South African Road Safety Manual Volume 7: Design For Safety Design For Safety

SOUTH AFRICAN DESIGN FOR SAFETY
ROAD SAFETY Design for Safety is intended to provide guidance to road designers regarding
basic principles and key performance indicators, whereby road designs can be
MANUAL VOLUME evaluated in terms of best safety practices. The various elements of design will be
7: DESIGN FOR treated systematically, and guidelines regarding the development of standards for
each discussed.
SAFETY
The design of safe roadways is based upon certain basic assumptions regarding
the characteristics of the vehicle, the driver and the road. Road traffic accidents,
to varying degrees, are caused by defects in the vehicle, the driver and the road,
or combinations of these defects. Design for Safety will focus on designing roads
Consider the that provide a user-friendly environment, which permits vehicles and their drivers
to travel in safety. Due consideration should be given to the limitations of driver
limitations of the
human factors (for example, reaction time and perception ability), as well as the
driver, the vehicle physical and driving characteristics of the vehicle (for example, braking capability).
and the road. These considerations, together with the physical constraints of the road itself (for
example, skid resistance) provide a framework for safe road design.
How to Use Design for Safety

Design for Safety is Volume 7 of the South African Road Safety Manual, which
will be used to evaluate the road safety situation on existing roads and the safety
potential of new roads. In the case of existing roads, audits will be used to
identify accident spots for remedial treatment. During the various planning and
implementation stages of a new road, auditing will be done to ensure that safety-
conscious design is incorporated, and to recommend design changes at little or
no cost. At all stages of design, audit checklists will be used to enhance
decision-making that could affect road safety. This Volume highlights the effects
that various geometric and other design elements have on accident rates. It
provides an indication of appropriate design standards that should be used,
depending on road classification, traffic volumes, terrain and location. At all
times, the limitations of the vehicle, the driver and the road will be considered,
which influences the assumptions made when determining design standards.
The safety performance of the road network will be judged according to certain
performance indicators, which will signify whether the assumptions or the design
standards are appropriate or not. In the case of existing roads, remedial
measures may be recommended; in the case of new roads, design changes
may be required. As a result, a safer road environment can be ensured, and
accidents can be prevented.
Design for Safety is intended to point out various design issues that should be
considered when designing or redesigning a road, to create an awareness of the
safety implications of design decisions, and to assist the designer in selecting
the appropriate standards for optimum safety.
As we develop a greater understanding of the factors that affect road safety, we

will be better able to save lives and reduce accident costs.
VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-1

1. THE ROAD SYSTEM AND ROAD ACCIDENTS
1.1 The Road System and Safety
Figure 1.1 South African Road System
The South African road network consists of approximately 525 000 km of road,
of which 20 000 km are national routes (including 2 000 km toll roads), 340 000
km are provincial roads and 165 000 km are urban roads. South Africa’s roads
carry between 80 and 90 percent of all passenger and freight movements in the
country (Department of Transport, 1996b).
During 1996, 9848 persons were killed in road accidents, of which 3 718 (or
37,8%) were pedestrians. The number of road traffic collisions increased by
4,1% from 500 233 to 520 774 (one for every kilometre of road in the country),
and the number of casualties decreased by 8% from 146 725 to 135 049. The
3718 pedestrians
fatality rate per province varied from 44 (in the Northern Cape) to 12 (in the
died in 1996 Northern Province) per 100 000 inhabitants. The casualty rate (killed and
injured) per province varied from 6 (in the Western Cape) to 1 (in the Northern
Province) per 1 000 inhabitants. The number of casualties per 1 000 collisions
decreased from 293 to 259 during 1996.
A total of 236 pedal cyclists was killed and 3 871 injured on our roads during
1996. Cyclists represent a vulnerable group of road users.

There has been a slight decrease of 5% (from 35 370 to 33 612) in the number
of pedestrians killed or injured. Of the 5 561 pedestrians in the 25 to 29 age
group killed or injured, 3 554 were crossing the street, 778 walking on the
roadway, 250 playing or standing in the roadway, 406 were standing or playing
on the sidewalk, and for 673 the cause is unknown. The high casualty rate
among pedestrians identifies them as an especially vulnerable group of road
users.
Of the 520 774 collisions, the largest number (189 296 or 36%) occurred on
straight road sections of two-lane roads, away from intersections or control
points, followed by intersections/cross-roads controlled by traffic signals (84 799
or 16%). Despite the fact that freeways carry the majority of the RSA's traffic,
only 28 306 or 5,4% of the 520 774 collisions occurred on freeways. The latter
statistic provides an indication of the safety effects of higher geometric design
standards and control of access on freeways.
It is interesting to note that, although 63,8% of all casualties occurred on

Mondays to Fridays, an average of only 224 casualties per 1 000 collisions was
recorded. However, on Saturdays and Sundays, respectively, casualty rates as
high as 344 fand 380 per 1 000 collisions were recorded.
A similar pattern emerged regarding the time of day. Although 56% of all
casualties occurred between 07:00 and 18:00, the casualty rate for this period
was only 215 casualties per 1 000 collisions, while the period 18:00 to midnight
(representing 29,3% of all casualties) recorded a casualty rate of 342 casualties
per 1 000 collisions, and the period midnight to 07:00 (representing only 12,6%
of all casualties) had a casualty rate as high as 391 casualties per 1 000
collisions (CSS, 1997).
These patterns indicate the possible safety effects of alcohol abuse (especially
over weekends), night-time conditions, when visibility is reduced, and driver
fatigue, individually or combined, which add considerably to the severity of
accidents.
Run-off-road accidents account for approximately 25% of all accidents.
Single-vehicle The road traffic accident picture is typical of the scenario in developing countries,
particularly African countries, where the fatality rates per licensed vehicle can be
accidents account
20-30 times higher than in European countries. Whereas the situation in
for a quarter of industrialised nations is improving, many developing countries face a worsening
all accidents situation (TRL, 1991).

1.2 What can we learn from Road Accidents?
The rate of road traffic accidents in South Africa is unacceptably high, and is
exacerbated by illiteracy, ignorance and lawlessness, the aging fleets of cars,
minibuses, buses and trucks, low levels of vehicle maintenance, and lack of
adequate funds for proper road construction and maintenance. The causes of
road traffic accidents, to varying degrees, are to be found in defects in the
vehicle, the driver and the road, or combinations of these defects (Figure 1.2).
In the majority of cases, accidents are the result of road users failing to obey the
law.
By studying accident statistics and patterns, designers can concentrate on

The most
hazardous locations with a view to safety-conscious design. Perhaps the most
important lesson is important lesson to be learned is that accidents can be prevented.
that accidents can
be prevented Numerous research projects have established relationships between accidents
and geometric design elements, operating speed and traffic volumes.
These studies have led to the development of accident prediction models or

operating speed models, which greatly increase our understanding of
interrelated parameters affecting road safety.
This enables us to develop guidelines for the design of safer roads.
Figure 1.2 Factors Contributing to Road Traffic Accidents

In future, demographic and other trends will exacerbate the road
safety situation, unless positive steps are taken to counter them. The
road network will be carrying an increasing number of vehicles, a
greater diversity of vehicles and a changing population of drivers, with
a higher percentage of older drivers. Large sections of the roads are
reaching the end of their useful lives, which not only results in more
roadworks (and implicit hazards), but also in more opportunities for
upgrades and improvements to accommodate the above changes.
More research is required into the safety effects of alternative road
design and traffic engineering improvements to accommodate a more
diverse traffic mix (for example, barrier systems that can redirect large
trucks as well as passenger vehicles), to alleviate congestion (for
example, narrower lanes or converting shoulders to lanes), and to
address the problems of an aging population of drivers and
pedestrians (for example, special right turn lanes and median refuge
islands). Once the safety effects of alternative improvements are
better understood, they can more readily be weighed against the costs
to determine which improvements will yield the greatest safety
benefits.
TRB, 1990
1.3 Lessons from Developed Countries

In some respects, developing countries are fortunate, in that their road networks
are still at an early stage of development, and they have the added advantage of
being able to learn from the experience of developed countries that have already
passed through similar stages of development. Adoption of proven strategies,
for example elimination of high accident locations and more safety-conscious
design, offer unparalleled opportunities to make significant and lasting
improvements to road safety. Unfortunately, many developing countries
continue to repeat the mistakes of the industrialised nations, for example by
permitting linear development with direct access from abutting properties,
despite the safety implications.
Accurate accident
data is One thing that all developed countries have found to be of crucial importance is
the availability of good, accurate and comprehensive accident data, so that
indispensable
problems can be properly defined and suitable remedies devised.

