Received: 12 November 2021 Revised: 20 January 2022 Accepted: 22 January 2022

DOI: 10.1002/pen.25918

REVIEW ARTICLE

A review on in-mold electronics technology

~o1 | Fernando M. Duarte1 | Júlio C. Viana1

Mariana Beltra | Vitor Paulo2

1
IPC—Institute for Polymers and
Composites, University of Minho,
Guimar~aes, Portugal
2
GLN Innovation—Grupo Manuel
Champalimaud, Leiria, Portugal
Correspondence
Júlio C. Viana, IPC—Institute for
Polymers and Composites, University of
Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058
Guimar~aes, Portugal.
Email: jcv@dep.uminho.pt
Funding information
European Social Fund (ESF), PT2020,
Grant/Award Number: I&DPIIMIO -
POCI-01-0247-FEDER-042832; FCT -
Fundaç~ao para a Ciência e Tecnologia,
Portugal, Grant/Award Numbers: UIDB/
05256/2020, UIDP/05256/2020
Abstract
In Mold Decoration (IMD) with printed electronic films combines the printed
functional film with the IMD process, creating a product with embedded elec-
tronic functions that requires much less space compared to previous technolo-
gies. In Mold Electronics (IME) is a process of integrating printed decorations
and functional electronics with IMD (i.e., thermoforming and injection mold-
ing), resulting in 3D-shaped objects with embedded electronic functions. This
technique is a field of recent large technological and scientific interests due to
its wide application, aesthetically appealing, and durable and lighter functional
products. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art of IME technology, resorting
to scientific research work performed and its main outputs, compiling and
analyzing the main knowledge and achievements on the process up to date.
First, an overview of the IME process steps is given, as well as, its components,
main applications, advantages, and drawbacks. The main IME printing tech-
nologies are listed, and the relevant material parameters of the foil and of the
conductive inks for the printing process are also discussed. The effects of the
thermoforming and injection molding steps on the foil behavior and final
product are also addressed. Main challenges still to overcome on the IME tech-
nology are presented.

KEYWORDS
injection molding, processing, thin films

1 | INTRODUCTION assemblies.[2] Very low viscosity and low melting point

In general terms, In-Mold Electronics (IME) is a process
for embedding electronic components/devices/functions
inside thin 3D injection molded polymeric parts, by plac-
ing them inside the mold and over-molding with a poly-
mer. Electronic components/devices/functions can be,
for example, electrical components such as, sensors,
LED, electrical circuitry, chips, PCB (printed circuit
board), displays, touch bottoms, antennas, etc. (Figure 1).
For example, a PCB can be placed inside a mold and a
low viscosity polymer can be over-molded.[1,2] Typically,
this has been done by a low-pressure molding process,
where a very low viscosity thermoplastic polymer is used
for over-molding and encapsulation/protection of PCB
polymers are generally used to reduce the negative effects
of high temperatures, high pressures, and high shear
stresses (due to polymer melt flow) on the electronic
devices that can be therefore damaged. This approach
aims mainly at protecting electronic devices from acci-
dental loads, dirt, humidity, and water, facilitating the
assembly of electronic elements into polymeric parts.
More recently, and due to technologies evolutions
and maturations, IME has adopted a different meaning.
This occurs due to developments of the printed electron-
ics (PE) and in-mold decoration (IMD) technologies. PE
has gathered attention from the scientific community
and industry due to the pairing of functional inks with
printing technologies. Still, the high-level integration and

Polym Eng Sci. 2022;1–24. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pen © 2022 Society of Plastics Engineers. 1

