Computer Network Unit 1

Computer network unit 1
Lecture-1.1
• Introduction to Computer Networks
Topics covered in lecture 1
0. Introduction
1. Data Communication
2. Network Components
3. Data representation
4. Network criteria
5. Devices used in networking
6. Topology and types
Introduction: A computer network can be defined as a group of computers and other

peripheral devices that are linked together for the purpose of sharing data and hardware
devices.
Data Communication: Data communication means exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium like Cables, Telephone line, Radio Waves, and
Infrared waves.
Ø Data can be in different formats at various stages of transmission.
Ø Data can be in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, video.
Ø To be transmitted, the data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals.
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.
Components:
A data communications system has five components
Fig-1(Computer Networking) [1]
https://ecomputernotes.com/computernetworkingnotes/communication-networks/what-
is-data-communication
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by
a person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Representation:
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or
Is). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent
coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used
in any language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII), developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127
characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.
Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not
used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations. Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.
Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of
the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or
10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the image (better
resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image. After an image is divided into
pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the
image. For an image made of only black and- white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a I-bit pattern is
enough to represent a pixel. If an image is not made of pure white and pure black pixels, you
can increase the size of the bit pattern to include gray scale. For example, to show four levels
of gray scale, you can use 2-bit patterns. A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray
pixel by 01, a light gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11. There are several methods to
represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called because each color is made of a
combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each color is
measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a color
is made of a combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either
be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a
digital or an analog signal.
Network Criteria: A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the
type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency
of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughputs and less delay. However, these two criteria are often
contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we
increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the

frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data losses.
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS:
Protocols:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity

is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply
send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the
entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
Syntax. : The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data
to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest
of the stream to be the message itself.
Semantics. : The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message?
Timing.: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast
they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will
be lost.
Devices used for Computer networks:

"Local-Area Networking Introduction," discussed the different types of hardware found in a
LAN environment hubs, bridges, and switches and how each piece of hardware functions
specifically in an Ethernet environment.
1. Repeaters (Layer 1 Devices)
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in
transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss.
Repeaters are used in both local-and wide-area networking environments to extend the
distance a signal can reach. In the LAN environment, you would use a repeater to extend the
distance a data signal can travel on a cable
Fig 2(Repeater) [2]
https://blog.netwrix.com/2019/01/08/network-devices-explained/
2. Hubs (Layer 1 Devices)
A hub is often used to connect small LAN segments in which the number of devices is
generally 24 or fewer, and hubs are multiport repeaters. Hubs provide the signal amplification
required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance.
A hub takes an incoming signal on any one port and repeats it out all ports to enable users to
share the Ethernet network resources.
Ethernet hubs create star topologies in 10-Mbps or 100-Mbps half-duplex Ethernet LANs.
It is the hub that enables several point-to-point segments to be joined together into one single
network.
A shared Ethernet LAN means that all members of the network are contending for
transmission of data onto a single network.
Fig 3 (Hub) [2]
3. Bridges (Layer 2 Devices)
Repeaters and hubs have no intelligence; they just repeat whatever signal is received from
one port out all ports without looking at what is being sent or received. Bridges add a level of
intelligence to the network by using the MAC address to build a table of hosts, mapping these
hosts to a network segment and containing traffic within these network segments. For
example, Figure 5-6 illustrates a bridged network with two network segments.
Fig 4 (Bridge) [2]
4. Switches (Layer 2 Devices)