In order to maximise the impact of engineering on safety problems, it is essential
to apply measures at various stages of the development of road networks. By
incorporating good design principles from the start, it is possible to avoid many
problems simply by planning and designing new roads in a safety-conscious
manner, or improving existing roads by subsequent introduction of safety- or
environment-related measures. It is also possible to identify hazardous sections
of the road network for application of remedial measures to reduce the
frequency or severity of accidents at these locations. This has proven to be one
of the most cost-effective ways of improving road safety in industrialised
countries (TRL, 1991).

1.4 References
Central Statistical Services, 1997. Road Traffic Collisions, 1996, Pretoria, South
Africa
Department of Transport, 1996a. White Paper on National Transport Policy,

Pretoria, South Africa
Department of Transport, 1996b. A Future for Roads in South Africa, Pretoria,

South Africa
Federal Highway Administration, 1997. Flexibility in Highway Design, FHWA,

Washington, DC, USA
Transport Research Laboratory, 1991. Towards Safer Roads in Developing

Countries: A Guide for Planners and Engineers, TRL, Crowthorne, UK
Transportation Research Board, 1990. Safety Research for a Changing Highway

Environment, Special Report 229, National Research Council, Washington, DC,
USA
United States Department of Transportation, 1990. Moving America: New

Directions, New Opportunities, Washington, DC, USA

2. DESIGN FOR
2.1 What is the Concept of Design for Safety?
ROAD SAFETY
The achievement of road traffic safety may be promoted by means of the three
E’s, namely Education, Enforcement and Engineering. This manual will focus on
the role that engineering plays in ensuring safety in the design of all roads.
"We
saw the
need to deter-
mine what a human
was capable of, and found
(for example) that humans need
certain information to make decisions,
that they take time to receive and process
that information and arrive at those decisions,
and that they sometimes make incorrect decisions.
This puts the responsibility upon road authorities and
others to design the system to accommodate the human,
and not the other way around.” Ogden, 1996.
A safe road design should:

• Warn and inform road users of changes in the approaching road
environment
• Guide and control road users safely through the road environment
• Provide a forgiving roadside environment
• Provide a controlled release of information
• Provide an aesthetically pleasing landscape
• Maintain road user interest and concentration
• Provide no surprises to road users
• Give consistent messages to road users
• Provide good visibility for all road users.
The geometric design features of a road, shown in Table 2.1, affect safety by:
• Influencing the ability of the driver to maintain vehicle control and identify
hazards. Significant features include:
v lane and shoulder width
v horizontal and vertical alignment
v sight distance
v superelevation and
v pavement surface and drainage.
• Influencing the number and types of opportunities that exist for conflict
between vehicles. Significant features include:
v Access control
v Intersection design
v Number of lanes and
v Medians
VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-1

• Affecting the consequences of an out-of-control vehicle leaving the travel
lanes. Significant features include:
v Shoulder width and type
v Edge drop
v Roadside conditions
v Side slopes
v Guardrail
• Affecting the behaviour and attentiveness of the driver, in particular the

choice of travel speed. Driver behaviour is affected by virtually all elements
of the roadway environment (TRB, 1987a).
TABLE 2.1 DESIGN ELEMENTS THAT INFLUENCE ROAD SAFETY

(Mc Gee et al, 1995)
CATEGORY DESIGN ELEMENT
Horizontal Alignment Curve radius
Curve length
Superelevation
Runoff length/transition
Vertical Alignment Grade
Critical length of grade
Vertical curves (sag and crest)
Cross-section Number of lanes
Lane width
Shoulder type
Shoulder width
Median type
Median width
Roadside Side slopes
Horizontal clearance to obstruction (clear zone)
Ditch design
Traffic barriers (roadside)
Median barriers
Intersection Sight triangle
Interchange Ramp terminal sight triangle
Taper rate/length
Successive exits/entrances
In addition to geometric features, a variety of other factors affect road safety,

including:
• Other elements of the overall road environment, such as:
v Pavement condition
v Weather
v Lighting
v Traffic and
v Traffic regulations.
• Driver characteristics, such as:

v Intoxication and
v Age and

Vehicle characteristics, such as:
v Size
v Mass and
v Braking capability.
The effect of road design is obscured by the presence of these factors. In fact,
most accidents result from a combination of factors interacting in ways that
preclude determining a single accident cause. Even when a vehicle leaves the
road owing to driver error or mechanical failure, the roadside design may still
mitigate accident severity. This interaction between road, driver and vehicle
characteristics complicates attempts to estimate the accident reduction potential
of a particular safety improvement (TRB, 1987a).
The construction of a road is typically a trade-off between ideal roadway

conditions and the economic use of scarce resources. Wide road reserves, high
fills and deep cuttings, and long roadway structures to separate conflicting traffic
streams are extremely expensive to expropriate and construct. The associated
expropriation to acquire the necessary reserve width is also expensive. Road
designs are often based on future demands for roadway capacity, which are
evaluated mainly in terms of economic considerations, such as construction
costs and the value of time. Historically, safety considerations in road and
vehicle design came about only after safety legislation was passed, leading to
higher safety standards being applied. In the United States, this followed the
enactment of the US Highway Safety Act, 1966 and adoption by the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) of the AASHTO Highway Design and
Operational Practices Related to Highway Safety, 1974 (AASHTO, 1974).
However, it is often extremely difficult, if not impossible, to correct safety defects

at a later stage, without major reconstruction. For this reason, designing for
safety should occur at the outset, or be provided for in stage construction
drawings. As part of the road authority's safety audit, the checklist of design
elements should be kept during each design phase of a road project.
Implementation funds for roads very seldom permit the use of high design
standards. On the other hand, demands for access and lower costs often put
pressure on designers to take a short term view and allow inferior design
practices.
Accidents increase Although this manual focuses on road design features, the psychological
aspects are always present. An error in perception or judgement or a faulty
as the number of
action on the part of the driver can easily lead to an accident. Roads should be
decisions increases designed in such a manner that only one decision at a time is required from a
driver, ensuring that he/she is never surprised by an unexpected situation, and
that adequate time is provided to make the decision. Research has shown that
the number of accidents increases as the number of decisions required by the
driver increases. Standardisation in road design features and traffic control
devices plays an important role in reducing the number of required decisions, as
the driver becomes aware of what to expect on a certain type of road (AASHTO,
1994).

Principles of Safe Design
Best safety practice in road design is usually achieved by constant reference to
the basics of road safety. During the design of the road, the following questions
should be asked:
• Can road users misunderstand the design?
• Does it cause confusion?
• Does it create ambiguity?
• Does it provide insufficient information?
• Does it provide too much information?
• Does it provide inadequate visibility or obstructions to vision?
• Does it contain obstacles or booby traps?
If the answer is “yes”, the questions “how, why, when, where, who and what?”
should follow to identify the root of the problem.
Drivers and other road users must perceive and process information, make
decisions and react, all within specific time frames. Comfortable and safe driving
and riding occurs when motorists are operating well below a stressful processing
and decision-making rate, and above the minimum level of arousal. The driver
should not be over-stimulated, or lulled into boredom. This aspect is a critical
component in the development and maintenance of a safe road environment.
A safe road environment should:

• Warn the driver of any substandard or unusual features
• Inform the driver of conditions to be encountered
• Guide the driver through unusual sections
• Control the driver’s passage through conflict points or sections and
• Forgive the driver’s errant or inappropriate behaviour.
Similar situations should be treated in similar fashion. Things to be avoided are:

• Inadequate treatment (not treating a situation to an appropriate level)
• Inappropriate treatment (using the wrong treatment for the situation)
• Excessive treatment (using “more treatment for more safety”, thereby
masking other similar situations that have already been treated to the
appropriate level).
Optimum values for design parameters should be used as often as possible,

Driver overload
consistent with prevailing constraints, such as terrain. Advance information and
should be avoided warning should be used to strengthen the delineation of a road. Driver overload
should be avoided, as it may cause some drivers to shed vital information.
Overload can result from too many road signs, conflicting messages or a lack of
delineation.
Therefore a safe road environment is one which provides:

• No surprises in road design or traffic control (expectancy factors)
• A controlled release of relevant information (not too much at once)
• Repeated information where pertinent to emphasise danger (Austroads,
1994).