2 BELTRÃO ET AL.
FIGURE 1 Common materials and respective fabrication processes used for IME
the manufacturing throughput remain as technological
challenges, along with the development of high-
resolution printing technologies and the optimization of
compatible functional inks.[3] Printing methods such as
inkjet, screen, and gravure printing are commonly
applied to manufacture electronic components/devices.
Each printing method requires different ink parameters
and offers distinct resolutions and thicknesses of the
printed patterns.[3] Functional inks include conductive,
semiconductor or dielectric inks that are being developed
based on metallic micro/nanoparticles, such as Ag, Au,
Ni, Cu, C allotropes, organic materials, for example, con-
ductive polymers, dielectric ceramics, and polymers.
Originally, PE is related to organic or polymer electronics
that use one or more inks made of carbon-based com-
pounds.[4] As demand for wearable devices and thinner
electronics expands, PE are being used to form flexible
keyboards, antennas, electronic skin patches, etc. In
short, PE is one of the fastest growing technologies nowa-
days and it is becoming invaluable to several industries
including healthcare, aerospace, and transportation.
IMD technology is a mature technology for the deco-
ration of polymeric parts.[5,6] In IMD, an aesthetic film,
printed with graphic inks of high color quality, is over-
molded by a polymer. The integration of part decoration
with complex contours in the injection molding process
has benefits, such as the elimination of post-molding
operations, the high definition of the decorative pattern,
the improved adhesion quality, and the possibility of
using combinations of decorations and textures.[3] How-
ever, there are disadvantages associated with this tech-
nique. For instance, the pattern resolution may not be
perfect and the printed layer is occasionally not uniform,
all resulting in a high part rejection rate.
IMD with printed electronic films combines the
printed functional film with the IMD process, producing
a finished product with embedded electronic functions
that requires much less space compared to previous tech-
nologies based on PCB. This is IME, a process of integrat-
ing printed decorations and functional electronics with
IMD (i.e., thermoforming and injection molding). The
results are 3D-shaped objects with embedded electronic
functions.
IME is a technology that enables the development of
structural electronics, where the electronics are inte-
grated into the structure of the polymeric part, rather
than being attached to it or connected with wires. It
should not be confused with molded interconnect devices
(MID) that is an injection molded part with integrated
electric circuitry and mounted SMD (surface mounted
devices). MID combines a polymeric structure (housing)
with electrical circuitry into a single part by selective
metallization. It is based on the development of struc-
tured metallization of polymers allowing new circuit
carrier designs over polymeric parts. All these tech-
niques led to recent developments of the electronic
devices (Figure 2), moving toward the next generation
of PCB-less electronic applications.[7,8]
Regarding the commercial progress of IME, the mar-
ket has been ranging from simple devices for wearable
technology, automotive light heating, to more complex
sensors and displays for HMI (human machine interface).
The first commercial product was a Ford overhead con-
sole of a car interior, released around 2012/2013, but
BELTRÃO ET AL.
F I G U R E 2 Techniques for integration of electronics in
polymeric molded components
unfortunately the product was withdrawn from the mar-
ket. Recently, a remote door lock switch was announced
using IME.[9,10] In general, the products that have
reached the market represent simple manifestations of
the IME process. They are demonstrated in terms of pro-
totypes incorporating multiple LED, light guides, touch
switches or slides, etc.[11] These show the future develop-
ment direction.
In September 2019, TactoTek secured a license with
Korean LS Automotive, and along with a fellow license
with Faurecia, demonstrated the future direction for
HMI for automotive interiors.[3] Despite the technology
not being relatively new, currently it is difficult to imple-
ment successfully, still requiring particular know-how
and specific capabilities. The inherent technological chal-
lenges are still being the focus of emerging solutions from
leading manufacturers. The main target market for this
growing technology includes automotive, interiors and
exteriors, and white goods.[12]
The IME market is expected to show significant
growth from 2023/2024, starting from simpler products,
consumer electronics and industries that can bring a
product to market faster, for example, for the automotive
exterior. It will be developing toward more complex and
higher-volume applications with more strict require-
ments, like overhead control units.[10,12] In addition, IME
products are expected to be seen in even more everyday
devices, including household appliances and white goods,
supporting the deployment of the internet of things, IoT,
paradigm.[9]
DuraTech Industries, Inc., which delivers custom
label printing services, announced in 2019 its first com-
mercial production of In-Mold Electronics (IME).[13]
IDTechEx provides market research on emerging tech-
nologies, for instance in the field of printed and
3
structural electronics, including the IME process. A
report published by IDTechEx, in March 2020, previews
that this process can become a market bigger than $750
million by 2028.[9]
This paper gives an overview of the state-of-the-art in
IME, along with used functional materials (functional
inks and polymeric substrates), main printing technolo-
gies for functional films and its limitations, the pertinent
effects of thermoforming and injection molding on func-
tional device design and performance. Finally, main
issues to solve and still open points are highlighted.
2 | A V A I L A B L E T E C HNO L O G IE S
AND APPLIC ATIONS
IME technologies integrate several technologies already
mature separately: IMD, IML (both already integrating,
printed decorative films, thermoforming, and injection
molding), functional materials, and printing technolo-
gies. The integration of these technologies for the
production of innovative products raises some technical-
scientific issues, as interface requirements delineate their
joint applicability.
2.1 | In-mold labeling (IML) and in-mold
decoration (IMD)
The integrated decoration of polymeric parts can be done
by IML or IMD techniques (Figure 3). The main advan-
tages of IMD/IML are the ability to provide functionality
and increase the aesthetics of the product. IML and IMD
refers both to the injection molding over a decorative
and/or functional film, their primary advantage being the
integration of several manufacturing steps, production,
and decoration of molded parts into one operation.
Therefore, by implementing these techniques, the need
for after-decoration is eliminated and final cost reduced.
Both techniques, although of similar basis, have dif-
ferent characteristics and are intended for different pur-
poses. For instance, IML is used when there is a need to
produce labels in injection molded products, i.e., its func-
tion lies essentially in the information (marketing labels
that are cut pieces). In IML, the injection units are
equipped with a robot whose function is to place a deco-
rative label in the appropriate location, which is fixed by
vacuum or electrostatic means. IML typically involves a
small section of the injected part, usually characterized
by the absence of film in the corners of the piece.[14] On
the other hand, IMD has a decorative function, the injec-
tion is often done continuously using rollers (transfer
film) or a thermoformed film (film insert) that covers the
4 BELTRÃO ET AL.
full component. The ink transfer method requires, not
only a specific kind of film, but also an appropriate ink.
For instance, one of the most important ink characteris-
tics must be high stretchability.[15] Typical applications
include medical devices, consumer products, plastic
housings, automotive components, etc. IMD is often
applied in the automotive industry, where the aesthetic
aspect of parts inside the car is crucial. The surface finish
can either have an aesthetic or protection function, or
even another type of purpose, such as to reduce the noise
level inside the car. In addition, it can hide superficial
defects or modify surface properties.[6] The main differ-
ences between these techniques are presented in
Figure 4.
In both techniques, the film material needs to be
chemically similar to the injected material in order to
assurance a good bond and allow its recyclability.
The mostly used material is PP due to its general
industry applicability, but materials such as ABS, ABS/
FIGURE 3 Integrated decoration of injection molded parts
PC, PC, PS, PE, PBT, PA6, and PA 66 were also used
successfully.[16,17]
As mentioned above, the polymer injection in the
IMD process can be over a thermoformed insert film.
This method has the most relevance for IME, since the
film is previously thermoformed and printed with con-
ductive traces. The foil can also contain components such
as resistors, chips, or LED.[18] Despite the advantages pro-
vided by the IMD method, there are some associated
problems that affect the overall success of this technol-
ogy. Due to unbalanced cooling enhanced by the decora-
tive film in IMD injection molding, part warpage can
arise during cooling of the injected molded part, leading
to the development of residual stresses.[16,19] Several stud-
ies have been carried out over time, for example, focused
on evaluating the effect of the decorative film on mold
surface temperature during the molding process.[19,20]
The results show that the IMD process introduces asym-
metric flow front advancement and uneven temperature
distribution in the mold core and cavity, leading to the
development of residual stresses and part warpage.
2.2 | In-mold electronics (IME)
In-mold electronics adopts IMD technologies based on
the category of molding with film insertion. They are
similar in the way they use thin printed films; however,
the functionality differentiates them. The IME process
creates a functional, visual, and human-machine inter-
face layer over a polymeric part. It combines the benefits
of the IMD process with functional electronics, by print-
ing conductive, semiconductor, and dielectric inks on a
polymeric film. The thin polymer printed foil can be ther-
moformed and then placed inside the mold where a
F I G U R E 4 Main
differences between IML and
IMD technologies
BELTRÃO ET AL.
F I G U R E 5 IME main processes
(adapted from “functional ink Systems
for in-Mold Electronics,” by DuPont)
polymer is back injection molded.[21] In this technique,
the functional and graphic inks are printed on the flat
film. The electronic components are then mounted using
conventional pick-and place equipment and SMD tech-
nologies that use low temperature processes (due to the
used polymer substrate). The flat, functional film is then
3D formed before being back injection molded, as shown
in Figure 5. IME is a technology for structurally integrat-
ing electronic functionality into three-dimensional
shaped parts.[22] The effectiveness of the IME process is
characterized by the selected materials. Therefore, con-
ductive inks have been developed to withstand elonga-
tion, adhesion to the substrates, and to support molding
and process conditions.[23]
The interest of ink suppliers towards this technology
has dramatically increased over the past few years, focus-
ing especially on stretchable conductive inks. The IME is
not a new process or technology, being an evolution of
IMD, in which molding (or other ways of 3D forming)
are combined with graphic printing.[22]
2.2.1 | IME process steps
The IME technology involves several steps as shown in
Figure 6.
Printing Flat Substrate: The process initiates with the
printing of functional inks, or stacks of functional mate-
rials, on a 2D sheet. It is essential to control the printing
and drying conditions, depending on the set and order of
placement of materials used in the stack. Printing
requires careful thickness control and proper adhesion
between the components, so that the designed electrical
properties are maintained after the forming step. IC (inte-
grated circuits) packages have standard connectors
designed for PCB applications (e.g., for surface mounted
technologies, SMT). In printed electronics, the screen-
5
printed conductive tracks are wide. For this reason, IC
requires wide pin pads, or narrow metallization tech-
niques (thin linewidth printing techniques).[24,25]
Pick-and-place and SMD: In this technology, the
electronic components are precisely placed by a pick-
and-place machine. A conductive paste or conductive
adhesives for surface mounting is usually dispensed. Typ-
ically, SMD (surface-mount devices) are placed while the
film is flat. The subsequently 3D thermoforming step
shall not cause part damage, due to the process parame-
ters. Using pick-and-place on an already-3D-shaped film
requires special dispensing and pick-and-place machines
(higher degrees of freedom, DoF). Nowadays, conductive
adhesives are the most used. However, very-low-
temperature solders compatible with low-temperature sub-
strates can also be used.[26] More recently, liquid metals
have been used as solder paste for mounting SMD and sen-
sors, due to their high stretchability and flexibility.[27]
Thermoforming: Subsequently, the foil is thermo-
formed into a 3D shape, usually at high temperatures,
using vacuum or high air pressure (the applied values of
temperature, vacuum and air pressure are related to the
material to be thermoformed). The optimization of the
thermoforming process is crucial, and it must respect
the formability limitations of the functional materials.
The thickness of the film/foil (typically of 200–500 μm) is
an important parameter for the thermoforming process.
For instance, the design of electrical circuit patterns and
