Distribution & Smart Grid

Workshop on Distribution Relay Testing & Smart Grid
Workshop on
Distribution & Smart Grid
Relay Testing
Author : Eng. Simone Meneghin
Trainer : Andrej Sepcic

Location: Hoi An
INTRODUCTION
Introduction - Distribution & Smart Grid
The Power Grid is divided in two main grids
TRANSMISSION
High Voltage grid ( > 110 kV ) composed by
• Large power plants, where the electrical
energy is produced and fed into the network
• Substations, where the energy is routed
according to the requirements
DISTRIBUTION
Medium and Low voltage grid composed by
• Medium size power plants
• Substations
• Consumers (Industries, cities, ecc…)
The transmission grid is
• Meshed, all nodes of the grid are interconnected

• Fully automated
• Equipped with faults location devices
In case of faults the probability of wide service outages is

dramatically reduced
• Fast service recovering

• Very good power quality
• Network stability and reliability
The distribution grid is
• Not meshed, due to the presence of many consumers

• Not fully automated, especially in the low voltage grid
• Not often equipped with faults location devices
In case of faults there is the probability of disconnection

of some grid areas, the fault location is often difficult and
the intervention of an operator is often necessary to
recover the service
Can a solution be found?

Yes, the solution is the SMART GRID, but what is it? It is the evolution of the
todays network!
The main benefits of a SMART GRID are
• Distributed generation: many small power plants instead of few

and huge power plants
• Renewable energy: the energy from not programmable sources
like sun and wind can be efficiently used
• Less pollution
• Good and flexible power management
• Energy storage
To build a SMART GRID are necessary
• High tecnology devices

• Broadband communication channels
• Smart metering
The grid is composed by many complex and very expensive equipments
In case of fault, the faulty area must be identified and disconnected as

soon as possible from the rest of the grid to avoid
• serious damages due to strong electrical stress

• wide outages due to loss of stability
• danger for the people
• economic losses
A proper protective system must be implemented

The core of the protective system are the
PROTECTION RELAYS
They continuosly monitor the status of the grid by measuring electrical quantities as
• Voltage
• Current
• Frequency
• Phase shift
According to the grid design, specific protection relays must be installed and
properly setted
PRINCIPLE SCHEME
GRID AREA 1
Line 1
Not protected
Busbar
zone
Relay tasks:
Disconnector
Analog
Measures
• discriminate a fault from a
ENERGY FLOW
Relay transient disturbance

CB Open
status Cmd • if the fault is located in the
Circuit protected zone, an open
Breaker command must be sent to CB
• if the fault is NOT located in

A CT
Protected the protected zone, ANY open
zone command must be sent to CB
V VT
Line 2
GRID AREA 2
The energy demand is The grids complexity is

worldwide growing increasing
Power quality and power reliability

must be guaranteed
Maintenance Knowledge
Proper test equipments

VOLTAGE PROTECTION
UNDERVOLTAGE (27)
OVERVOLTAGE (59)
Voltage protection 27 / 59 - Distribution & Smart Grid
The voltage in a grid is quite constant everywhere

and it’s very close to the value for which it has
been designed.
This voltage is called NOMINAL VOLTAGE
Voltage protections must open the circuit breaker

when the measured voltage differs too much from
the nominal voltage
Undervoltage conditions Loss of stability
Overvoltage conditions Collapse of insulation equipments

DEFINITIONS

VC
 
Phase to Ground voltage V U CA

Phase to Phase voltage U  120°

U BC 120°
VA
120°
The picture represents a symmetrical
(or balanced) three phase voltage 
system U AB
  
U  3 V (Eq. 1)
VB
In case of fault there is no more

symmetry in the voltage system

VC
(Eq. 1) is no more valid, it must 
be generalized U CA

   U BC 
U AB  VA V B (Eq. 2)
VA
    
U BC  VB V C (Eq. 3)
U AB
   
U CA  VC V A (Eq. 4) VB
NOTE: for simplicity in the following pages will no longer used the vector notation
RELAY CONNECTIONS (phase to ground)
RELAY
LA
UAB UCA DI CB STATUS

LB
UBC OPEN CMD

LC
VA
27
Wye VB
VA V B VC connected
VTs
VC 59
RELAY CONNECTIONS (phase to phase)
RELAY
LA
UAB UCA DI CB STATUS

LB
UBC OPEN CMD

LC
UAB
27
Delta UBC
VA V B VC connected
VTs
UCA 59
DRTS 66 description
4 binary outputs 2 analog inputs 12 digital / analog(1) inputs

to drive relay’s for transducers for time measurement
digital inputs testing
LCD display 6 current 6 voltage Auxiliary Vdc

for local control outputs(2) outputs(2) generator
to supply the relay
(1) These inputs become analogic in case of Transcope option inside
(2) The number of current and voltage outputs changes with DRTS XX model
RELAY CONNECTIONS TO DRTS (examples)