"A safe roadway is one in which none of the driver-vehicle interactions
approaches the critical level at any point along its length."
FHWA, 1980
2.1.1 Who is Responsible for Road Safety?
"The safety, security, reliability and quality of service of some modes are
currently unacceptable. The government is committed to a concentrated
and integrated effort to bring them into line with international best
practice. Particular attention will be paid to road safety."
"The unacceptable traffic conditions on South African roads, and

especially the high accident and casualty rates, must not continue. Road
traffic safety is not a function in itself, but rather the result of the efficient
and harmonious operation of road and traffic related management
systems, functions, and activities developed and implemented with the
purpose of improving quality in road traffic.
After a critical review of the situation and the manner in which road traffic
is currently managed, it is evident that a stronger approach will be
needed to effect a more drastic improvement in road user discipline and
reduce collisions."
"Performance indicators will be developed for different types of

infrastructure and levels of service to measure the extent to which quality
of life issues are being met in the provision of transport infrastructure
and to adapt where necessary."
Department of Transport, 1996

National roads are the responsibility of the South African National Roads Agency
(SANRA), established in 1998. National roads provide mobility in a national
context. Traffic on these roads is usually associated with longer travel
distances, and the design of these roads should provide for relatively high
speeds, and interference with through traffic should be minimised.
Provincial roads are the responsibility of the Provincial Departments of Transport

and/or Public Works. These roads are primarily provided for access and mobility
in a regional context. Provincial roads are designed for shorter travel distance
and moderate speeds, and usually form the links between towns not situated on
the national network.
Local governments are responsible for urban roads and streets that provide
mobility and access in urban areas.
Since taxpayers’ money is used to provide for the planning, construction and
maintenance of public roads, it is incumbent on all spheres of government and
road agencies to ensure the safety of road users. This may be achieved by
means of road safety awareness programmes, driver training, incident
management systems, adequate road traffic signs and markings, visible law
enforcement, safety assessments and audits, and designing for road safety.
The responsibility for safety rests with a large number of disciplines

involved in administering, planning, designing, constructing, maintaining
Commitment to and operating roads. Administrators and politicians influence the funding
available for roads and the emphasis placed on safety or otherwise. The
safety is essential
relative safety of a road depends largely on the priority attached to safety
programmes and projects. It is important that political and official
sanction be given to implementing safety in all phases of road
infrastructure provision.
Safety begins and ends with decisions made during the planning process.
For example, policies regarding intersection spacing and access to
properties have a direct bearing on the safety of a particular road.
Similarly, planners establish and control land use policies, thereby
affecting the safety of the facility.
Design is the implementation of the planning process. The designer gives

dimension to layouts envisaged by the planner, using established criteria for
safe operation of the road. He must evaluate trade-offs and make decisions
regarding best safety practices within the constraints imposed by policy
directions.
During construction, it is important that the original intent of the planning and
design process be implemented, with the minimum of changes other than to
achieve greater safety and operational efficiency. The deviation of traffic,
although regarded as temporary inconveniences, should be designed to
accommodate traffic at a maximum level of safety.

Traffic operations regulate the use of a road; therefore the driver information and
traffic control systems must ensure that the safety benefits designed into the
facility are achieved. Conversely, traffic control and information systems cannot
correct planning and design deficiencies. At best, the effects of a bad situation
can only be minimised.
To correct these deficiencies requires traffic operations input during the planning
and design stages.
Safety should be a primary objective during all maintenance operations.

Changes to the basic design should not be undertaken without consulting the
designer and considering the effect on road safety. Frequent replacement of
damaged road furniture should be reported, as it may indicate the need for
redesign, which may eliminate the maintenance problem and improve safety.
Enforcement should have as its basic objective the safety of the motoring public.
Enforcing the regulations in accordance with the operational intent of the
regulation is most important. Enforcement personnel can add greatly to safety
improvements by identifying hazardous locations. By means of a good working
relationship between the engineering and enforcement fraternity, many of these
problem areas can be located and rectified before major accidents occur.
Safety is a co- With all these different disciplines involved, safety is obviously a co-operative
effort. One method of achieving cooperation is through safety operational and
operative effort
design review teams (FHWA, 1980).
Legal Responsibility
A roads authority has a responsibility to ensure that the roads under its
jurisdiction should be as safe and free of defects as is reasonably possible. In
litigation, the court is interested in the condition of the road. It regards the
methods whereby the road environment is made safer as a matter best left to
experts (the roads authorities) and not the courts.
Road safety audits are an excellent means to identify and remove safety
deficiencies on new road projects. Eliminating safety deficiencies at the design
stage of a new road project will ensure that the road is as safe and defect-free
as possible when it is opened to traffic. By removing hazards, fewer accidents
will occur, and fewer opportunities will exist for injured parties to claim that the
roads authority has been negligent in designing and building the road.
The legal system would not intentionally penalise a roads authority that adopted
a pro-active approach to preventing accidents by systematically reducing the
number of hazards on its roads. On the other hand, the courts would not look
kindly on a roads authority that, as a policy, sought to minimise its knowledge of
deficiencies on roads within its care or management (RTA, 1994).

2.1.2 What are the Costs and Benefits of Design for
Safety?
The annual cost of road traffic accidents, including property damage, medical
expenses, insurance, man-hours lost owing to injuries sustained, and loss of
income owing to fatalities, is currently R12 803 million (50% more than the
annual budget of R8 600 million for construction of national, provincial, municipal
and toll roads). This figure represents approximately 2% of South Africa’s Gross
Domestic Product. If even a fraction of this amount could be saved as a result of
improved road design, it should more than cover the cost of designing for safety
(CSS, 1998).
A safety audit has the advantage that design deficiencies can be identified and
remedied at negligible cost before the road is constructed, whereas the accident
potential of substandard or incorrect designs frequently cannot be rectified by
any means other than reconstruction.
By considering traffic safety at all stages of design, the frequency and severity of
accidents can be reduced on the drawing board, and many lives saved.
"It is better at the initial planning step to adapt the traffic environment to
humans, than later to adapt humans to a (poorly designed) environment."
ITE, 1993
2.2 Effect of Design Elements on Safety

The geometric design of the road influences the safety of its operation during its
entire life cycle, during which time it may carry an enormous number of vehicles.
For example, a collector road used by an average of 1 000 vehicles per day
(vpd) over a period of 20 years will carry a total of 7 300 000 vehicles. By
contrast, a freeway carrying an average of 50 000 vpd for 30 years will carry a
total of 547 500 000 vehicles. The following design areas will be addressed
below:
2.2.1 Horizontal Alignment

Accidents increase
Accidents are more likely to occur on horizontal curves than on straight road
as curve radius sections, as a result of increased demands on the driver and the vehicle, and
decreases because of friction between the tyres and the road surface. The safety effect of
an individual curve is influenced not only by its geometric characteristics, but
also by the geometry of the adjacent road segments. The hazard is particularly
intense when the curve is unexpected, for example, when it follows a long
straight approach, or is hidden from view by a crest vertical curve. When a
sharp curve is flattened, the transitions from the straight to curved sections are
smoother and the length of the curved portion is increased.

There is a strong correlation between accident rates on curves and degree of
curve, as illustrated by the following mathematical model:
Ac = ARs * Lc * V + 0,0336 * D * V
(where Ac = accident rate on curved road sections per million

vehicle miles
ARs = accident rate on tangent road sections per million
vehicle miles
Lc = length of curved segments in miles
D = degree of curve in radians
V = traffic volume in millions
Other design elements that influence safety on curves are:
• Adequate superelevation
Horizontal curves on high-speed roads are normally superelevated for
safety and passenger comfort. Superelevation rates are based on design
speed and curve radius. On curves where superelevation rates are
substandard, improving superelevation is a relatively inexpensive way of
increasing design speed.
• Clear roadsides and mild side slopes

As noted above, single vehicle, run-off-the-road accidents are very common
at horizontal curves. Consequently, roadsides with side slopes of 1:4 or
flatter are expected to yield greater benefits in terms of reduced accident
severity, especially on the outside of curves, where more than 67% of the
fatal curve-related, run-off-the-road accidents occur.
Increased accident frequencies at horizontal curves appear to be related

more to the entry and exit effects than to steady-state travel on the curved
roadway. Spiral transitions, which help drivers make smoother entries and
exits, reduce the hazards at these locations.
• Pavement surfaces, road markings and other traffic control devices

As a result of the vehicle dynamics involved, pavement condition on curves
is particularly important for safety. Rough pavements with potholes or
bumps can contribute to loss of vehicle control. Surface friction must resist
lateral forces in wet weather.
• No-passing zones
Horizontal curves can exacerbate difficulties in making passing
manoeuvres. The marking of no-passing zones may reduce accidents on
such curves (TRB, 1987a).
2.2.2 Vertical Alignment

Sight distance is the length of road ahead visible to the driver. To enhance road
safety, designers must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers
have time to perceive and react in order to avoid striking unexpected objects in
the travelled way.