the placement of electronic components where the least
deformation is experienced is essential. It is required to
have stretchable printable functional inks that maintain
their properties after the thermoforming step.
Trimming Connector: In this step, the film is trimmed
using part-specific die cutting tooling, thus facilitating its
placement inside the injection mold. Also, the connectors
are mounted, providing the connection to the outside.[26]
The connectors are assembled, usually using an
6 BELTRÃO ET AL.
FIGURE 6 IME process steps
anisotropic conductive adhesive or film (ACA or ACF),
or by crimping. ACA/ACF allow the adhesive assembly
of connectors and other electronic components. They
only conduct in the Z-axis (through-the-thickness) when
placed between the printed electrodes and the connector/
component surface. The main advantages are related to
the low temperature and high interconnect density.[28]
Injection molding: During injection molding, the
printed film is vacuum or mechanically held in place and
the polymer is subsequently injected. In this step, high
temperatures (170–320 C) and high pressure (of the order
of 108 Pa) can be used. This stage requires optimization,
since the intrinsic variables of the process can cause the
assembled electronic components to detach or cause the
formation of air bubbles at polymer/printed substrate
interface. Also, it is crucial that the CTE (coefficient of
thermal expansion) values of the materials are coherent,
thus avoiding potential deformations or detachments of
the mounted electronic components.[26]
The main challenges are (most of the time inter-
connected): i) the inks shall have good electrical conduc-
tivity/properties; ii) the ink and substrate need to be
compatible in terms of wettability, adhesion and print-
ability; iii) the functional inks need to survive the for-
ming and molding steps, being flexible, stretchable and
supporting flow, pressure and temperature conditions; iv)
mounting IC require adequate pads and positioning sup-
ports; v) the adhesives also need to support some elonga-
tion; vi) stacking materials for performing a given
function is a huge challenge.
On the manufacturing side, a series of challenges can
be referred to: i) the printing processes shall allow
smaller details; ii) new techniques for SMD are required
to bonding electronic components over flexible organic
substrates; iii) high throughput rates of functional films
shall be available; iv) the development of knowledge and
tools for the optimization of thermoforming and injection
molding is mandatory; v) lowering process cost processes
is demanding.[29]
On the IME product design side, several challenges
can be identified: i) the choice of the pairs ink-substrate
and substrate-molded polymer; ii) the integrated elec-
trical circuit layout (circuitry and position of electronic
components) follows different rules from traditional
PCB designs, and design guidelines shall be established;
iii) this design needs to consider the system function
and all the production processes (printing, mounting of
SMD, thermoforming, injection molding); iv) the
design-to-production process is also not yet completely
seamless.
On the IME product use side, and depending upon
the specific sector requirements, the reliability of the
functional molded parts needs to be validated and veri-
fied. For example, the requirements for an IME product
for a housing appliance are different from those of the
automotive sector. The strict requirements of polymeric
automotive components need to be fulfilled by the novel
IME products. Furthermore, as polymeric materials are
being more often used in car interiors and exteriors,
where IME is being to have high applicability, this poses
additional challenges.[9]
Finally, sustainability issues, including repairability
(life extension) and recyclability are of paramount impor-
tance. In fact, repair opportunities are limited or even not
possible. Given the embedded nature of IME products
separation and recovery of materials (ink, polymers) is
possible, but processes need to be established.[9]
2.2.2 | Applications
The first IME successful product, a thin and light overhead
console, was launched in a Ford car in 2012. As it became
more established, more suppliers of materials showed
interest, pushing it forward onto the market.[30] This tech-
nology can be integrated into any application that includes
user interfaces, for instance control panels, electronics, and
appliances. Improvements such as LED, backlighting, and
EMI/RFI shielding, can be integrated into the designs.[30]
Many applications of this process use capacitive touch tech-
nology, which is an interface that replaces the tactile but-
tons with the conductive touch of a human finger.[21] The
BELTRÃO ET AL.
ink traces are conductive and can include components
such as resistors, chips, or LED. These run under the con-
tact point and look for a change in the electrostatic field.
The finger will act as a functional capacitor that attracts a
charge to the point where it touches, activating a function.
IME technologies are achieving growing commercial
interest. Commercial development is currently in pro-
gress in several companies, for instance TactoTek, which
may be considered the market driver, as well as
Flexbright.[31,32] Other companies who have collaborated
in the development of IME solutions are Sun Chemical,
Eastprint, DuraTech, AlSentis, and T + ink.[33] Dupont
provides printed electronics inks that tolerate severe pro-
cess conditions while PolyIC and Kurtz are enforcing
IME technologies to the automotive industry.[34]
3 | DEVELOPMENTS ON I ME
CORE TECHNOLOGIES
This section presents the developments on the several
components of printed electronics, such as inks, sub-
strates, printing and SMD techniques. In addition, the
constraints imposed by the thermoforming and over-
molding processes are presented for a full picture of
recent developments of the IME technologies (Figure 7).
3.1 | Materials for the IME process
The IME process requires printable materials with spe-
cific properties to allow appropriate printing of sub-
strates. Typically, functional inks and pastes are to be
printed over substrates.
3.1.1 | Inks and pastes
The selection of an ink or paste with specific rheological
properties for the selected printing process is essential to
develop a consistent printing process. The ink/paste viscos-
ity shall be adequate to the selected printing process and
equipment. A variety of functional inks/pastes (organic and
inorganic) have been explored for this purpose, such as
conductors, semiconductors, and dielectrics materials.[4]
Most conductive inks are based on silver nanoparticles,
since silver has the highest electrical conductivity among
metals, in addition to being resistant to oxidation.[35]
Ink viscosity is one of the main factors to consider in
the printing process.[4] For instance, screen printing needs
high viscous inks but, on the other hand, inkjet print tech-
nology needs low viscous inks. Some ink formulations
include additives to improve ink deposition and end-use
7
properties, however, this can affect the electrical properties
of functional inks.[4] Main types of inks for PE are conduc-
tive, semiconductor, and dielectric inks/pastes.
Conductive materials: Electric conducting materials
form the fundamental part of the electronic device layer,
defining the device structure and integrated circuit inter-
connects. Typical conductive inks are based on metallic
micro/nanoparticles. Among the metals used for printed
electronics, Ag based solutions are the most popular
choice due to its good physical and electrical perfor-
mance on polymeric substrates.[36] In addition to silver,
gold, platinum, copper, and nickel-based inks are also
used. In this type of inks it is essential to avoid agglomer-
ation, promoting a proper dispersion of micro/
nanoparticles. Also, particle sizes are relevant for the
printing process. For instance, larger micrometric parti-
cles can be used in screen printing, but, on the contrary,
inkjet printing technology requires nanosized particles
due to the small size of the nozzles. Besides, metallic
based inks show low deformation, thus fostering the
development of flexible and stretchable inks. Carbon/
Graphite nanomaterial-based inks are also available, all-
owing printing over large areas, good chemical stability,
mechanical flexibility, and lower costs. Despite the low
cost and easy processing and improved stretchability,
organic conductors have much less electrical conductivity
than conventional metal-based inks (generally
include metal loadings of about 20–60 wt%).[37] Organic
conductors are based on intrinsically conductive poly-
mers, such as poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly
(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), polyaniline (PAN),
polythiophene, polypyrrole (PPy), between others.[38]
Another range of electric conductive polymers developed
for PE is founded on polymer nanocomposites made by
mixing conductive nanoparticles (e.g., metal, carbon
based) with elastomers, such as poly(dimethylsiloxane),
PDMS, and polyurethanes.[39]
Silver, gold, and copper nanoparticles inks are widely
used in PE for connecting elements in the electronic cir-
cuits.[35] The world's leading manufacturers such as
Bayer, DuPont, and Sumitomo, are all fully involved in
the development of this technology.[40] The inks formula-
tions are highly formable and moldable based on 200 and
300% ink elongation. In general, the physicochemical
requirements for electrically conductive inks are identical
to those for graphic or paint inks, but in addition they
should provide good electrical conductivity of the printed
pattern. These inks should have compatibility with poly-
meric substrates and good processability during the print-
ing phase without affecting the electrical properties of
the final product.[35] Concerning the electrically conduc-
tive materials, the most common inks are based on con-
ductive nano or micro particles components, which have
8 BELTRÃO ET AL.
FIGURE 7 Main technological steps for IME
been dispersed in a proper medium (water-based and sol-
vent based inks). At present, most conductive inks are
based on silver nanoparticles, since silver possesses the
highest electrical conductivity among metals, being resis-
tant to oxidation.[35] The required curing temperatures,
typically in the range of 80–500 C, depend on the ink
composition, processing speed, and type of substrate.
Recently several studies have been focused on printing
for patterning conductive features from metallic and
carbon-based building blocks.[35]
Conductive inks can be thermal or UV cured. Ther-
mal curing is commonly used in printed electronics,
requiring high temperatures and long curing times. For
this reason, it is not suitable for large scale production
and for all types of substrates.[37,41] Hence, a pulse ther-
mal curing process has been introduced in the market, so
called photonic curing.[37] This is a thermal process that
heats the ink/substrate by a pulsed light from a flash
lamp. This allows keeping the substrate at relatively low
temperature as it is heated only during a short time inter-
val (c.a. 1 ms), being therefore a cure process suitable
for low-temperature substrates and R2R (roll-to-roll)
manufacturing processes. On the other hand, UV curing
offers a more efficient and faster method, with low
energy consumption. However, UV light hardly reaches
the bottom of the printed pattern, which means that pos-
sible adhesion problems and non-uniform curing of large
3D surfaces can occur.[41] Yet, UV-thermal dual-curing
technology has been presented to overcome the problems
associated with this type of curing.[37]
Semiconductor materials: Very few works have been
reported on inorganic semiconductors solutions and their
compatibility with printing techniques.[4] Inorganic based
semiconductor inks are typically based on metal oxides.
Some inorganic semiconductors frequently used for this pur-
pose are Si, oxides of transition metals and chalcogenides.[4]
Organic semiconductor inks are mainly based on conductive
polymers. Frequently used organic semiconductors are poly
(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), poly(triarylamine), poly(2,5-bis
(3-alkylthiophen-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]-thiophene (PBTTT).[42]
Carbon nanotubes and graphene are also the center of stud-
ies due to their high electron mobility.[43] Recently, emer-
gent 2D nanomaterials, such as 2D allotropes of carbon
(graphene), transition metal dichalcogenides (TMD) and
Mxenes, have been used in semiconductor inks, allowing
the fabrication of more complex devices.[44] Main relevant
properties of semiconductor inks are electron mobility,
bandgap and other electronic properties. Although organic/
inorganic semiconducting materials are used for printable
electronics, inorganic semiconductors have greater proper-
ties in terms of performance and stability, while organic
materials have better flexibility and lower cost and the possi-
bility of processing at ambient conditions.
Dielectrics: For applications that require high capaci-
tance in multi-layered printed assemblies, dielectric
layers are crucial for proper insulation to prevent leakage
currents. Dielectric inks protect the circuitry and
enhance the operation of conductive materials. In most
PE, the semiconductor/dielectric interface is essential for
the right performance and the stability of the built device.
A layer of dielectric material is necessary to promote the
activation of the medium caused by electric field or other
transduction phenomena.[4] Dielectric inks are usually
based on polymers, ceramics (e.g., zinc oxide, zinc and
titanium dioxide, Ti02) and insulating 2D nanomaterials
(e.g., hexagonal boron nitride).[4] The most common
dielectric materials in PE are poly(vinylpyrrolidone)
(PVP), polystyrene (PS), poly(methyl methacrylate)
(PMMA), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), and amorphous
fluoropolymers.[35] Also, epoxy resins have been used in
some applications.[37] Polyurethane inks formulations
BELTRÃO ET AL. 9