Switches sit in the same place in the network as hubs. Unlike hubs, however, switches examine
each frame and process the frame accordingly instead of just repeating the signal to all ports.
Switches map the MAC addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment and then
allow only the necessary traffic to pass through the switch. A switch performs the same
functions as a bridge; so when the switch receives a frame, it examines the destination and
source MAC addresses and compares them to a table of network segments and addresses. If
the segments are the same, the frame is dropped, or filtered; if the segments differ, the frame
is forwarded to the proper segment.
The filtering of frames and regeneration of forwarded frames enables switches to split a
network into separate collision domains. Frame regeneration enables greater distances and
more network devices, or nodes, to be used in the total network design, and lowers the overall
collision rates. In switched networks, each segment is an independent collision domain,
whereas in shared networks all nodes reside in one, big, shared collision domain.
Fig 5 (Switch) [2]
5. Routers (Layer 3 Devices)
Routers are devices that forward data packets from one LAN or WAN to another. Based on
routing tables and routing protocols, routers read the network address in the packet
contained within each transmitted frame. Routers then select a sending method for the packet
based on the most expedient route. This most expedient route is determined by factors such
as traffic load, line quality, and available bandwidth. Routers work at Layer 3 (network) in the
protocol stack, whereas bridges and switches work at Layer 2 (data link).
Routers segment LANs to balance traffic within workgroups and to filter traffic for security
purposes and policy management.
Fig 6 (Router) [2]
Topology Introduction:
Network topologies describe the methods in which all the elements of a network are mapped.
The topology term refers to both the physical and logical layout of a network.
Physical topology:
This type of network is an actual layout of the computer cables and other network devices
Logical topology:
Logical topology gives insight's about network's physical design.
Different types of Physical Topologies are:
o Bus Topology
o Ring Topology
o Star Topology
o Tree Topology
o Mesh Topology
o Hybrid Topology
• Lecture-1.1
Topics covered in lecture 2
1. Data Flow Techniques

2. Types of connection
3. Types of Network
4. Advantages and Disadvantages
Data Flow Techniques:
Figure 1 (Transmission Modes) [1]
https://onlinesmarttrainer.blogspot.com/2019/05/transmission-modes-data-flow-in.html
Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of

the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure a). Keyboards
and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of
the channel to send data in one direction.
Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex mode
is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices
is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex
systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.
Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure c). The full-
duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals
going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain
two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or
the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions. One
common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people
are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Types of Computer Networks:
a) LAN-Local Area Networks (LAN)
Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g.,
printers) and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by
three characteristics:
(1) Their size,
(2) Their transmission technology, and
(3) Their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded
and known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs
that would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management. LANs may use
a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are attached, like
the telephone company party lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run at speeds
of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few
errors.
Figure 3(LAN) [3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network#/media/File:Ethernet_LAN.svg
Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps various topologies are possible for broadcast LANs.
Figure shows two of them. In a bus (i.e., a linear cable) network, at any instant at most one
machine is the master and is allowed to transmit. All other machines are required to refrain
from sending. An arbitration mechanism is needed to resolve conflicts when two or more
machines want to transmit simultaneously. The arbitration mechanism may be centralized or
distributed. IEEE 802.3, popularly called Ethernet, for example, is a bus-based broadcast
network with decentralized control, usually operating at 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps. Computers on
an Ethernet can transmit whenever they want to; if two or more packets collide, each
computer just waits a random time and tries again later.
A second type of broadcast system is the ring. In a ring, each bit propagates around on its
own, not waiting for the rest of the packet to which it belongs. Typically, each bit
circumnavigates the entire ring in the time it takes to transmit a few bits, often before the
complete packet has even been transmitted. As with all other broadcast systems, some rule
is needed for arbitrating simultaneous accesses to the ring. Various methods, such as having
the machines take turns, are in use. IEEE 802.5 (the IBM token ring), is a ring-based LAN
operating at 4 and 16 Mbps. FDDI is another example of a ring network.
b) Metropolitan Area Network:
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the
Cable television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community
antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these early
systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the
subscribers' houses.
At first, these were locally designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into the
business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city. The next step was
television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often these
channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and
so on. But from their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television
reception only.
To a first approximation, a MAN might look something like the system shown in Fig.2. In this
figure both television signals and Internet are fed into the centralized head end for
subsequent distribution to people's homes.
Figure-4 (MAN) [4]
https://www.apposite-tech.com/blog/whats-difference-metropolitan-area-network-man-
wide-area-network-wan/
Cable television is not the only MAN. Recent developments in high-speed wireless Internet
access resulted in another MAN, which has been standardized as IEEE 802.16. A MAN is
implemented by a standard called DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) or IEEE 802.16. DQDB
has two unidirectional buses (or cables) to which all the computers are attached.
c) Wide Area Network:
A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
These machines are called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or
just subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal
computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a
telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages
from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener.
Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the
application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design.
In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission
lines and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be
made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. In most WANs, the network contains
numerous transmission lines, each one connecting a pair of routers. If two routers that do
not share a transmission line wish to communicate, they must do this indirectly, via other
routers. When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more intermediate
routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until
the required output line is free, and then forwarded. A subnet organized according to this
principle is called a store-and- forward or packet-switched subnet. Nearly all wide area
networks (except those using satellites) have store-and-forward subnets. When the packets
are small and all the same size, they are often called cells.
The principle of a packet-switched WAN is so important. Generally, when a process on some