Sight distance requirements vary sharply with vehicle speeds. According to
AASHTO (1994) design procedures, the required stopping distances for 60, 80,
100 and 120 km/h are 80, 115, 155 and 210m, respectively (Figure 2.1).
This is based on driver reaction time of 2,5 seconds, during which time the
vehicle travels at an average running speed (somewhat below the design
speed), and on varying friction coefficients (0,32 to 0,28) between tyre and road
surface for wet conditions while braking occurs. If, however, it is accepted that
drivers do not necessarily reduce speed (to an assumed average running
speed), owing to wet conditions, and design speed is used, significantly higher
values of stopping sight distance (SSD) are required. In such a case, the SSD
values will be 90, 140, 205 and 285m, respectively.
Accidents increase Sight distance restrictions result from obstructions on the inside of horizontal
curves, at intersections, or at sharp hill crests. Although obstructions at
as sight distance
horizontal curves can often be eliminated without changes to the geometry,
decreases obstructions at hill crests can only be corrected by changes in vertical alignment,
that is by lengthening the existing vertical curve.
Studies of matching sites with and without sight distance restrictions found that
accident frequencies at sites with sight restrictions were 52% higher than the
control group (Olson et al, 1984).
The safety effect of a sight distance restriction is influenced not only by the
restriction itself, but also by the nature of the hazards hidden from view. For
example, a busy intersection hidden from view can greatly increase the
frequency of accidents at crest curves. A queue of stopped vehicles can
considerably shorten the available stopping distance. However, the object
height (ho) of 150 mm assumed for crest curves, would not be applicable in this
case, but rather the height of a passenger car, taken to be 1,30 m high, or at
nighttime the height of car headlights, assumed to be 600 mm. The eye height
of the driver (he) will remain at 1,05 m.
Figure 2.1 Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves

2.2.3 Cross Section Elements
The various cross section elements determine the roadway width, which,
together with the roadside features, add up to the reserve width. The
topography, through which the road passes, and the design speed of the road,
will determine the height of fills and depths of cuttings, which require widening of
the basic reserve width. The slopes of roadside features and ditches also have
an effect on total reserve width.
The widths of roadway lanes and shoulders not only have an influence on the
capacity of the road section, but also on the safety aspects. Based on the
widths of design vehicles, with maximum widths of 2,6 m, minimum lane and
shoulder widths are recommended for various design year volumes and
operating speeds, depending on the percentage of trucks in the traffic stream
(TRB,1987a).
Lane and shoulder widths affect the capacity and levels of service of low-volume
roads and freeways, as shown in Tables 2.2 and 2.3, respectively.
TABLE 2.2 ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR LANE AND SHOULDER

WIDTHS FOR TWO-LANE ROADS
(TRB, 1994)
3,6m LANES 3,3m LANES 3,0m LANES 2,7m LANES
SW LOS LOS LOS LOS LOS LOS LOS LOS
(m) A-D E* A-D E* A-D E* A-D E*
>1,8 1,00 1,00 0,93 0,94 0,84 0,87 0,70 0,76
1,2 0,92 0,97 0,85 0,92 0,77 0,85 0,65 0,74
0,6 0,81 0,93 0,75 0,88 0,68 0,81 0,57 0,70
0 0,70 0,88 0,65 0,82 0,58 0,75 0,49 0,66
SW = shoulder width * For all speeds < 70 km/h
For example, a two-lane road with 3,6 m and 1,8 m lane and shoulder widths
has a capacity of 2 800 vpd. This would be reduced to 2 268 vpd if the lane and
shoulder widths were decreased to 3,0 m and 0,6 m, respectively.
TABLE 2.3 ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR LANE AND SHOULDER

WIDTHS FOR FREEWAYS
(TRB, 1994)
SHOULDER 3,6m LANES 3,3m LANES 3,0m LANES
WIDTH (m)
>1,8 1,00 0,95 0,90
1,2 0,99 0,94 0,89
0,6 0,97 0,92 0,88
0 0,92 0,88 0,84
These effects are more pronounced on steeper gradients, especially if trucks are
involved.
Research has shown that accident rates on low-volume roads (ADT<2 000 vpd)
are inversely proportional to lane and shoulder widths provided, as shown in
Table 2.4.

TABLE 2.4 ACCIDENT RATES ON LOW-VOLUME ROADS (PER MVM)
(Zegeer et al, 1994)
ACCIDENT RATES (Accidents per MVM)
LANE SHOULDER Terrain
WIDTH WIDTH (m) Level Rolling Mountainous
(m)
0-0,6 2,28 2,41 2,86
3,0 0,9-1,2 2,28 2,41 2,86
>1,2 1,30 1,43 1,88
0-0,6 1,74 1,87 2,32
3,3 0,9-1,2 1,18 1,31 1,76
>1,2 1,18 1,31 1,76
0-0,6 1,74 1,87 2,32
3,6 0,9-1,2 1,18 1,31 1,76
>1,2 1,18 1,31 1,76
MVM = Million vehicle – miles
2.2.3.1 Research Findings

Accidents decrease Research into the safety effects of lane/shoulder widths indicate that:
as lane and shoulder • Accident rates decrease with increases in lane and shoulder width (refer to
widths increase Table 2.5)
• Widening lanes has greater safety benefits than widening shoulders and
surfaced shoulders have lower accident rates than gravel shoulders (TRB,
1987a).
• Lane widths greater than 3,6 m yield little benefit (unless there is a large
volume of trucks) and may encourage unsafe practices, such as overtaking
along the centre-line.
TABLE 2.5 EFFECT OF LANE WIDENING ON ACCIDENT RATE

(Zegeer et al, 1992)
Lane Widening (m) % Reduction in Accident Rate
0,3 12
0,6 23
0,9 32
1,2 40
The typical relationship between run-off-road (ROR) and opposite direction (OD)
accidents and lane and shoulder width is shown in Figure 2.2. The typical
relationship between run-off-road (ROR) accident rates and traffic volume (ADT
groups) is shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.2 Effect of Lane/Shoulder Width on ROR Accident Rates
Figure 2.3 Effect of ADT on ROR Accident Rates

Adequate shoulder widths increase the opportunity for safe recovery when
vehicles leave the roadway. Trucks are twice as likely (34%) to be involved in
single-vehicle accidents, and these accidents are more likely to be severe
accidents.
Owing to the off-tracking characteristics of combination trucks, and the likelihood

of rollover if the truck wheels leave the roadway, the type of shoulder (surfaced
or unsurfaced) is critical for safe operation.
2.2.3.2 Models
Based on research work in the United States, models have been developed to
simulate the relationship between accident rate, lane and shoulder widths, and
the percentage of shoulder surfacing, of the following form:
L S LS P LP
Accident rate AR = (C1) * (C2) * (C3) * (C4) * (C5) * (C6)
(where AR = number of ROR and OD accidents per MVM

L = lane width in metres
S = shoulder width in metres (surfaced and unsurfaced)
P = surfaced shoulder width in metres
P = 0 for unstabilised and P = S for full-width shoulders
C’s = constants)
Figure 2.4 shows the effect of shoulder width on accidents on roads with
surfaced shoulders.
Figure 2.4 Effect of Shoulder Width on Accidents for Surfaced

Shoulders

Figure 2.5 shows the effect of shoulder width on accidents on roads with
unsurfaced shoulders
Figure 2.5 Effect of Shoulder Width on Accidents for unsurfaced

Shoulders
2.2.4 Roadside
Refer to Volume 6: Roadside Hazard Management for safety issues related to
the roadside.
2.2.5 Practical Guidelines
Accidents increase
as the number of 2.2.5.1 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
accesses increases Accident frequency increases at crests and in dips. Reducing the radius of
horizontal curvature also tends to increase accident frequency. In attempting to
achieve co-ordination of alignments and terrain fitting, it is possible that a crest
may mask the flow of a horizontal curve. Minimum radius horizontal curves in
combination with crest or dips should be avoided.
In attempting to maintain “intermediate” sight distance, a design may adopt a

vertical curve that avoids the marking of barrier lines. However, safe passing
opportunities may actually be reduced because of excessive vertical curve
length. Shorter vertical curves with a length of barrier line may be safer in some
circumstances.