TABLE 1 Main properties of some printable inks/pastes: Conductive, semiconductor, and dielectric[46–63]

Material Electrical conductivity (S m 1) Density (g cm 3) Elongation (%) Surface tension (mN m 1) Cost
Conductors
Ag 6.25  106-3.45  107 1.056 (5%) 42–60 42.16 (5%) €€
1.123 (15%) 45.29 (15%)
1.218 (25%) 46.65 (25%)
Cu 6.01  10 7
≈3.800 40 43–48 €€€
Ni 14.3  106 8.91 40 26–31 €€
Carbon-based 1.8  10 –25.0  10
3 3
1.100–1.240 72 30–35 €€
PEDOT:PSS 10–10 3
1.000 20–40 71 €
Liquid metals 3.4  10 4
6.080–6-360 30–50 624 €
Semiconductors
P3HT ≈105 1.040 20 29 €€
Mxenes ≈10 4
4.000 130 64 €
ZnO 10 –10
8 7
0.800 0.1 41 €
Graphene-based 0.08–4.1  10 4
0.933 20 32 €
Dielectric
PMMA - ≈1.000 1–3 24 €
PVA - 0.998–1.058 60–190 5–56 €
PVP - 1.001–1.029 5–50 42 €
PU - ≈1.050 >1800 42–48 €

have been optimized particularly for printing technolo-
gies.[45] These materials are all compatible with different
printing or coating techniques. Besides being used as
dielectric layers in electronic devices, organic dielectric
materials are also used for final encapsulation of printed
devices. Table 1 shows the main properties of printable
inks/pastes.
3.1.2 | Flexible substrates for IME
The purpose of the final application and physical forms
of the substrates i.e., flatness, light weight, ruggedness,
conformability, foldability, stretch ability, are some of the
features that affect their selection. Flexible substrates will
also allow the adoption of continuous roll-to-roll
processing, eliminating the use of expensive and complex
processes (e.g., high vacuum and lithographic tech-
niques), promoting cost-effective mass production of
devices. Flexible substrates must have dimensional and
thermal stability, low coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE), excellent solvent resistance and good barrier prop-
erties for moisture and gases. Currently, there are differ-
ent types of materials that could be used for flexible
electronic devices: metal foils, thin glass, and
polymers.[42,64]
Metal foils and thin glasses are flexible substrates, but
not stretchable. The advancement of knowledge in mate-
rials engineering has introduced stretchable electronic
materials that can be bended, folded, rollable, stretched,
and deformed. Printed electronics is influencing almost all
manufacturing industries, being mechanically flexible sub-
strates, such as polymers, providing new applications for
stretchable electronics.[65] Moreover, the flexibility of the
polymer substrates is the basis for low-cost high-speed
manufacturing of devices using various printing tech-
niques. Printability, as the state of being printable, is an
issue of polymeric materials, as they show low surface
energies, typically, ranging from 0.025 and 0.04 J m 2.
Wettability characterizes the degree of wetting of a solid
surface by a liquid droplet, being evaluated by contact
angle measurements. Polymers are typically hydrophobic,
showing high contact angles (>90  C with water). Adhe-
sion is also a superficial phenomenon, depending upon
interactions between the liquid ink and the surface of the
substrate. Both wettability and adhesion result from inter-
molecular interactions and are important for a good print-
ability. The polymer substrate surface energy must be
higher than the ink surface tension for proper wetting and
adhesion between the ink and the polymer substrate.[25]
The major drawback in use of polymer substrates is
their low glass transition temperature, Tg. Therefore, their
10
maximum operating temperature is also low, typically
<150 C, when compared to metal and ceramic substrates.
They also show low thermal stability. This limits their use
with some type of high temperature cure inks. In addition,
humidity has a major effect on the polymer material used
for flexible substrates, affecting dimensional stability, and
the electric resistivity to a significant value. Polymers are
divided into two main groups with respect to their morphol-
ogy, semi-crystalline and amorphous, and into two main
groups with respect to their behavior when heated up, ther-
moplastics and thermosets (Figure 8). Their applications in
flexible electronics have been described elsewhere.[42] Semi-
crystalline polymers used in flexible electronics include
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and heat stabilized PET,
polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) and heat stabilized PEN
and polyetheretherketone (PEEK). Amorphous polymer
substrates include polycarbonate (PC), polyethersulfone
(PES), polyimide (PI), and polyetherimide (PEI).[42] Some of
these substrates are poor resistant to solvent absorption
compared to semi-crystalline polymers.
Beside these, several types of polymers have been pro-
posed as flexible materials. Carbon nanotube (CNT) can
be embedded in a flexible epoxy matrix as part of a fiber-
reinforced polymer composite.[66] The development of a
piezoresistive strain sensor using an elastomeric compos-
ite film made with polyurethane and CNT was demon-
strated. Another material that can also be used as a
substrate for printed electronics is paper.[66]
The most common substrates for IME are PET, PEN,
and PC.[67,68] These polymer substrates are low cost,
optically transparent, with low surface energy, which
makes them suitable for PE. Polyimide (PI) is widely
used in the commercial flexible PCB industry. However,
it is expensive, has high surface roughness and the films
BELTRÃO ET AL.
FIGURE 8 Main polymers for flexible
substrates
are usually translucid. PEEK also presents a high sur-
face roughness and a high cost. Likewise, elastomers are
becoming popular for this purpose, for instance silicone,
being polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) the most commonly
used.[68]
The main flexible substrates used in PE, as well as
their main physical properties are listed in Table 2. Some
important properties that the substrate must exhibit
include thermal and mechanical stability, flexibility, sol-
vent resistance, surface roughness, surface energy, resis-
tance to moisture, and barrier properties.
3.2 | Printing techniques
The possibilities of using different printing techniques
have been extensively studied regarding the feasibility for
the manufacture of functional films. Selecting the suit-
able printing process is essential to preserve the overall
compatibility of the printed layers and to ensure reliable
printed electronic structures. The relation between sur-
face energy of the substrate and surface tension of the
ink is essential.[65] This means that ink, substrate selec-
tion and printing process cannot be disassociated. The
substrate must be selected according to the application
and printed ink. Likewise, ink selection must be associ-
ated with the printing process and substrate compatibil-
ity. The selected printing process depends on the final
product application and directly affects the printing reso-
lution. The printing technologies can also be subdivided
in two main categories: contact and non-contact tech-
niques, as shown in Figure 9.
In contact printing techniques, the patterned structures
with inked surfaces are in direct contact with the
BELTRÃO ET AL. 11

TABLE 2 Substrates for flexible hybrid electronics and their physical properties[66,69,70]

Young's Max. Surface

modulus deformation energy CTE
Substrate Transparency Density Tg ( C) (MPa) (mm mm 1) (mN m 1) (ppm  C 1)
PET 90 1.38 80 2.8 0.3–0.8 42–45 33
PEN 87 1.4 120–140 3.0–3.3 0.1 45 20
PI 35–60 1.42 410 2.5 0.90 57 8–20
PEEK 54 1.32 143 2.6–3.2 0.2–1.0 30–40 40–50
PLC (thermotropic) - 1.38–1.90 100–160 10–20 0.01–0.03 34–45 0–30
PDMS 92 0.97–1.03 125 0.6–4 0.6–1.3 19–24 300–400
Paper - 0.6–1.0 126–176 0.5–3.5 0.02–0.06 30–45 0.4–0.6