host has a message to be sent to a process on some other host, the sending host first cuts
the message into packets, each one bearing its number in the sequence. These packets are
then injected into the network one at a time in quick succession. The packets are transported
individually over the network and deposited at the receiving host, where they are
reassembled into the original message and delivered to the receiving process. A stream of
packets resulting from some initial message is illustrated. In this figure, all the packets follow
the route ACE, rather than ABDE or ACDE. In some networks all packets from a given message
must follow the same route; in others each packed is routed separately. Of course, if ACE is
the best route, all packets may be sent along it, even if each packet is individually routed.
Figure-5 (WAN) [4]
https://www.apposite-tech.com/blog/whats-difference-metropolitan-area-network-wide-
wide-area-network-wan/
Not all WANs are packet switched. A second possibility for a WAN is a satellite system. Each
router has an antenna through which it can send and receive. All routers can hear the output
from the satellite, and in some cases they can also hear the upward transmissions of their
fellow routers to the satellite as well. Sometimes the routers are connected to a substantial
point-to-point subnet, with only some of them having a satellite antenna. Satellite networks
are inherently broadcast and are most useful when the broadcast property is important.
INTERNET –
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. Count the ways you've used the
Internet recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-mail) to a business associate, paid a
utility bill, read a newspaper from a distant city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by
using the Internet. Or maybe you researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation,
chatted with a fellow Trekkie, or comparison-shopped for a car. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use
A Brief History:
A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers.

An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or more networks that can communicate with
each other. The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a
collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private
individuals as well as various organizations such as government agencies, schools, research
facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet. Millions of
people are users. Yet this extraordinary communication system only came into being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices.

Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was
interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could
share their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
The Internet Today:
The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple
hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by
connecting devices and switching stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation of
the Internet because it is continually changing-new networks are being added, existing
networks are adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed.
Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet service
providers (lSPs). There are international service providers, national service providers, regional
service providers, and local service providers. The Internet today is run by private companies,
not the government. Figure 1.13 shows a conceptual
(not geographic) view of the Internet.
http://bscomputersc.blogspot.com/p/computer-communication-and-network.html
International Internet Service Providers:
At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that connect nations
together.
National Internet Service Providers:

The national Internet service providers are backbone networks created and maintained by
specialized companies. There are many national ISPs operating in North America; some of the
most well known are SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel. To
provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone networks are connected by
complex switching stations (normally run by a third party) called network access points
(NAPs). Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by private switching
stations called peering points. These normally operate at a high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
Regional Internet Service Providers:
Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one
or more national ISPs. They are at the third level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate.
Local Internet Service Providers:
Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end users. The local ISPs can be
connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs. Most end users are connected to the
local ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be a company that just provides Internet
services, a corporation with a network that supplies services to its own employees, or a
nonprofit organization, such as a college or a university, that runs its own network. Each of
these local ISPs can be connected to a regional or national service provider.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communication pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. We can imagine any link as a line drawn
between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some
way to the same link at the same time. There are three possible types of connections:
unicasting, multicasting and broadcasting.
Unicasting:
In unicasting, connection provides a link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link
is reserved for transmission between those two devices only. Most point-to-point connections
use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point or unicast connection between
the remote control and the television's control system.
Multicasting:
A multicasting connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link.
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared. Here the message can be
sent to multiple specific nodes,
Broadcasting: In broadcasting the message is sent to all the nodes connected to that
network.
Advantages of computer networks:
Networking in computers bring efficiency, economy and effectiveness in the organization.
Efficient use of storage media: It is better to store a sharable application. It is better to have
one big hard disk in the server rather to have small hard disks in different computers.
Preserving Information: it is difficult to maintain regular backups on a number of standalone