Differences between the operation of left and right hand curves should be noted.
Their tracking characteristics are slightly different. The sight distance
obstruction from a vehicle following a large loaded truck can be very much
reduced on a left hand curve (Austroads, 1994).
2.2.5.2 Cross Section

The relation between cross sectional elements and safety is affected by the
volume and composition of the traffic.
• Narrow lanes
There is a view that designers have often gone too far in narrowing the
lanes of urban roads to create additional lanes. This is particularly
important on horizontal curves, where larger vehicles need extra width to
track. The existing urban design standards do not provide for curve
transitions and widening. These may be satisfactory when wide lanes are
used, but unsatisfactory when narrow lanes are adopted.
• Shoulder widths
Refer to Volume 6: Roadside Hazard Management for more detail.
• Median Widths
• Parked Vehicles
Vehicles parked on the roadway affect safety in several ways; as physical
obstructions that are easily collided with, obstructions that:
v cause sudden braking and nose-to-tail accidents
v deflect into adjacent lanes, hazards to passing vehicles (including
bicycles) from opening doors
v hide pedestrians and obstructions that block visibility at intersections
and access points. Parked vehicles are involved in about 10% of urban
arterial road accidents and a higher proportion of local street accidents.
Designs should ideally avoid or remove/relocate parking in traffic lanes.
With isolated improvement schemes, such as intersection treatments,
parking (even some distance from the site) can influence the operation and
safety of the site. The influence of parking well beyond the limits of the
design plan should be checked. Parking in side streets close to the busy
arterial can be a hazard to turning vehicles. The interaction of parked
vehicles, turning vehicles and any queued emergency vehicles in these
locations should also be checked.
Reliance should not be placed on parking control signs to eliminate parking

in hazardous locations, as enforcement will not always be available. As an
alternative, pedestrian fencing can be very effective in discouraging
parking. The fencing itself should not create a hazard.
• Trees
2.2.5.3 Bridge Width


2.2.5.4 Reserve Width
The reserve width of various classes of roads depends on the total width of the
roadway prism, side slopes, drainage and outer separation. Road traffic safety is
enhanced by the provision of gentle side slopes and the resulting increased
sight distances at horizontal curves. This is especially important on high-type
facilities with high design speeds and high traffic volumes. Refer to Volume 6:
Roadside Hazard Management for more detail.
2.2.5.5 Cross Slopes

2.2.5.6 Multi-lane Design Alternatives

As traffic volumes on roads and streets increase, road widening is often
required. Depending on the functional classification of the road, the traffic
volumes and development along the road, several alternative designs are
possible. Some of these design alternatives are the following:
• Two-lane undivided road (2U)
• Three-lane with alternating right turn lanes (3U)
• Four-lane undivided (4U)
• Four-lane divided (4D)
• Five-lane with alternating right turn lanes (flush median) (5F)
• Five-lane with alternating right turn lanes (kerbed median) (5K)
• Six-lane divided road (6D)
The advantages and disadvantages of these design alternatives are given in

Table 2.6.
TABLE 2.6 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF MULTILANE

ALTERNATIVES
(Harwood, 1986)
DESIGN ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Two-lane • Least expensive alternative • Minimal capacity for
Undivided • Minimal reserve width required through traffic
Road (2U) • Delay to through traffic by
right-turning vehicles
Three-lane • Reduces delay to through traffic by • May eliminate need for
With right-turning vehicles shoulders
Alternating • Reduces frequency of accidents • No refuge in median for
Right turn associated with right-turn movements pedestrians
Lanes (3U) • Provides spatial separation between • May encourage strip
opposing lanes to reduce head-on development
collisions
Four-lane • Provides additional lanes to increase • Delay to through traffic by
Undivided capacity for through traffic movement right-turning vehicles
(4U) • Requires less width than 4D and 5K • May generate safety
alternatives problems associated with
rear-end and lane-change
conflicts

Four-lane • Provides additional lanes to increase • Required roadway and
Divided capacity for through traffic movement reserve width may not be
(4D) • Reduces frequency of accidents available
associated with right-turn movements • Increased delay to right-
• Provides physical separation to reduce turning vehicles
head-on collisions • Indirect routing required for
• Discourages strip development large trucks
• Provides median refuge for • Lack of operational
pedestrians flexibility owing to fixed
median
Five-lane • Provides additional lanes to increase • Required roadway and
With capacity for through traffic movement reserve width may not be
Alternating • Reduces frequency of accidents available
Right turn associated with right-turn movements • No refuge in median for
Lanes (flush • Provides spatial separation between pedestrians
opposing lanes to reduce head-on • May generate problems at
Median) collisions closely spaced driveways
(5F) • Increases operational flexibility and intersections
• May encourage strip
development
Five-lane • Provides additional lanes to increase • Required roadway and
With capacity for through traffic movement reserve width may not be
Alternating • Reduces frequency of accidents available
Right turn associated with right-turn movements • Increased delay to right-
Lanes • Provides physical separation to reduce turning vehicles
(raised head-on collisions • Indirect routing required for
median) • Discourages strip development large trucks
(5K) • Provides median refuge for • Lack of operational
pedestrians flexibility owing to fixed
• More frequent median openings for median
right turns
Six-lane • Provides additional lanes to increase • Required roadway and
Divided capacity for through traffic movement reserve width may not be
Road (6D) • Reduces delay to through traffic by available
right-turning vehicles • Increased delay to right-
• Reduces frequency of accidents turning vehicles
associated with right-turn movements • Indirect routing required for
• Provides spatial separation between large trucks
opposing lanes to reduce head-on • Lack of operational
collisions flexibility owing to fixed
• Increases operational flexibility median

2.2.5.7 Medians
For fully controlled access roads, elements of median design that may influence
accident frequency or severity include median width, median cross slope,
median type, presence/absence of one-sided median barriers, and clear zone
within the median.
Freeways with medians wider than 9,0 m generally have lower accident rates
than those with medians narrower than 9,0 m. Median width includes the width
Accidents on
of the inner shoulders. Properly designed medians act as a clear zone for errant
freeways decrease vehicles, and reduce the incidence of opposite direction (OD) collisions. Roads
as median width with deeply depressed medians and 1:4 slopes also had higher crash severity
increases and a higher proportion of vehicle overturning accidents than with shallower
medians. In general, wider medians achieve a higher degree of safety.
Research findings support the use of freeway median widths of the order of 18,0
to 24,0 m with flat slopes.
Studies of medians without barriers show that accident rates do increase with
increasing median widths and that medians should be at least 9,0 m wide.
Decreasing median widths to less than 6,0 to 9,0 m to enhance capacity may
decrease the level of safety on the road (Mc Gee, 1995).
Introducing Medians
Where two-lane roadways become divided roads (usually four-lane sections),

the introduction of a median, intended to be a safety feature, may actually be a
hazard, if not designed with safety in mind. The change in road width and
alignment may be contrary to driver expectation and result in erratic driving. If
the road widening is effected symmetrically, the start of the median will invariably
be straight ahead of the approaching vehicle. On the other hand, if the widening
is effected to one side, so that the second roadway is offset from the existing
roadway, and separated by a median, there is a good chance that the transition
will result in an unexpected change in direction.
Figure 2.6 Median as an Obstruction

At night and in bad weather conditions, the driver may not be aware of the
changing situation, and may end up on the median. As a countermeasure, it is
good practice to start the median at a position where the driver has adequate
sight distance to perceive the median nose in time to act (in the case of a flush
median, he/she needs a longer vertical sight distance, measured to an object
height of 0). Furthermore, the median nose should be offset from the vehicle
path to avoid sudden changes in direction.
Figure 2.7 Median as a Safety Measure
In the case of a kerbed median, the kerb should not be placed right next to the
roadway. The median nose should be offset from the roadway and preferably
from the shoulder, and the kerb should be flared parabolically over an
appropriate distance. A median commencing on a horizontal curve may present
a hazard if it is located in line with the vehicle’s path. It is preferable to
commence the median before the start of the curve.
Figure 2.8 Introduction of a Median
2.2.5.8 Remedial Measures

Safety can often be improved without reconstruction, by widening lanes or
shoulders, flattening side slopes, removing or relocating roadside obstacles, and
installing traffic control devices.
At traffic volumes exceeding 750 vpd, however, reconstruction of horizontal

curves on rural two-lane roads may become more cost-effective in terms of
safety benefits than lane and shoulder widening, and can reduce vehicle
operating costs and travel time.
Reconstruction of horizontal curves may be considered when the design speed

of existing curves is more than 25 km/h below operating speeds of approaching
vehicles and average daily traffic (ADT)>750 vpd.

The superelevation rate of a horizontal curve should be increased when the
design speed of the existing curve is below the operating speed of approaching
vehicles and existing superelevation is below the minimum specified standard.
Reconstruction of vertical curves to increase sight distance may be safety cost-

effective at ADT>1 500 vpd. The goal is to correct substandard sight distance
for anticipating hazardous situations, for example turning vehicles, sharp curves,
etc (TRB, 1987a).
Refer to Volume 5: Remedial Measures and Evaluation for more detail.
Countermeasures
Milton and Mannering (1998) regard linear regression models of accident
frequency as inaccurate. They advocate the use of negative binomial
regression, which is claimed to be a powerful predictive tool, and appropriate for
isolating the effects of geometric and traffic characteristics on accident
frequency. They are critical of the reactive approach of undertaking accident
counter-measures for two reasons:
• Waiting for accidents to occur to determine whether a road section warrants
a counter-measure is costly in terms of accident damage and human
suffering
• Since accident frequency and severity vary randomly from year to year, it is
difficult to separate geometric design flaws from random occurrences,
making it impossible to determine which road sections need remedial action.
The reactive nature of accident counter-measures point to the need to develop a

pro-active statistical approach that can predict the frequency and severity of
accidents before they happen. The aim of this study was to develop such a
statistical model of accident frequency that would isolate accident-prone
sections of roadway. The results were envisaged to form the basis of a
programme to prioritise road safety projects in Washington State, USA.
Several geometric and traffic variables were found to be significant determinants

of accident frequency. These indicators and their effect on accident frequency
are shown in Table 2.7.