FIGURE 9 Printing technologies

substrate. On the other hand, in the non-contact technolo-
gies, the ink solution is dispensed/sprayed onto the sub-
strate from a very short distance. The printed structures
are defined by moving the substrate holder or ink dis-
penser in a pre-programmed pattern. Some review articles
reported in this field are already available, for example,
focusing on inkjet printing, nanoimprinting, microcontact
printing techniques, and R2R fabrication.[71–74] The newly
developed polymeric stamp-based printing methods (soft
lithography), such as nanoimprint, micro-contact printing
and transfer printing are of a growing interest.[4] Some of
the techniques described below are already widely applied
in the IME industry, while others have great potential to
be gradually implemented. Some of the contact and non-
contact printing technologies are described below.
Screen-printing: Screen-printing is the most developed
and popular technology for PE since it has been the prac-
tice in the electronics industry for a long time (e.g., PCB
production). Furthermore, it is faster and more versatile in
comparison to the other printing techniques.[75] Screen
printing uses a porous mesh image carrier (screen), which
produces thicker ink deposits compared to other printing
methods. A squeegee is used to sweep the ink on top of the
screen with pressure, as the ink passes through the screen
and is transferred onto the substrate.[76] With this tech-
nique it is possible to get thick (>10 μm) features. How-
ever, usually offers low resolution (c.a. 100 μm) and the
deposited film is rough due to the highly viscous (500–
5000 Pa s) nature of the inks/pastes used. Two different
assemblies of screen printers can be used: flatbed and
rotary. In flatbed, the ink is squeezed across the screen
resulting in its transfer through the stencil openings to the
substrate below it. For continuous processing, a rotary
screen can be used (Figure 10).[4]
The print quality in screen printing is affected by
numerous factors, such as the materials (ink and sub-
strate), ink viscosity, printing speed, angle, geometry of the
squeegee and mesh size. The feasibility of this technique
for flexible electronics has been demonstrated through vari-
ous printed sensors, electronics devices, and circuits.[4]
Despite all the advantages that this printing method has,
screen-printing also presents some challenges for the devel-
opment of all layers of a flexible device.[77] For instance, it
produces large waste of production material (including
12 BELTRÃO ET AL.

ink) and the planar system speed is low in comparison to defined edges than gravure printing. With this technol-
other conventional printing processes.[25] ogy it is possible to obtain thin layers of about 1 μm, and
Gravure printing/gravure-offset printing: With this accomplish patterns with resolution of 20 μm.[4] The
technique, it is possible to produce high-resolution pat- dynamic viscosity of ink is usually between 0.05 and
terns at high speeds. It can achieve feature printed sizes 0.5 Pa s. Flexographic printing is susceptible to film insta-
of a few μm (<20 μm). The features are engraved in the bility, which promotes many defects such as open lines,
cylinder, which are filed with ink. A doctor blade wipes overlapped lines, and edge waviness effects.
the excess ink from the cylinder (Wiping). Then, the Microcontact printing is a soft lithography technique.
cylinder rolls over the substrate and the ink are trans- μCP is based on the conformal contact of patterned elas-
ferred onto it (Transfer), creating the final pattern tomeric stamps with a target surface, in which proper
(Figure 11).[78] Once the substrate is wetted, ink spreads control of the stamps on micrometer scale is required.
over it forming the final printed pattern (Spreading). For This technique makes it possible to produce multiple cop-
large-area and high-volume manufacturing, gravure ies of 2D patterns using a patterned stamp developed
printing is the great choice. It is capable of producing through a master mold.[82] The stamp is typically made
high quality and cost-effective patterns, typical of an R2R from PDMS, which is the elastomer often used due to its
process. The printed films have a broad thickness range, properties, such as conformability to large areas, elastic-
typically 1 to 8 μm. Solution properties and cell width/ ity for easy release, low surface free energy, chemical
depth ratio have significant importance in gravure print- inertness, homogeneous, isotropic, optically transparent
ing along with other system parameters.[79] The low vis- and durability.[82] Review of the evolution, addressing
cosity inks (dynamic viscosity of ink between 0.05 to the new variations and applications of μCP over the past
0.2 Pa s) allow emptying of the cells and achieving better
line resolution.[4]
Gravure-offset printing is a developed version from
gravure printing, in which a blanket is used to prevent
damage to the cylinder due to direct contact with the sub-
strate.[80] The printed pattern is defined by differences in
wetting of a plane surface. The elastic blanket collects the
ink from the grooves of the cylinder and transfers it to
the desired surface. Several process parameters affect the
printing results, although the dependence on the printing
speed and blanket's thickness is of great importance due
to the minimal contact time between ink and the blan-
ket.[81] It is possible to obtain high resolution (<20 μm)
and thin layers down to 0.5 μm.
Flexographic printing: Flexographic printing is applied
for high-speed runs of PE.[80] Various inks can be used
for this technique with a rubber or polymer plate having
patterns, developed by photolithography, and attached to
a cylinder (Figure 12). In contact with the inked areas of
the anilox cylinder, the patterns on the plate cylinder
serve to print on the substrate that passes between them.
This method offers better pattern reliability and better- FIGURE 11 Illustration of gravure printing technique

F I G U R E 1 0 Illustration of screen-
printing process
BELTRÃO ET AL.
F I G U R E 1 2 Illustration of
flexographic printing
few years are discussed in detail elsewhere.[83] Some chal-
lenges associated with μCP printing include the diffusion
of self-assembled monolayers (SAM) areas not contacted
by the stamp, the broadening of features, and the blur-
ring of the feature edges. This technique requires precise
adjustment of the surface energies for efficient ink trans-
fer, either by chemical modifications or topography, from
mold to the substrates.[73]
Lithography: Lithography is the process of transfer-
ring patterns from one medium to another. This
method relies on the action of two wetting functions on
the surface of a flat and unbossed printing plate
(Figure 13).[84] The ink is moved to an intermediate car-
rier or “blanket,” which transfers the image to the sub-
strate. The plate has image areas that are hydrophobic
(ink accepting/water repelling) and non-image areas
which are hydrophilic (water accepting/ink repel-
ling).[85] The non-image areas are covered with a solu-
tion, normally composed of water with additives to
lower its surface tension, helping to obtain a more com-
plete wetting of the non-image areas of the printing
plate. The ink is applied to the image areas of the plate,
by means of distribution rollers, ensuring constant film
thickness.[85] The mutual repulsion between ink and
water keeps the non-image areas without ink. The ink
only transfers from the image areas of the plate. The
ink is transferred from the printing plate to a rubber
covered cylinder (blanket), and then printed on the sub-
strate.[85] The resolution limit of the process is between
0.1 and 0.01 mm.[84] Offset provides very high print
quality and is commercially attractive for a wide range
of run lengths. Waterless lithography is an alternative
way of printing that uses a silicone rubber layer on the
plate surface to repel ink in the non-image area.[86]
13
Nano-imprinting (NI) lithography: Nano-imprinting is
another soft lithography technique. NI is used to pattern
materials by mechanical and physical deformation of a
wet layer, using a hard or a soft mold with nanoscale pat-
terned structures on the surface (Figure 14). The mold is
pressed to form a solution on a substrate, at a controlled
temperature and pressure, creating a thickness contrast
into the layer. A thin residual layer of polymeric material
is left underneath the mold flanges, acting as a soft soft-
ening layer that prevents direct impact of the mold on
the substrate, effectively protecting the nanoscale fea-
tures of its surface.[87] The interface and surface charac-
teristics have a big influence on the demolding capability
and filling behavior, influencing the final pattern qual-
ity.[88] In addition, it is essential to have a controlled pres-
sure in order not to destroy the printing patterns.[88]
Several NI approaches are being developed, for example,
thermal, photo, ultraviolet (UV), step-and-flash, and
roller nanoimprinting.[4] The critical challenges for NI
include overlay alignment, template fabrication, defect
control, and high yield.[89]
Furthermore, some of the most used non-contact
printing technologies are described below.
Inkjet printing: Inkjet printing is a digital printing pro-
cess, heavily used for prototyping and large-volume
manufacturing of electronics.[78] Typically, the ink reser-
voirs of inkjet printers are coupled with piezo constrictors
that load and expel ink. In this process, each droplet can
be controlled, so the ink consumption is very low. Thick-
ness about 100 nm can be achieved, however, with moder-
ate resolution (c.a., 50 μm). The dynamic viscosity of the
ink is usually 1 to 20 mPa s. Semiconducting, insulating,
and metallic low viscosity inks can be printed with inkjet
printing.[90] The printed patterns are digitally generated
14 BELTRÃO ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 3 Illustration of
the lithography process