computers. When you keep backups on a central location, you have one place to look for the
lost information.
Reduction in the hardware cost: In a network, the hardware devices that are not used very
often like modems, printers, scanners, CD-writers etc. can be shared. This reduces the cost of
the hardware.
Efficiency: In a network, the deletion, modification and upgradation of the software or data
is to be done at a single point. This brings more efficiency and effectiveness into a working
system.
Redundancy: A network reduces the need of hardcopies of all the documents. By sharing the
soft copy of a file over a network, the need to share paper copies of reports or any other
information can be eliminated or greatly reduced.
Quickest document delivery: networking provides a facility to instantly deliver soft copies
from one computer to other computer throughout the world.
Disadvantages:
Security Concerns- One of the chief downsides of computer networks involves security
issues. In a standalone computer, physical access is needed for any kind of security lapse.
Conversely, if a computer is connected to a network, a hacker can get unauthorized access by
using various tools. For large organizations, several network security software are crucial to
prevent any security breaches like theft of confidential data.
Virus and Malware: Even if, one computer on a network gets infected with a virus, there is a
possibility for the other systems to get infected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily,
because of the inter-connectivity of various devices. Likewise, if malware unintentionally gets
installed on the central server, all connected clients to the server in the network will get
infected. Spam remains to be a setback on the internet.
Need of an Efficient Handler: Managing a big network is complex which requires training
and generally a network manager needs to be hired. The technical competences and
expertise needed to operate and oversee a computer network is substantially high.
Correspondingly, network connection and configuration is also a tiresome task and the
responsibility that comes with such a job is high
Lack of Independence
As networks generally have a centralized server and dependent clients, the client users
usually do not have any control whatsoever. Because of Centralized decision making, a client
user cannot use his computer as his desire.
Lecture-1.3
• Computer Network Models
A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex,
unstructured program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very
difficult to test and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered
approach. In a layered approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and each
layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon
the layers.
Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services
to manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to
higher layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any
modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a
higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with
peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the
messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer
is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end
user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link
layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical
layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical
medium.
Functions of the OSI Layers
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below:
17. Physical Layer

18. Data-Link Layer
19. Network Layer
20. Transport Layer
21. Session Layer
22. Presentation Layer
23. Application Layer
Physical layer
o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
Data-Link Layer
o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that
is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.
o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned
in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so
that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server
with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower
processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted
frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device has control over the link at a given time.
Network Layer
o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network
layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header
of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).
Transport Layer
o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order
in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known
as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to
this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point
address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data
from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer
is to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message
from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment
is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the
message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as
an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all
the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control
is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.
Session Layer
o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data
in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer
o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces
the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in
multimedia such as text, audio, video.
Application Layer
o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user
to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is
used to provide that global information about various objects.
Lecture-2.1
•
What is Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected
to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
Bus Topology
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through
a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the
sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals
of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters
are used to regenerate the signal.
Ring Topology
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node
to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until
it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.
Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to
the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to
the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized
network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to
troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open
ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT
is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
routing is required.
Tree topology
o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore,
we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable
will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
Mesh topology
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
o Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between
other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router
and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain
and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link
failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.
Hybrid Topology
o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank
and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies
will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of
the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that
the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs
are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
Lecture-2.2
• Physical layer
•One of the major roles of the Physical layer is to transfer the data in form of
signals through a transmission medium. It doesn’t matter what data you are sending, it can
be text, audio, image, video, etc. everything is transferred in form of signals. This happens
because data cannot be sent as it is over a transmission medium, it must be converted to a
form that is acceptable by the transmission media, signals are what a transmission medium
carry.
Analog and Digital
•Both the data and the signal can be represented in form of analog and digital.
•Analog and Digital Data:
Analog data is continuous data that keeps changing over time, for example in an analog
watch, the hour, minute, and second hands keep moving so you infer the time by looking at it,
it keeps changing. On the other hand, digital watch shows you discrete data such as 12:20 AM,
5:30 PM, etc. at a particular moment of time.
•Analog and Digital Signals:
Similar to data, a signal can be analog or digital. An analog signal can have infinite number of
values in a given range, on the other hand a digital signal has limited number of values in a
given range. The following digram shows analog and digital signals.
1. Analog Signals
An analog signal can be be categorized as simple or composite.