TABLE 2.7 EFFECT OF VARIABLES ON ACCIDENT FREQUENCY
(Milton and Mannering, 1998)
Road section length Increase in length increases accidents
Vertical gradient indicator Increase in gradient increases accidents
Accidents are AADT per lane Increase in AADT increases accidents
affected by various AADT indicator AADT>2500 vpd per lane increases accident
risk
design elements Peak hour percentage Higher peak hour % decreases accidents
Percentage of single unit trucks in traffic Increased % decreases accidents
stream
Posted speed limit Higher limits lead to lower accidents
Number of lanes More lanes increase accidents
Narrow lanes Lanes <3,5 m decrease accidents owing to
lower speeds
Shoulder width Shoulders <1,5 m increase accidents
Horizontal curve radius Larger curve radius decreases accidents
Horizontal curve deflection angle Smaller deflection angle increases accidents
Tangent length Shorter tangent length decreases accidents
Tangent-curve indicators Widely spaced horizontal curves increase
accidents
2.3 Effect of Access Management on Safety
2.3.1 Introduction
At each point on the road system where vehicles have access to adjacent land,
there is potential for conflict and accidents. Where service roads have been
provided to separate through traffic from local traffic movements, access spacing
should not be reduced to the minimum standard. The same applies to median
openings; motorists need time to think between conflicts points, particularly
where traffic flows are heavy. The incremental degradation of access control as
development occurs along a road can have a major impact on the long-term
safety of that road: routes with controlled access can have up to 50% fewer
accidents (Austroads, 1984).
Along divided arterials in rural areas, service roads should preferably be remote
from the main road. These service roads are seldom surfaced, and vehicles
using them raise dust, reducing visibility, and at night headlight glare can distract
and confuse motorists using the main road. Also, service roads adjacent to the
arterial road might tempt landowners into creating unauthorised accesses.
“Access control .. has been described as the most important single design factor
ever developed for accident reduction”
FHWA, 1982
The purpose of this section is to provide some insight into the safety benefits of
access management and to provide an example of an access management
policy to authorities that do not have their own access management policy or
guideline. It is by no means an extensive discussion on the subject. For further
information, reference can be made to the Department of Transport (1993).

2.3.2 Road Safety and Access Management
Access Management should form part of the Road Safety Management Plan of
any authority. The provision and control of accesses on the road network have a
significant influence on the safety of the road network.
Research has confirmed that an increase in accesses causes an increase in

accidents. The results of the study is shown in Figure 2.9. In a study by Meyer,
the relationship between intersections per mile, the businesses per mile and the
accidents per million vehicle mile was established – it is shown in Table 2.8.
Figure 2.9: Effect of the number

of businesses, at-grade
inter-sections per km
and the accident rate
TABLE 2.8 EFFECT OF INTERSECTIONS AND BUSINESSES ON

ACCIDENT RATES
(Koepke and Levinson, 1992)
INTERSECTIONS PER BUSINESSES PER ACCIDENTS PER
MILE MILE MILLION VEHICLE
MILE
0,2 1 126
2,0 10 170
20,0 100 1718
Table 2.9 shows the accident rates for arterial highways with specific reference
to the number of driveways per mile and the ADT’s.
TABLE 2.9 ACCIDENT RATES FOR ARTERIAL HIGHWAYS

(FHWA, 1982)
ANNUAL ACCIDENT PER MILE
LEVEL OF LOW MEDIUM HIGH
DEVELOPMENT < 5 000 5 000 – 15 000 > 15 000
(DRIVEWAYS/
MILE)
Low: < 30 12,6 25,1 37,9
Medium: 30 - 60 20,2 39,7 59,8
High: >60 27,7 54,4 81,7

Table 2.10 summarises the case study of three arterials in Pretoria where the
accident density versus collision rates were established.
TABLE 2.10 PRETORIA CASE STUDIES OF ACCIDENT DENSITY

VERSUS COLLISION RATES
(Department of Transport, 1993)
ARTERIAL NAME AND STUDY ACCESS DENSITY COLLISION
ACCESS CONTROL SEGMENT INTER- TOTAL RATES
DISTANCE SECTION/ ACCESS/ (COLLISIONS/
The provision and (km) km km MILLION
VEH-km)
control of access on ATTERBURY ROAD
the road network
• Full control
have a significant • Median present
7,4 3,7 9,0 5,0
influence on the • Accesses limited to at-
grade intersections
safety of the road (mostly signalised)
network • No on-street parking
LYNNWOOD ROAD
• Partial control
• Median only partly
present
13,0 2,8 14,5 7,8
• Residential and
commercial access
drives present
• On-street parking on
certain links
CHURCH STREET
• Little control
• No median present
• Residential and 4,5 7,1 52,7 16,1
commercial access
drives present
• On-street parking on
certain links
A study by the FHWA (1982) showed that each commercial driveway on an

arterial road adds between 0,1 and 0,5 accidents per mile per year.
Accident reduction for access management measures includes:

• Two-way left turn lanes – Total accident reduction of 35 percent
• Alternating left turn lanes – Total accident reduction of 28 percent
• Control of driveway width – Annual reduction per driveway: 0.40 accidents
• Visual cues for driveways: for driveway illumination – Total accident
reduction of 42 percent
• Right turn deceleration lanes – Total accident reduction of 50 percent
• One-way operations
v Total accident reduction of 25 percent
v 25 percent reduction in delay
• Removal of on-street parking – Total accident reduction of 15 percent
(Koepke and Levinson, 1992).

2.3.3 The Access Management Process
The access management process basically consist of six phases, namely:
• The functional classification of the road network
• The classification of the road network in classes of Level of Access (LOA)
• Design of the access requirements and standards for each LOA
• Preparation of an access management policy
• Preparing access management plans for developing arterials
• Managing and controlling accesses in the area according to the
requirements and standards set out in the access management policy.
2.3.3.1Classification of the Road Network and

Assigning a LOA to different Classes of Roads
The Level of Access of a road can be based on the following:
• Functional classification (e.g. freeways, major and minor arterial streets,
major and minor collector streets and local streets)
• Adjacent zoning and land use
• Existing configuration of accesses
• The availability of alternative accesses for vehicles
• Needs and plans for transportation in the area
• The desirable operating speed
• The degree to which through traffic should be protected against speed
variations.
An example of the Pretoria LOA classification is included in Section 4.5.5.
2.3.3.2 Access Management Policies

A number of access management policies has been and is still being prepared
developed by various road authorities in the country. The policy documents
normally contain the standards and guidelines for the different Levels of Access
(or functional classes of routes) with respect to:
• The description of the Level of Access
• Signal spacing and bandwidth criteria
• Access provision along the road and in the median
• Access spacing
• Right-turn acceleration lane lengths
• Deceleration lane lengths
• Minimum left-turn conflict overlap access spacing
• Standard access layouts or requirements (City Council of Pretoria, 1996).

2.3.3.3 Access Management Plans for Developing
Arterials
As a town or city develops, changes in land use take place. These changes, if
acceptable to the land-use structure plan of the town or city, have a significant
influence on the accesses to the major street network. In cases where these
changes take place in an ad-hoc manner, it becomes increasingly difficult to
manage the accesses. In these cases, it is recommended that the particular
road authority embark on the preparation of an Access Management Plan for
that particular arterial or major road. In this way, the land use changes as seen
by the city planning officials can be planned for and tested against the criteria set
for the particular Level of Access or functional class of the road. The accesses
are then designed according to site-specific limitations and provide the authority
with a pre-planned and pre-tested policy with regard to access to all the
accesses to properties along the route.
2.3.4 Access Management Techniques

Access management utilises four basic techniques, namely:
• Limiting the number of conflict points
• Separation of conflict areas
• Limiting of deceleration requirements
• Removal of turning vehicles from through lanes (City Council of Pretoria,
1996).
2.3.4.1 Limiting the number of conflict points