FIGURE 14 Representation of different nanoimprinting techniques

BELTRÃO ET AL.
F I G U R E 1 5 Inkjet printing
methods: Schematics of (A) CIJ,
and DOD inkjet printing with
(B) piezoelectric, and
(C) thermal head
(CAD software) and can be easily changed, which makes
this printing technique an ideal choice for prototyping.
Resistors, capacitors, and inductors are developed using
inkjet printing on polyimide substrate with various func-
tional inks.[4] A disadvantage of inkjet is that it consists of
a raster motion for printing, which makes the printing
process slower compared to roll-to-roll processes. Inkjet in
comparison to flexography and gravure printing processes
results in rougher and less uniform ink morphologies.[91]
Chemical stability, solvents solubility and low temperature
processing are some of the key requirements of inkjet
printable materials.
In inkjet printing, there are two basic types of print-
heads: Continuous Inkjet (CIJ) heads and Drop-on-
Demand (DOD) heads. As shown in Figure 15A), CIJ is a
method where a stream of ink droplets is continuously pro-
duced and jetted. The droplets are charged by the electrode
and subjected to an electrostatic field, being deflected to
deposit on the substrate.[92] On the other hand, in the
DOD method, the ink droplets are only generated when
required, through a piezoelectric or a thermal inkjet pro-
cess (Figure 15B,C). CIJ method allows a higher printing
efficiency. However, the complexities inherent in jet con-
trol, diversion and recycling of the inks have limited the
application of this technique. Therefore, DOD has devel-
oped as the main inkjet printing technology.[92]
Aerosol jet printing: In this method, the functional ink
is aerosolized and entrained in a gas stream (Figure 16).
The system can use two options to generate the aerosol
from inks with viscosities between 1 to 1000 mPa s: ultra-
sonic or pneumatic.[93] The aerosol stream is directed to a
print head where it is aerodynamically focused by a coax-
ial sheath gas flow.[94] The free-form deposition coupled
with a relatively large stand-off distance of the aerosol jet
printing (AJP) technique, enables the production of
devices with increased geometric complexity compared to
other printing techniques.[93] This technique has a wide
material compatibility, being suitable for printing con-
ductors, semiconductors, and dielectrics. It has a high
15
resolution and independence of orientation. AJP provides
consistent deposition at nozzle–substrate offsets of
1–5 mm.[93]
Slot-die printing: During this printing method, a
liquid is pumped from a reservoir through a thin
slot and deposited onto a substrate (Figure 17). It is
becoming a preferred process due to its low operational
cost and potential to be used in large-scale mass
manufacturing.[95]
In addition, slot-die printing is capable of achieving
extremely uniform films across large areas. This method
allows the film thickness to be predetermined by con-
trolled parameters. It is applicable for solutions with a
wide range of viscosities and processing speeds up to
200 m/min.[95] One of the main advantages of this tech-
nique over traditional ones is that it can easily be inte-
grated into scale-up processes, including R2R.
Laser direct writing (LDW): In laser direct writing
technique, a pulsed laser is used to induce the transfer of
material from a source film onto a substrate. The laser
pulses spread through the transparent substrate, being
absorbed by the film.[96] The movement of the source,
and receiving substrate, enables the 3D pattern forma-
tion. The galvanometric scanning mirrors enable rapid
motion and high-resolution patterns from the written 3D
volumetric pixels (voxels). LDW manages the deposition
and transfer of complex materials for which it is essential
to maintain the physical, biological, and/or chemical
properties in the patterns.[96] Materials such as organic
and biological molecules are particularly vulnerable,
where the transfer mechanism can cause damage in these
systems.[97]
Roll to roll (R2R) printing techniques are character-
ized by being a continuous and high throughput process
for deposition of various materials on large substrate
rolls. A R2R line is equipped with several rollers on
which the web (flexible substrates) passes with controlled
tension.[98] Processing sections on a typical R2R line
include tools for deposition, patterning, lamination, and
16
FIGURE 17 Illustration of the slot-die printing process
packaging based on the structural requirements of the
device.[4] Gravure, offset, flexography, rotary screen
printing and nanoimprint techniques are some of the
favorable methods for R2R configuration.[80] R2R fabrica-
tion is more suitable for organic or polymer based thin
film devices, it has been also explored for solar cells, light
emitting diodes, and display devices.[99] Recently, it has
been reported the combination of slot-die coating and
laser direct writing on a R2R setup for development of
piezoresistive strain sensors.[100] One of the main chal-
lenges of this fabrication method is how to model the
combined effects of material, structure, and process, opti-
mizing them to create multi-layered flexible sensors and
devices with desired performance.[80]
As the selection of printing technique depends on ink
properties and printed feature requirements, a comparison
of the different printing techniques is provided in Table 3,
listing ink and printed feature properties.
BELTRÃO ET AL.
F I G U R E 1 6 Illustration of aerosol
jet printing process
3.3 | Developments on IME
As above-mentioned, several semi-crystalline and amor-
phous polymers have been suggested as flexible substrates
(e.g., polycarbonate, polyimide, polyethylene naphthalate,
polyethylene terephthalate, PVDF).[110–113] Also, some flexi-
ble substrates (e.g., poly (PDMS), polyurethane, thermoplas-
tic polyurethanes). [25,111,114,115] The mechanical properties
of a range of commercial IMD films (PC, blends of PC with
PBT and PET) were evaluated in order to understand their
performance and suitability over the full range of tempera-
tures and pressures used in the IMD process.[116] The
mechanical behavior of the polymeric films and their tem-
perature response are related to the polymer molecular
structure, as would be expected. PC is an amorphous poly-
mer, so due to the random arrangement of molecules its
mechanical behavior does not vary depending on the direc-
tion of deformation. On the other hand, crystalline poly-
mers (e.g., PBT) have a more orderly structure, and the
elastic modulus and yield stress increase with the degree of
crystallinity.[117,118]
Since the properties and deformation of polymeric
films are significantly affected by the behavior of the
injected polymer, it was numerically investigated the
deformation of the polymer film and the injected poly-
mer during the IMD process.[119] The injected molten
polymer could lead to tearing of the polymer film in the
regions near the corners. The mold temperature is con-
sidered a critical parameter for the IMD process, since
the ink behavior is affected by the temperature. To
investigate the effect of temperature on the film, Shia-
Chung Chen et al.[120] injection molded PC under sev-
eral conditions, including mold and melt temperatures,
film material, and thickness. It was found that with the
increase in film thickness, the difference in mold tem-
perature induced by the heat retardation, caused by the
film, also increases.
 BELTRÃO ET AL.

TABLE 3 Comparison of several printing techniques[3,4,25,93,95,101–109]