1.1 Simple Analog signal
A simple analog signal can be represented in form of sine wave. A sine wave is shown in the
above diagram.
A simple analog signal is smooth, consistent and continuous. As you can see in the diagram
above that a arc above the time axis is followed by the similar arc below the time axis and so
on.
Parameters of simple Analog signal – Sine wave
There are three parameters that defines a sine wave – peak amplitude, frequency and phase.
Peak amplitude: Absolute value of highest intensity of sine wave.
Frequency and Period: Period is the amount of time a signal takes to complete one cycle, it
is denoted by T. Frequency refers to the number of cycles in 1 second, it is denoted by f. They
are inversely proportional to each other which means f = 1/T.
Phase: Phase refers to the position of sine wave relative to the time 0. For example if the
sine wave is at its highest intensity at the time zero then the phase value for this sine wave is
90 degrees. Phase is measured in degrees or radians.
1.2 Composite Analog signal
Unlike sine wave which is smooth and consistent, composite analog signals or waves are not
smooth and consistent, which means an arc above the time axis doesn’t necessarily followed
by arc below the time axis. You can imagine them as a group of sine waves with different
frequency, amplitude and period.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies in a composite signal is called bandwidth. For example
if a composite signal contains waves with the frequencies ranging from 2000 to 4000 then
you can say that the bandwidth of this composite signal is 4000-2000 = 2000Hz. Bandwidth
is measured in Hz.
2. Digital Signals
Similar to analog signals, data can be transmitted in form of digital signals. For example a
data that is converted it into a machine language (combination of 0s and 1s) such as 1001
can be represented in form digital signals. 1 represents high voltage and 0 represents low
voltage.
Bit Rate: A bit rate is measured as bits per second, it represents the number of 1s send in 1
second.
Bit Length: A bit length is the distance a bit occupies on the transmission medium.
Bit Rate and Baud Rate
Both Bit rate and Baud rate are generally used in data communication,
Bit rate is the transmission of number of bits per second. On the other hand, Baud rate is
defined as the number of signal units per second. The formula which relates both bit rate
and baud rate is given below:
Bit rate = Baud rate x the number of bit per baud.
•The term bit rate is a synonym for data transfer rate or simply data rate.
•Bit rate, as the name implies, describes the rate at which bits are transferred from one
location to another. In other words, it measures how much data is transmitted in a given
amount of time.
•Bit rate is commonly measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps), or
megabits per second (Mbps).
•Bit rate can also describe the quality of an audio or video file.
•For example, an MP3 audio file that is compressed at 192 Kbps will have a greater dynamic
range and may sound slightly more clear than the same audio file compressed at 128 Kbps.
This is because more bits are used to represent the audio data for each second of playback.
•Similarly, a video file that is compressed at 3000 Kbps will look better than the same file
compressed at 1000 Kbps.
•Just like the quality of an image is measured in resolution, the quality of an audio or video
file is measured by the bit rate.
Baud rate
•Baud means "state changes of the line per second".
•The baud rate of a data communications system is the number of symbols per second
transferred.
•Baud rate is a technical term associated with modems, digital televisions, and other
technical devices. It is also known as symbol rate and modulation rate. The term roughly
means the speed that data is transmitted, and it is a derived value based on the number of
symbols transmitted per second.
•The units for this rate are either symbols per second or pulses per second. Baud can be
determined by using the following formula: Baud = (Gross Bit Rate / Number of Bits per
Symbol). This can be used to translate baud into a bit rate using the following formula: Bit
Rate = (Bits per Symbol × Symbol Rate).
•The significance of these formulas is that higher baud rates equate to greater amounts of
data transmission, as long as the bits per symbol are the same. A system using 4800 baud
modems that has 4 bits per symbol will send less data than a system using 9600 baud
modems that also has 4 bits per symbol. So, all other things being equal, a higher rate is
generally preferred.
Bandwidth
•Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network or Internet connection. It
measures how much data can be sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time. For
example, a gigabit Ethernet connection has a bandwidth of 1,000 Mbps (125 megabytes per
second). While bandwidth is used to describe network speeds, it does not measure how
fast bits of data move from one location to another. Since data packets travel over electronic
or fiber optic cables, the speed of each bit transferred is negligible. Instead, bandwidth
measures how much data can flow through a specific connection at one time.
Transmission Impairment
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted
signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a
digital signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different
amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get
changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes
There are various causes of transmission impairments −
o Noise
o Distortion
o Attenuation
Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to
the transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the
receiver side it is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises are various kinds
like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows −
Distortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a composite
signal has various frequency components in it and each frequency component has some time
constraint which makes a complete signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the
frequencies components, then there may be the chance that the frequency component will
reach the receiver end with a different delay constraint from its original which leads to the
change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to environmental parameters or from
the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows −
Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be
difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority factor by
environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal strength decreases as
it tries to overcome the resistance imposed.
The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time.
Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Nyquist Bit Rate
Nyquist bit rate was developed by Henry Nyquist who proved that the transmission capacity
of even a perfect channel with no noise has a maximum limit.
The theoretical formula for the maximum bit rate is:
maximum bit rate = 2 × Bandwidth × log2V Here, the maximum bit rate is calculated in bps
Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
V is the number of discrete levels in the signal
•For example, if there is a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 4 KHz that is transmitting a
signal with 4 discrete levels, then the maximum bit rate will be computed as, maximum bit
rate = 2 × 4000 × log24
•= 16,000 bps = 16 kbps
Shannon's Capacity
•Claude Shannon extended Nyquist's work for actual channels that are subject to noise. Noise
can be of various types like thermal noise, impulse noise, cross-talks etc. Among all the noise
types, thermal noise is unavoidable. The random movement of electrons in the channel creates
an extraneous signal not present in the original signal, called the thermal noise. The amount
of thermal noise is calculated as the ratio of the signal power to noise power, SNR
Signal-to-Noise Ratio,SNR = Average Signal Power/Average Noise Power
•Since SNR is the ratio of two powers that varies over a very large range, it is often expressed
in decibels, called SNRdb and calculated as: SNRdb = 10log10SNR.
•Shannon's Capacity gives the theoretical maximum data rate or capacity of a noisy channel.
It is expressed as:
•Capacity = Bandwidth × log2( 1+SNR )
•Here, Capacity is the maximum data rate of the channel in bps
•Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel SNR is the signal – to – noise ratio
•For example, if the bandwidth of a noisy channel is 4 KHz, and the signal to noise ratio is
100, then the maximum bit rate can be computed as:
•Capacity = 4000 × log2( 1+100 ) = 26,633 bps = 26.63 kbps