The number of conflict points can be limited by:
• Installing a median barrier with no right turns at the median opening
• Installing a raised median divider with right turn deceleration lane
• Implementing one-way operations on the highway
• Installing traffic signals at high volume driveways
• Channelising the median opening to prevent right turn ingress or right turn
egress
• Closing the median to restrict ingress and egress of vehicles
• Installing divisional islands to discourage entry into right turn bay when
weaving areas are inadequate
• Installing physical barriers to prevent uncontrolled access along the
frontages of properties
• Installing median channelisation to control the merging of left turn egress
vehicles
• Offsetting opposing driveways
• Locating driveways opposite a three leg intersection or driveway and
installing a traffic signal where warranted
• Installing two two-way driveways with limited turns in lieu of a standard two-
way driveway
• Installing two one-way driveways in lieu of two two-way driveways
• Installing two two-way driveways with limited turns in lieu of two standard
two-way driveways

• Installing channelisation islands to discourage right turn manoeuvres
• Installing divisional islands at driveways to prevent conflicts resulting from
driveway encroachment
• Installing channelisation islands to control the merge area of left turn egress
vehicles
• Regulating the maximum width of driveways (16).
2.3.4.2 Separation of conflict areas

Conflict areas can be separated by:
• Regulating the minimum driveway spacing
• Regulating the minimum corner clearance
• Regulating minimum property clearance
• Optimising the spacing of driveways in the access approval stage
• Regulating the maximum number of driveways per property frontage
• Consolidating accesses for adjacent properties
• Denying access to small frontage
• Consolidating existing accesses whenever adjacent properties are
assembled in one plan, purpose, entity or use
• Designating the number of driveways to each existing property and denying
any request for additional driveways regardless of the future subdivision of
the property
• Requiring access to a collector (where available and safer) in lieu of a
driveway on an arterial (16).
2.3.4.3 Limiting of deceleration requirements

The deceleration requirements can be limited by:
• Restricting parking on the roadway next to driveways to increase the
driveway turning speeds
• Installing visual clues of the driveway
• Improving driveway sight distance
• Regulating minimum sight distance
• Optimising driveway location in the permit authorisation stage
• Increasing the effective approach width of the driveway
• Improving the vertical geometry of the driveway
• Requiring paving of driveway (where it intersects with major roadways)
• Regulating driveway construction and maintenance
• Installing channelisation islands to prevent driveway vehicles from backing
onto the highway.
2.3.4.4 Removal of turning vehicles from through

lanes
Turning vehicles can be removed from through lanes by:
• Installing continuous two-way right turn lanes
• Installing alternating right turn lanes
• Installing an isolated median and deceleration lane to store and shadow
right turn vehicles

• Installing right turn deceleration lanes to remove the turning vehicles from
the through lane
• Providing storage in the median for right turn egress vehicles
• Increasing storage capacity of existing right turn deceleration lanes
• Installing a continuous left turn lane
• Constructing a local service road
• Constructing a bypass road
• Rerouting through traffic
• Installing supplementary one-way left turn driveways to divided highways
• Install accesses on a collector street rather than an arterial when available
• Installing left turn deceleration lanes
• Installing an additional exit lane on driveway
• Encouraging connections between adjacent properties (particularly those
with small frontage widths)
• Requiring adequate internal design and circulation plans (Department of
Transport, 1993).
2.3.5 Example of an Access Management Policy

Various access management policies exist in South Africa. The executive
summary of the policy of the City Council of Pretoria is included in Appendix A
(City Council of Pretoria, 1996). NOTE that the policies of authorities can differ,
and that a road authority can decide, at its own discretion, to which standards
and norms access provision should conform.

2.4 References
AASHTO, 1994. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
Washington, DC, USA
AASHTO, 1974. Highway Design and Operational Practices Related to Highway

Safety, Washington, DC, USA
Austroads, 1994. Road Safety Audit, Sydney, Australia
Botha G, 1992. Incident Management, Robot, May – June 1992
Central Statistical Services, 1997. Road Traffic Collisions, 1998, Pretoria, South
Africa
Cetur, 1988. Ville plus Sûre, Quartiers sans Accidents: Savoir – Faire et
Technique. I : La démarche; II: Méthode et outils d’aménagement, Draft version,
Paris
City Council of Pretoria, 1996. Management and Control of Access to the

Pretoria Street System, August 1996, prepared by African Consulting Engineers,
Cullen GC, 1999. Telephonic conversation on 9 March 1999, South Africa
Department of Transport, 1993. Spacing of Accesses on Major Arterials,

Research Report 91/223, Pretoria, South Africa
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Dunlap, DF; Fancher, PS; Scott, RE; McAdam, CC; and Segal, L, 1978.
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Table A : Minimum access spacing requirements : LO A 1 facilities
(based on desirable stopping sight distance)
M inimum distance* Preferable distanc e * *

Design speed (based on desirable (based on maximum
(km/h) stopping sight distance) egress capacity)
(See Figure 2)
Notes: (m) (m)

lane length
Minimum
turning
1. M inimum access spacing based on maximum

50 90 150
egress capacity according to Table A .
60 120 160
2. M inimum spacing may be reduced to not less than
70 150 250
the minimum requirements of Table A provided: 80 190 350
a. A ccess is associated w ith low trip generation 90 230 465
100 280 680
(See note 4)
(< 5 0 veh / peak hr)

No overlap
110 330 1000

b. Adequate turning lane lengths are provided
120 390 1000
(See Figure 2 )
Reaction distance
c. Adequate acceleration lane lengths are

* B a s e d o n a 2 , 5 s r e a c t ion tim e a n d 1 , 8 3 m / s 5average deceleration
provided w here applicable.
3. A cceleration lanes may be provided where a lack ** 1 , 5 t im es the distance required for a passenger car on level terrain to accelerate from
z e r o t o t h r o u g h t r a f f ic speed based on acceleration inform ation from N C H R P R e p o rt
Minimum acceleration lane length
of gaps is found in traffic stream, provided level of

2 7 0 as contained in the 1 9 9 0 A A S H T O G reen Book
service D is achieved for the turning movement.
M inimum acceleration lane length according to

(See note 3)
Table B.
4. W here minimum acceleration lane lengths overlap
w ith dow nstream functional area, the access shall

T able B : M inimum (right turn) acceleration lane lengths*
not be approved.
(applicable on access categories LOA 1 , LO A 3 )
Design speed A c c eleration lane length (m) M inimum taper rates

(km/h) (taper excluded) (1 in:)
Minimum turning
(See Figure 2)
lane length
60 90 20
70 140 20
80 210 25
90 285 25
100 375 30
* S ame applies to left turn acceleration lane lengths
Access spacing requirements on LOA1 streets Figure 1

Table C : Deceleration lane lengths required at turning lanes
Functional boundary
(inc luding taper but exclusive of queue storage)
Reaction distance (m)

M IN IM U M D E C E L E R A T IO N L E N G T H * (m)
Design
speed
(km/h)
LEV EL OF A C C E S S
LOA 1 LOA 2 LOA 3 LOA 4 LOA 5** LOA 6** LOA 7** LOA 8** LOA 9
50 60 55 55 50 50 45 45 45 NA
(40) (35) (35) (30) (30) (25) (25) (25)
Deceleration length (m)
R = 15m 60 90 80 80 65 65 60 60 60 NA
(minimum) (Special case where left turn movement (70) (60) (60) (50) (50) (45) (45) (45)
is not stop controlled)
70 125 105 105 95 95 90 NA NA NA
(100) (85) (85) (75) (75) (70)
80 165 140 140 125 125 120 NA NA NA

(140) (120) (120) (105) (105) (100)
90 210 180 180 NA NA NA NA NA NA

(185) (160) (160)
100 255 220 220 NA NA NA NA NA NA

(235) (200) (200)
(Measured to stop line)
* Based on a decele ration rate, a,

Notes:
Storage length w here a = 1 , 5 m / s 5for LO A 1
(see note 1) 1. Storage length based on queuing analysis as = 1 , 7 5 m / s 5for LO A 2 a n d L O A 3
= 2 , 0 m / s 5for LO A 4 a n d L O A 5
approved by the City Engineer, taking into
= 2 , 2 5 m / s 5for LO A 6 , L O A 7 , LO A 8 and LO A 9
account signal settings (if signalised) and peak
** A p p lies only to signalized accesses.
hour trip generation (M inimum storage length to
allow f o r two vehicles).

Notes:
2. Taper rates according to Urban Transport (i) Figures in brackets indicate minimum deceleration distances for unsignalized left turn lanes w h ere a
Deceleration length
Guidelines (UTG 6 - publication). m in im u m t u r n i n g r a d i u s o f 1 5 m is provided w ith no on-street stopping condition.
(exclusive of storage)
3. Functional boundary of an existing intersection/ (ii) Functional boundary is determ ined by adding the deceleration length (per table), storage requirem ents
and reaction distance.
access w ill be determined by applying these (t)
Reaction times are as follow s:
Taper
(See Table C)
guidelines and not on actual turning lane lengths.