Contact printing technologies Non-contact printing technologies

Screen- Gravure/ Nano- Laser direct

printing Flexography gravure-offset imprinting Lithography Aerosol jet writing Slot-die Inkjet
Image Carrier Stencil Relief Engraved Polymer stamp Flat Plate Jet Pulsed laser Doctor blade Digital
Resolution (μm) 30–100 30–80 50–200 ≈1 20–50 20 <0.1 200 15–100
Printing area Medium Large Large Medium Large Large Medium Large Large
Printed layer thickness (μm) 3–30 0.17–8 0.02–12 0.01–0.03 0.6–20 0.01–5 0.056 0.15–60 0.01–0.5
Printing speed (m/min) 0.6–100 5–180 8–100 0.006–0.6 0.6–15 0.3–0.6 1200 0.6–5 150
Ink viscosity (Pa s) 0.5–50 0.01–0.5 0.1–1 0.10 0.1–10 0.0007–5 0.014–10 0.1 0.01–0.02
Solution surface 38–47 13.9–23 41–44 22–80 22–80 30 - 65–70 15–25
tension (mN m 1)
Material wastage Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No
Cost Low Low High Low High Low Medium Low Low
Design Flexibility High Low Low High High High High High High
Substrate Any kind Polymer, Polymer, Paper, Polymer, Polymer, Polymer, Polymer, Glass, Polymer, Any kind
Paper, Board Flexible Silicon, Glass Paper, Board Silicon, Glass Metal, Ceramic Flexible
substrates substrates
17
18
Film thickness was found to influence the deforma-
tion conditions, specifically under plane stress and plane
strain conditions. The same study demonstrated that the
modulus of elasticity value decreases when the specimen
thickness increases.[121] Earlier works acknowledge that
thicker specimens present greater stiffness, and a reduced
capacity of the sample to deform in the transverse direc-
tion.[122] Film thickness affects the cooling rate in the
injected melt polymer, as a consequence, it affects the
solid-state characteristics of the part. Mold wall thickness
is extremely important, especially near the gates. Thin
walls near the gates cause extreme shear stress on the
inks.[123] In a report, after examining the effect of the dec-
oration film on the mold surface temperature during the
injection molding process, it was found that, when
the film thickness increases, the retardation induced by
the mold temperature difference also increases. PC and
PEI films were studied, with thickness ranging from
0.1–2 mm.[120] The modulus of elasticity values decreased
when the specimen thickness increased.[121]
The interfacial characteristics of PC/ABS and PET
films were explored, and it was concluded that the adhe-
sion between the film and the PC/ABS substrate
is influenced by the molecular weight of PC and
PC-oligomer in the blends.[124] On the other hand, in
PET films, it was due to the molecular orientation and
crystallization processes. It was also investigated the
effects of the process parameters of PC film for IMD, after
examining the effect of decoration film on mold surface
temperature during the molding process.[117] At an opti-
mized temperature, the formability of the film was dem-
onstrated to be limited to very smooth contours. The
prototypes that exhibited the least amount of light scat-
tering and, therefore the least amount of print-through,
exhibited certain undesirable irregularities by industry
standards. These irregularities can be attributed to several
causes, such as mold surface finish.[117]
A few studies have been carried out concerning the fea-
sibility of the IMD process and the consequent ability of ink
adhesion on polymeric substrates.[125] Adhesion and
stretchability of silver inks printed on stretchable substrates,
like PDMS, to form conductive patterns have been investi-
gated for stretchable electronics applications.[126] Stretch-
able conductive polymers, which can be deformed and
extended to a certain level of strain at high temperature,
allow the standard manufacturing process for polymers,
such as thermoforming, to be implemented in electronic
applications.[127] The temperature of the mold surface is the
most important process parameter for an ideal ink transfer
to the polymer. A study focused on the effect of the combi-
nation of printing in surface mount technology and the-
rmoforming concluded that the part (PC substrate with
printed conductive ink) exhibited good physical conditions
BELTRÃO ET AL.
after the thermoforming process. [127] The LEDs joints
showed good structural integrity.
A recent report discussed the prediction of ink-wash
and part warpage based on the molding parameters.[128]
Ink wash-off is caused by the high shear stress between
the stationery ink/film and the flowing polymer melt.
The chance of the ink to be removed from the film
increases, if the shear stress is higher than the adhesion
between the ink and the film. Ink wash-off has been one
of the problems that interfere with the success of the
IMD process for injection molded parts. This can be
avoided by protecting the printed pattern with an overlay
(lamination), but this will make the film thicker. An
experimental matrix design based on the Taguchi method
was carried out to investigate the influence of processing
parameters on the ink wash-off of molded parts.[123] In
this study, samples of three different thicknesses were
molded. The experimental results showed that molded
parts of smaller thicknesses exhibited more severe ink
wash-off. The melt and mold temperatures were the main
factors affecting the ink failure of IMD injection molded
parts. Also, the ink was mainly washed off by the high
shear stresses applied from the hot polymer melts.
Throughout the study, it was concluded that most of the
ink wash-off occurs near the gate, gradually decreasing
as the distance from the gate increases. In addition, it
was established that IMD molded parts of smaller thick-
nesses showed more severe ink wash-off than those of
greater thicknesses. The polymer films are subjected to
both shear and elongational stresses during this process.
As the injected polymer starts to solidify, as soon as it
touches the walls of the mold, a highly oriented skin
layer is produced. The consequent elongation of the plas-
tic film can result in the delamination of the printed inks.
The combined effects of high shear stress and high melt
temperature resulting from the process may lead to the
wash-off of the ink from the decoration films. Through
the experimental results, it was recognized that the incre-
ment upon the melt injection pressure helps to minimize
the ink wash-off in IMD molded parts. In addition, the
wall thickness near the gate is extremely important, as
thin walls near the gate cause high shear stresses on the
inks, resulting in damage to the part.
The effects of production parameters on the viability
of PC film for IMD in resin infused composite compo-
nents were investigated.[123] The statistical validation
indicated minimal print-through at a forming tempera-
ture of 147 C. The increase of the mold temperature cau-
ses a decrease on the ink wash-off. However, a too high
mold temperature keeps the temperature of the poly-
meric material warm for a long time, which, in turn, can
lead to wash-off of the inks.[123] Also, most of the ink
wash-off appears near the gate and gradually reduces as
BELTRÃO ET AL.
the distance from the gate increases. IMD molded parts
of smaller thicknesses exhibit more accentuated ink
wash-off than those of bigger thicknesses. This can be
explained by the fact that injection molded parts have a
higher shear stress near the gate during filling. Through
an experimental test, it was recognized that the incre-
ment upon the melt injection pressure helps minimize
the ink wash-off in IMD molded parts.[123]
The manufacturing of MID via IMD technology has
been investigated.[40] Printing ink mixed with several
conductive materials was studied for electrical conductiv-
ity after printing on a thin film. Carbon black was found
to have a better electrical conductivity and a lower cost
than other materials. During the injection of the polymer,
no wash-out of the conductive ink printed on the film
surface was observed. The tested PC film was compatible
with the PC/ABS blend substrate, and no film peeling
was observed.
The IME molding process can introduce asymmetric
frontal flow advancement and uneven temperature distribu-
tion during the injection molding step due to the presence
of the inserted polymeric film, which can result in the
development of residual stresses and part warpage. Until
now, several studies were made to examine the warpage of
IMD injection molded parts. Chiang et al.[129] investigated
the warpage in thin wall parts replacing insert molding
with thin-wall injection molding to fabricate electronic dic-
tionary battery covers. They concluded that melt tempera-
ture is the most important process parameter for warpage
during thin-wall injection molding. Also, low melt tempera-
ture, high injection velocity, and high packing pressure
eliminate part warpage during thin-wall injection molding.
An investigation on process modeling and simulation was
also previously made.[130] A simulation software was devel-
oped with modules of stress and warpage analyses. The
comparison between simulation and real product indicates
that the developed code, could be effective to the prediction
of part warpage.[130] For a PC film, it was found that the
heat transfer retardation results in a mold temperature drop
in cavity surface and the maximum temperature drop, as
compared to that of conventional injection molding without
film, may be as high as 17.7 C. For PET film, the maximum
mold temperature drop is about 13 C.[120]
Baek et al.[131] studied the effect of the processing
conditions on the warpage of the IMD injection molded
parts. They concluded that the warpage decreases as the
injection velocity increases. Through simulation results,
it has been shown that greater warpage occurs in regions
with higher stable temperatures, after demolding the
part. In a report, after examining the effect of the decora-
tion film on the mold surface temperature during the
injection molding process, it was found that the IMD
process introduced asymmetric flow front advancement,
19
uneven temperature distribution in the mold core and
cavity, leading to residual stresses and warpage of
parts.[120] More recently, it was examined the warpage of
IML injection molded components and established that
it is the volume shrinkage difference between the label
and substrate that causes bending in the parts in the
opposite side of the label.[132] The warpage decreases as
the injection velocity increases. Therefore, they proposed
that this problem can be dealt with by varying the tem-
peratures of the mold. Also, it was investigated, both
experimentally and numerically, the warpage in IMD
injection molded parts, concluding that all molded parts
warped toward the side of the decoration film. In the
experiments, the corner angle of the molded parts and
the injection pressure of the molten material, were the
main factors that affect the warping of IMD injection
molded parts.[19]
Several studies are focusing on the production of elec-
tronic products with functional circuits printed on flexi-
ble foils instead of conventional rigid PCB. The capability
of integrating electronic functions into the final parts
brings improvement of functions and enhancement of
quality in various industries, such as the automotive sec-
tor. Production of functional electronic devices based on
flexible substrates can result in a cheaper and more effi-
cient manufacturing solution in comparison with con-
