507684
72 8224 8298.5 10743.98 3598461428 494414.3 505158.3 8.6489 505158.3
74 8102 8163 10662.18 3580172719 491915.1 502577.3 8.604943 502577.3
76 7964 8033 10579.06 3561541710 489369 499948.1 8.560164 499948.1
78 7836 7900 10494.58 3542556308 486774.4 497269 8.514532 497269
80 7751 7793.5 10409.64 3523414193 484158.3 494567.9 8.468524 494567.9
82 7735 7743 10326 3504515771 481575.3 491901.3 8.423102 491901.3
84 7640 7687.5 10243.46 3485815711 479019.3 489262.8 8.378156 489262.8
86 7640 7640 10162.23 3467362941 476497.1 486659.3 8.333805 486659.3
88 7640 7640 10083.74 3449485669 474053.4 484137.1 8.290837 484137.1
90 7640 7640 10007.88 3432164117 471685.5 481693.4 8.249205 481693.4
92 7640 7640 9934.554 3415379207 469390.9 479325.5 8.208862 479325.5
94 7640 7640 9863.667 3399113280 467167.2 477030.9 8.169767 477030.9

96 7640 7640 9795.131 3383349370 465012.1 474807.2 8.131879 474807.2

98 7640 7640 9728.858 3368071231 462923.2 472652.1 8.095158 472652.1
100 7640 7640 9664.762 3353261896 460898.4 470563.2 8.059563 470563.2
102 7640 7640 9602.766 3338906522 458935.6 468538.4 8.02506 468538.4
104 7640 7640 9542.794 3324990262 457032.8 466575.6 7.991612 466575.6
106 7640 7640 9484.864 3311520251 455190.9 464672.8 7.959237 464675.8
108 7640 7640 9428.718 3298439095 453402.2 462830.9 7.927797 462830.9
110 7640 7640 9374.388 3285756042 451667.8 461042.2 7.897313 461042.2
112 7640 7640 9321.806 3273457655 449986 459307.8 7.867754 459307.8
114 7640 7640 9270.911 3261531920 448355.1 457626 7.83909 457626
116 7640 7640 9221.644 3249966802 446773.5 455995.1 7.811294 455995.1
118 7640 7640 9173.949 3238750985 445239.6 454413.5 7.784336 454413.5
120 7640 7640 9127.769 3227873151 443751.8 452879.6 7.758191 452879.6
Annex -10 Force and moment computation of dam stability analysis

vertical horizontal lever moments
no. force designation force force arm about toe
positive negative positive negative positive negative
A1 W1
weight
1 of dam 238 5712 72.33333 413168
A2 W2
415 9960 67.5 672300
A3 W3
2502.5 60060 43.33333 2602600
Water
2 pressure PH 32000 26.66667 853333.3
Ph 2000 6.666667 13333.33

Pv1 840 73.5 61740
Pv2 2380 74.66667 177706.7
Pv3 1690 5.633333 9520.333
3 Silt load Pvsilt 151.25 72.33333 10940.42
Phsilt 5197.831 18.33333 95293.56
Uplift
4 with U1 4800 71 340800
Drainage U2 2400 73 175200
U3 13000 32.5 422500
U4 6500 43.33333 281666.7
Uplift
with out U1 15400 38.5 592900
Drainage U2 23100 51.33333 1185800

Border Hydropower Project

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Border Hydropower Project

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DESIGN OF BORDER HYDROPOWER PROJECT JUNE 201 3

DESIGN OF BORDER HYDROPOWER PROJECT

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page i

Under the Guidance of

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page ii

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page iii

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page iv

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page v

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page vi

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page vii

CHAPTER -THREE ................................................................................................................................... 18

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page viii

4.11. Dam Construction ......................................................................................................................... 47

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page ix

6.5.3 Coffer Dam Design..................................................................................................................... 76

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page x

9.5 Sensitivity analysis ......................................................................................................................... 116

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xi

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xii

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xiii

B/C Benefit cost ratio

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page xiv

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 1

BORDER DAM SITE

Figure 1.1 Location of project area

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 2

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 3

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 4

Table 2.1Gauging station

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 5

2.3 Estimation of missing data

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 6

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 7

Figure 2.1 Double mass curve

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 8

2.6 Flow duration curve

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 9

Figure 2.2 Flow Duration Curve

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 10

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 12

l4=1/4*E[X (1/4) - 3*(X (2/4)) + 3*(X (3/4)) - X (4/4)]

 n  j n  j  1n  j  2X 

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 13

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 14

Figure 2.3 Moment ratio diagram

2.8.2.3 Log-pearson type III distribution

Σ-= standard deviation

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 15

3 .Spillway of small reservoir dam in 10-20

Diversion weir 50-100

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 16

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 17

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 18

Figure 3.1 Flow mass curve

Where, A1&A2 are areas of succeeding contours

Figure 3.2 Elevation area capacity curve

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 20

3.4 Reservoir Sedimentation

Trap efficiency, T = total sediment retained *100

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 21

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 22

For the 50 years the dead storage

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 23

HWRE DEPARTMENT FINAL YEAR PROJECT Page 24

l4=1/4E[X (1/4) - 3(X (2/4)) + 3*(X (3/4)) - X (4/4)]