Lecture-2.3
• Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single
medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input
lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and
one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the

receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).
Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided
in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For
example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10
unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.
o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines
the signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates
a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of
a single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
o n the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several

frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device
1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency
bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers.
They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
Advantages Of FDM:
o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:
o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies,
and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is
transmitted in the air.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with
the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to
form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre
optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time
with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all
signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different
time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time
slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:
o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that
the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized
in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the
empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and
SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated
with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has
data to send or not.
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:
o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted
which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in
the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of
the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the
input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time
Division Multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM
o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case
of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the
data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor
transmits only the data from active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity
of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of
the data.
o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots
in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized.
This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of
the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where
m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of
input lines.
Concept Of Asynchronous TDM
n the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e., A
and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission line
Lecture 3.1
•
Transmission media
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the
form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer
1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere,
water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired
media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal
characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost
and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model,
i.e., Physical layer.
Classification Of Transmission Media:
Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also
known as Bounded media.
Types Of Guided media:
Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted
pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair
cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from
0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot.
Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
Types of Twisted pair:
Unshielded Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories
of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the
higher transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor
is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:
32. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high
speed.
33. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:
o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core.
A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more
light will be transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality
of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause
the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:
o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared
copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the
fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of
copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can
flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions
of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the
wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:
o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Microwaves
o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam
of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned,
i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna
which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers
are the direct sight of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to
21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious

user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can
distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication
o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than
cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the
signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre
of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the
satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short
ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in
one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.
Lecture-3.2
• Switching
o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their
immediate location, messages are sent through the network of transmission media.
This technique of transferring the information from one computer network to another
network is known as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a small
hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with one local area
network (LAN).
o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in the
home network.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed. It
verifies the destination address to route the packet appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.
o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and
destination.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.
Why is Switching Concept required?
Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:
o Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is a very critical

and expensive resource. Therefore, switching techniques are used for the effective
utilization of the bandwidth of a network.
o Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device transmits the
message over the same physical media, and they collide with each other. To overcome
this problem, switching technology is implemented so that packets do not collide with
each other.
Advantages of Switching:
o Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.
o It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information to only that
device which has been addressed.
o It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the traffic on the
network.
o There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain for each
connection.
Disadvantages of Switching:
o A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.
o A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
o Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to handle multicast
packets.
Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect
Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:
Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single
transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of
crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch
is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a
control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar
switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch
Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch
has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it

becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and
then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data
can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required
for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred,
then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred
even if the channel is free.
Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on
the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Advantages Of Message Switching
o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.
Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go,
but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will
be sent.
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are
the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the
message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.
Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approac

Node takes routing decisions to forward the
Node does not take any routing decision.
packets.
Congestion cannot occur as all the packets travel Congestion can occur when the node is busy
in different directions. allow other packets to pass through.
It is more flexible as all the packets are treated as
It is not very flexible.
an independent entity.
Advantages Of Packet Switching:
o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require

massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective
technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require

low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.

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Computer network unit 1

Topics covered in lecture 1

Introduction: A computer network can be defined as a group of computers and other

Ø Data can be in different formats at various stages of transmission.

Ø To be transmitted, the data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals.

A data communications system has five components

Fig-1(Computer Networking) [1]

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS:

In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity

Devices used for Computer networks:

1. Repeaters (Layer 1 Devices)

Fig 2(Repeater) [2]

2. Hubs (Layer 1 Devices)

3. Bridges (Layer 2 Devices)

Fig 4 (Bridge) [2]

4. Switches (Layer 2 Devices)

Fig 5 (Switch) [2]

5. Routers (Layer 3 Devices)

Logical topology gives insight's about network's physical design.

Different types of Physical Topologies are:

Topics covered in lecture 2

1. Data Flow Techniques

Data Flow Techniques:

Figure 1 (Transmission Modes) [1]

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of

Types of Computer Networks:

a) LAN-Local Area Networks (LAN)

(1) Their size,

(2) Their transmission technology, and

(3) Their topology.

b) Metropolitan Area Network:

c) Wide Area Network:

The principle of a packet-switched WAN is so important. Generally, when a process on some

Figure-5 (WAN) [4]

A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers.

In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices.

The Internet Today:

(not geographic) view of the Internet.

International Internet Service Providers:

National Internet Service Providers:

Regional Internet Service Providers:

Local Internet Service Providers:

Networking in computers bring efficiency, economy and effectiveness in the organization.

Preserving Information: it is difficult to maintain regular backups on a number of standalone

Characteristics of OSI Model:

Functions of the OSI Layers

17. Physical Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

Analog and Digital

•Analog and Digital Data:

•Analog and Digital Signals:

An analog signal can be be categorized as simple or composite.

Parameters of simple Analog signal – Sine wave

Peak amplitude: Absolute value of highest intensity of sine wave.

1.2 Composite Analog signal