ventional batch processes used nowadays.[33] The
potential of IME technology has been verified by VTT in
photonic over-molded flexible foil structures, over-
molded optical touch panels, over-molded semiconductor
electronics and LED lighting.[133] Recently, it was built
an intelligent system combining printed and flexible
components, including an electrochromic (EC) display
component that was integrated into and injection molded
3D component to create a final product.[134] The feasibil-
ity of thermoforming electronics incorporated in a ther-
moplastic matrix has also been shown.[1] The results are
promising and indicative of the robustness of the elec-
tronic systems. However, it was also shown that the
direct dependence between the deformation and the film
thickness is still a limitation of the process.[135] TactoTek
has demonstrated IMSE (in-mold structural electronic)
parts with 70% weight and 90% thickness reduction,
when compared with conventional assemblies.[1]
To form a 3D electronic device, it was explored the
effect of combining the standard printing process and the
thermoforming process in a stretchable conductive poly-
mer. The results showed good performances of LED
joints, and the stretchable conductive polymer showed
good physical conditions after thermoforming. It
exhibited minor voids in the corner of the product after
thermoforming, which do not significantly affect the
lighting of the LED.[127]
20
TABLE 4 Acknowledgements of the different variables of IMD process
Variables Causes/problems
Thickness • Influences the deformation conditions, namely the
plane-stress and plane-strain;[121]
• Thin walls near the gates cause extreme shear stress
on the inks;[123]
• Thicker specimens present greater stiffness, but lower
deformation capacity in the transverse direction.[121]
Ink wash-off • The injected molten polymer could lead to tearing of
the polymer film in the regions near the corners;[119]
• Ink wash-off is caused by high shear stresses between
the stationery ink/film and the flowing polymer
melt;[128]
• Part thickness, mold and melt temperatures are the
most significant factors affecting the ink wash-off;[123]
• An increase of injection velocity increases the ink
wash-off radius;[128]
• Most of the ink wash-off appears near the gate and
gradually reduces as the distance from the gate
increases;[123]
• IMD parts of smaller thicknesses exhibit more
accentuated ink wash-off than those of bigger
thicknesses.[123]
Warpage • Melt temperature is the most important process
parameter to avoid part warpage during thin-wall
injection molding;[129]
• Greater warpage occurs in regions with higher stable
temperatures, after demolding the part;[130]
• The warpage decreases as the injection velocity
increases;[131]
• All molded parts warp toward the side of the
decoration film.[19]
IME allows the integration of electronics functions/
components on the inner surface of injection molded
components during their molding steps. Recently, other
alternative technologies have also emerged that create
the electric circuitry and perform the insertion of elec-
tronic components after the injection molding process,
such as 3D molded interconnected devices (3D-MID)
with laser direct structuring (LDS), 3D printing and 3D
surface mounting technologies. These technologies allow
mounting the electronic functions/components in both
the outer and inner side of the injection molded part, not
requiring them to withstand the high temperatures, pres-
sures, and deformations of the IMD process. Both IME
and non-IME technologies have not yet been compared
in terms of costs, company logistics and economical
added-value (e.g., supply chain management, financial
investment analysis, intellectual properties rights, inter-
nal technology know-how).
In Table 4 is presented a summary of the several stud-
ies, and resulting conclusions, for the IMD process
variables.
BELTRÃO ET AL.
Acknowledgments
• The modulus of elasticity values decrease when the
specimen thickness increases;[121]
• The influence of thickness on Kc has been studied in
HIPS and in PC. Plane-strain fracture was found above
40 mm thickness and Kc was constant.[121]
• On a PC film at 160 C, the forming capability was
maximized, and the surface finishes exhibited high
print-through;[117]
• Satisfactory results (no ink wash-off) were achieved
between 80 C and 100 C of mold wall temperature;[125]
• In PET films for IMD, it was established a processing
window with a temperature range of 200–220 C and a
stretching speed of about 500 mm min 1;[136]
• For a PC film, statistical validation indicated a minimal
print-through at a forming temperature of 147 C;[123]
• The increment upon the melt injection pressure helps
minimize the ink wash-off in IMD parts.[123]
• For a PC film, the heat transfer retardation results in
the mold temperature drop in the cavity surface, and
the maximum temperature drop, may be as high as
17.7 C. For PET film, the maximum mold temperature
drop is about 13 C.[120]
4 | CONCLUDING REMARKS
In-mold electronics technology has gained relevance for
applications in several industries over the past years.
Recent reports predict that this technology will continue
to show great growth over the next 10 years. IME is an
emerging global trend towards 3D structural electronics,
associated with a departure from the already rudimen-
tary practice of encasing components (e.g., PCB) inside
a polymeric box. There are still some drawbacks associ-
ated with this technology, however the inherent promis-
ing advantages are appealing to several industrial
sectors.
IME technology has been the target of several studies
and innovations over the last years, and some technologi-
cal issues have been already addressed. The interactions
between ink and substrate, the thermoforming step of the
printed film and its overmolding by an injected hot poly-
mer are strong. The processing conditions (temperatures,
pressures, flow rates) of this later step are of paramount
effect. The insertion of a thin film, typically of few
BELTRÃO ET AL.
hundreds of micrometers, in the injection mold cavity
has been proved to create an asymmetric frontal flow
advancement and an uneven temperature distribution,
resulting in the formation of residual stresses and part
warpage. The thickness of this film influences its defor-
mation conditions (namely under plane stress or plane
strain conditions) and capabilities. Also, with the incre-
ment of the film thickness, the difference in mold tem-
perature also increases, as this film acts as a thermal
barrier for cooling. Furthermore, the inserted polymeric
film is significantly affected by the behavior of the
injected polymer. The injected molten polymer could lead
to tearing of the film, mainly in the regions near the part
corners, which may cause defects. The temperature of the
mold is considered a critical parameter for the process;
part warpage is reduced as the injection velocity
increased. Ink-wash is another process flaw caused by
the high a shear stress between the stationery ink/film
and the flowing hot polymer melt. The melt and mold
temperatures have been identified as the main factors
affecting the ink failure of IMD injection molded parts.
The probability of the ink to be removed from the film
increases if the shear stress is higher than the adhesion
between the ink and the film. This problem can be
avoided by protecting the printed pattern with an over-
lay, but this will create a thicker film. The feasibility of
thermoforming electronics incorporated in a thermoplas-
tic matrix has also been proved. The results are promising
and indicative of the robustness of the electronic systems.
Still open points and main challenges that IME tech-
nology needs to face are related with materials and tech-
nology developments, product design guidelines, direct
dependence between the deformation and the film thick-
ness, which is still a limitation of the process, environ-
mental stability, and post-processing. Printed electronics
industry is showing a major economic impact in different
markets, and respective manufacturers companies,
including the automotive, medical, household appliance,
consumer electronics and aerospace sectors. The cost-
effectiveness of printing technologies and their imple-
mentation in flexible electronics is allowing new classes
of applications and, naturally, changing the electronics
industry landscape. Injection molded polymer parts are
not anymore only aesthetic or structural elements, but
are also functional. IME is paving the road towards struc-
tural electronic applications, reducing part weight and
costs, and widening new design solutions.
A C K N O WL E D G M E N T S
This work has been supported by project I&DPIIMIO—
POCI-01-0247-FEDER-042832, co-funded by European
Social Fund (ESF) through POCI program of PT2020, and
by the scope of projects with references UIDB/05256/2020
21
and UIDP/05256/2020, financed by FCT—Fundaç~ao para a
Ciência e Tecnologia, Portugal.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ORCID
Júlio C. Viana https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1210-2915
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Mariana Beltr~ ao received its MSc.
in Polymer Engineering from Minho
University, Portugal, in 2018. Cur-
rently, she is a researcher in IPC—
Institute for Polymers and Compos-
ites, hosted by the Polymer Engineer-
ing Department at Minho University.
Her work focuses on In-Mold Decoration (IMD) with
printed decorative and functional films (i.e., In-Mold
Electronics (IME)).
BELTRÃO ET AL.
Fernando M. Duarte is an assistant
professor in the Department of Poly-
mer Engineering at the University of
Minho. He graduated in Industrial
Engineering—Plastics Branch at Uni-
versity of Minho in 1992 and received
a PhD in Science and Polymer Engi-
neering from University of Minho in 2003. He
develops research activities at the Institute of Poly-
mers and Composites Research Unit, IPC, in the-
rmoforming, fused filament fabrication, FFF, and in
the development and characterization of degradable,
biodegradable polymer materials.
Júlio C. Viana received its PhD in
Science and Engineering of Polymers
and Composites from University of
Minho in 2000, a MSc. in Computer
Aided Engineering-Mechanical
Design from Queen's University of
Belfast, UK, in 1993, and Graduated
in Industrial Engineering—Plastics Branch, Univer-
sity of Minho in 1991. He joined University of Minho
as professor in 1991, being currently Associate Profes-
sor, at the Department of Polymer Engineering, Uni-
versity of Minho. He is currently the director of IPC—
Institute for Polymers and Composites, a research unit
from U. Minho.
Vitor Paulo received its MSc. in
Mechanical Engineering—Design
and Product Development from Uni-
versity of Aveiro in 2010 and Gradu-
ated in Mechanic Engineering—
Production, IPLeiria in 2004. He is
currently the Chief Technology Inno-
vation Officer at GLN and previously was the Head of
Operations at the GLN Plastics Unit since 2018. He
has experience in the plastics production and the
implementation of automated production lines since
2000. It also has a high know-how of technology and
tools for injection processes, as well as the manage-
ment and coordination of Innovation projects.
How to cite this article: M. Beltr~ao, F.
M. Duarte, J. C. Viana, V. Paulo, Polym. Eng. Sci.
2022, 1. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.25918