(see note 2)
t = 2 s for LO A 1
4. No access allow ed w ithin functional boundary of = 1 s for LO A 2 and LO A 3
= 0,5 s for LOA 4 to LOA 9
existing or approved intersection/ access, unless:
Reaction distance
• No safer alternative access is available, and
Functional boundary • Adequate mitigation measures applied, or

(See note 3)
• Approved on grounds of low trip generation, or
• A ccess included in A ccess M anagement Plan
(AMP).
Illustration of functional boundary and turning lane requirements Figure 2

T able D : S ignal spacing tolerances
P R O G R E S S IO N S P E E D (km/h)
Definition of L: C y c le
length
* * (s)
Cycle length (s) × Progressio n speed (m/s)
L = 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(See definition)
2 D IS T A N C E (L) IN M E T R E S
*: For progression analysis, the volumes for these variables will
0,5L
Special case where street originates at a T-junction be specified by the City Engineer and may not necessarily 60 330 ± n * 20 420 ± n * 20 500 ± n * 25 580 ± n * 30 670 ± n * 30 750 ± n * 40 830 ± n @40
reflect actual condition
70 390 ± n * 20 490 ± n * 25 580 ± n * 30 680 ± n * 30 780 ± n * 40 880 ± n * 40 970 ± n @50
75 420 ± n * 20 520 ± n * 25 630 ± n * 30 730 ± n * 40 830 ± n * 40 940 ± n * 50 1040 ± n @50
80 440 ± n * 20 550 ± n * 25 670 ± n * 30 780 ± n * 40 890 ± n * 40 1000 ± n * 50 1110 ± n @60
90 500 ± n * 25 630 ± n * 30 750 ± n * 40 880 ± n * 40 1000 ± 1130 ± n * 60 1250 ± n @60

n * 50
L (See definition)
100 550 ± n * 25 690 ±n * 30 830 ± n * 40 970 ± n * 50 1110 ± 1250 ± n * 60 1390 ± n @70
n * 50
110 610 ± n * 30 760 ± n * 40 920 ± n * 40 1070 ± 1220 ± 1380 ± n * 70 1530 ± n @80

n * 50 n * 60
Allowable variance from ideal 120 670 ± n * 30 830 ± n * 40 1000 ± 1170 ± 1330 ± 1500 ± n * 80 1670 ± n @80
spacing (L) based on: n * 50 n * 60 n * 70
150 830 ± n * 40 1040 ± n * 50 1250 ± 1460 ± 1670 ± 1880 ± n * 90 2080 ± n @1 0 0

Either:
n * 60 n * 70 n * 80
(i) Signal spacing tolerances (as per Table D)
or
Notes:
(ii) Bandwidth criteria (as per Table E) (i) n = 1 for LOA 2
= 2 for LOA 3
= 3 for LOA 4 and LOA 5
(1+0,2)L
(1-0.2)L
= 4 for LOA 7
L
(ii) L as given here is the general four-legged signalized intersection spacing. Refer to Appendix A (Figure A 2 . 1 ) f o r spacings of T-intersections:
T-intersections to the right : (M ultiples of L) -0,2 L
$
T - i n t e r s e c t i o n t o t h e l e f t : ( M ultiples of L) + 0 , 2 L
$
T-intersection at start or end of road (M ultiples of L) -0,5 L
$
( T h e p r o v i s i o n o f a T - i n t e r s e c t i o n c a n c e l s t h e n e a r e s t four leg intersection)
Table E: Bandwidth criteria
Level of access M inimum bandw idth *

band width
cycle length %
Special case where two

T-junctions on opposite sides replace cross-intersection 1 not applicable (isolated signals)
2 50
3 40
4 30
L
6 not applicable (one way streets)
7 20
8 not applicable
(signals not normally encountered)

9
*
(i) The minimum bandwidth requirement may be reduced by the City Engineer when existing conditions do not meet
(ii) Bandwidth analysis should be based on signal settings (including cycle length) and progression speeds as specified
by the City Engineer which may not necessarily be in accordance with existing signal settings and/or speed limits.
Signal spacing requirements Figure 3

Table F: Minimum left turn conflict overlap spacing of accesses
a
MINIMUM SPACING (m)
b
Design (Measured centre-to-centre of driveways )
speed
(km/h)
Notes:
1. N o m e d ial or m a rginal access shall be allow ed ACCESS CATEGORY

w it h in t h e f u n c t io n a l lim i t s ( S e e F i g u r e 2 ) o f a
signalised intersection or an access approved

LOA 5, LOA 6 LOA 7
f o r f u t u r e signalization.
2. W here m e d ial access is not provided a n d a

50 60 45
p h y s ical m e d ia n is la n d e x is t s , thus
60 80 60
(Functional len gth )
elim in a t i n g all right turns, m arginal access

Spacing of access upstream 70 105 80
from sign alised intersection s h o u ld b e s p a c e d a t d is t a n c e s m in im is in g l e f t
80 135 105
(see N ote 1) turn conflict overlap (see Table F).
3. W h e r e m edial access is allow e d v ia auxiliary
rig h t t u r n l a n e s , a c c e s s e s s h a l l b e s p a c e d a t
a Spacing allow s drivers in the through traffic stream to consider one
m in im u m d istances a c c o r d in g to T a b le G
access drive at a time. It enables a through vehicle to decelerate in
w h ic h a r e b a s e d o n s t o p p in g s ig h t d i s t a n c e s .
order to avoid a collision when a vehicle enters the through traffic
lane.
b M easured centre-to-centre of accesses.
Table G: Spacing requirements based on stopping distances

Physical m edian :
N ote 2 applies
MINIMUM SPACING (m)

M inimum access
spacing depends on
(Measured centre-to-centre of driveways)
Pain ted or no median
the provision of a Design
N ote 3 applies
physical m edian speed
(see N otes 2 and 3)
(km/h)
ACCESS CATEGORY
LOA 5, LOA 6* LOA 7, LOA 8**
50 65 50
60 90 75
70 115 95
80 145 120
* Based on 2 , 2 5 m / s5average deceleration and reaction time = 1,5 s
** Based on 2 , 5 m / s5average deceleration and reaction time = 1 s
Spacing of accesses on lower order streets (LOA 5, LOA 6, LOA 7, LOA 8) Figure 4

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SOUTH AFRICAN DESIGN FOR SAFETY

How to Use Design for Safety

As we develop a greater understanding of the factors that affect road safety, we

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-1

1.1 The Road System and Safety

Figure 1.1 South African Road System

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-2

It is interesting to note that, although 63,8% of all casualties occurred on

Run-off-road accidents account for approximately 25% of all accidents.

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-3

By studying accident statistics and patterns, designers can concentrate on

These studies have led to the development of accident prediction models or

This enables us to develop guidelines for the design of safer roads.

Figure 1.2 Factors Contributing to Road Traffic Accidents

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-4

1.3 Lessons from Developed Countries

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-5

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-6

Department of Transport, 1996a. White Paper on National Transport Policy,

Department of Transport, 1996b. A Future for Roads in South Africa, Pretoria,

Federal Highway Administration, 1997. Flexibility in Highway Design, FHWA,

Transport Research Laboratory, 1991. Towards Safer Roads in Developing

Transportation Research Board, 1990. Safety Research for a Changing Highway

United States Department of Transportation, 1990. Moving America: New

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Draft: 30 April 1999 1-7

A safe road design should:

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-1

• Affecting the behaviour and attentiveness of the driver, in particular the

TABLE 2.1 DESIGN ELEMENTS THAT INFLUENCE ROAD SAFETY

In addition to geometric features, a variety of other factors affect road safety,

• Driver characteristics, such as:

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-2

The construction of a road is typically a trade-off between ideal roadway

However, it is often extremely difficult, if not impossible, to correct safety defects

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-3

A safe road environment should:

Similar situations should be treated in similar fashion. Things to be avoided are:

Optimum values for design parameters should be used as often as possible,

Therefore a safe road environment is one which provides:

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-4

2.1.1 Who is Responsible for Road Safety?

"The unacceptable traffic conditions on South African roads, and

"Performance indicators will be developed for different types of

Department of Transport, 1996

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-5

Provincial roads are the responsibility of the Provincial Departments of Transport

The responsibility for safety rests with a large number of disciplines

Design is the implementation of the planning process. The designer gives

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-6

Safety should be a primary objective during all maintenance operations.

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-7

2.2 Effect of Design Elements on Safety

2.2.1 Horizontal Alignment

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-8

(where Ac = accident rate on curved road sections per million

Other design elements that influence safety on curves are:

• Clear roadsides and mild side slopes

Increased accident frequencies at horizontal curves appear to be related

• Pavement surfaces, road markings and other traffic control devices

2.2.2 Vertical Alignment

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-9

Figure 2.1 Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves

VOLUME 7: DESIGN FOR SAFETY Final Draft: 25 May 1999 2-10