DI
DI
VA
UAB
VB
VC
UBC
UCA
CB STATUS
CB STATUS
OPEN CMD
OPEN CMD
27 59 27 59
Phase to ground Phase to phase

RELAY PARAMETERS
V (or U) pickup
Voltage threshold that defines when the relay must be ready to
release the trip (open) command
Trip Time
Time delay for the releasing of the trip (open) command, starting
from the instant in which the measured voltage reaches the pickup
value
V (or U) reset
Voltage value that defines when the relay must reset the Trip Time
counter
Drop-out ratio
It is the ratio V (or U) reset / V (or U) pickup
Each voltage threshold V (or U) pickup has an associated Trip Time

Vmeasured (rms)
V59 pickup
V59 reset
V nominal
V27 reset
V27 pickup
CB open
t [s]
pickup contact t [s]
trip contact
t [s]
T59 trip T27 trip
The measured voltage reaches The measured voltage reaches
V59 pickup but decreases V27 pickup and remains below
below V59 reset before T59 trip V27 reset within T59 trip
expires
Trip command NOT released Trip command released

RELAY TRIP CHARACTERISTIC

Time independent characteristic curves
[s]
TRIP NO TRIP TRIP

AREA AREA AREA
T27 trip
T59 trip
V27 pickup Vn V59 pickup [V]

How to test a Time Independent characteristic?
Generate the PREFAULT condition

In case of voltage protection, the prefault condition is represented
by the nominal and symmetrical 3 phase voltage system
 the voltages must be measured properly by the relay

 this condition places the voltages inside the no trip area
 the trip contact must be in the no trip position (normally open or
normally closed)
Generate the FAULT condition

The voltage is reduced or increased in order to reach the trip area
 The relay must release the trip command so the trip time can be
measured
SHOT TEST the easiest way to simulate a fault
The voltage is reduced or increased with a voltage step

[s]
The trip time can
be verified with
only one test
TRIP NO TRIP
(SHOT 1)
AREA AREA
The pickup voltage

T27 trip is verified with at
least two tests
SHOT 1 (SHOT 1 + SHOT 2)
REMINDER: the
X X fault condition must
[V] be applied for more
SHOT 2 PREFAULT than the trip time
V27 pickup Vn
REMARK 1
The fault voltage cannot be equal to the pickup voltage value !

[s]
TRIP NO TRIP
AREA AREA
TRIP NO TRIP
AREA AREA
T27 trip ZOOM IN
SHOT
X
[V]
V27 pickup Vn Nominal Higher
Trip Time Trip Time No trip
Very close around the threshold there is an uncertainty area

The fault voltage must be far enough from the border (little percentage
of the pickup value)
REMARK 2
The measured trip time will be slightly longer than the relay setting
Fault
t [s]
Relay pickup
t [s]
Trip cmd
released
t [s]
Trip contact
commutation
T1 Nominal T trip T2 T3
t [s]
Measured T trip
T1 = computation time ≈ 1 ms
T2 = trip contact action time ≈ 10 ms
T3 = CB main contacts open ≈ 50 ms
Measured T trip = T1 + Nominal T trip + T2

SHOT EXAMPLE
Relay settings:
U nominal = 100 [V] ; U pickup = 60 [V] ; T trip = 0.2 [s]
Voltage tolerance = ±5% ; Time tolerance = ± 3%+10 [ms]
Test settings:
PREFAULT SHOT1 PREFAULT SHOT 2
V 1  57.735 * (60 / 100) *1.050 V 1  57.735 * (60 / 100) * 0.950

V 1  57.7350 V 1  57.7350
V 2 57.735 * (60 / 100) *1.05240 V 2 57.735 * (60 / 100) * 0.95240
V 2 57.735240 V 2 57.735240
V 3  57.735 * (60 / 100) *1.05120 V 3  57.735 * (60 / 100) * 0.95120
V 3  57.735120 V 3  57.735120
T max  0.5[ s ] T max  0.5[ s ]
Measured T trip = timeout Measured T trip = 0.213 [s]

--- Voltage assessment : PASS --- Voltage assessment : PASS
Time assessment : PASS Time assessment : PASS
X X
RAMP TEST find the pickup voltage
The voltage is continuosly reduced or increased
There are two different ramp type
[V]
DELTA RAMP : the voltage ΔV

changes with a series of
continuos steps
t [s]
[V]
GRADIENT : the
voltage changes ΔV/s
with a defined slope
ΔV/s t [s]
DELTA RAMP
[s]
NO TRIP TRIP
AREA AREA
Delta ramp parameters
ΔV
T59 trip
ΔV : voltage step
X X X X amplitude
Vn V59 pickup
T max : maximum
[V] [V] duration time of the
V59 pickup applied voltage step
(longer than T trip)
Vn ΔV
t [s] The time counter is
reset at each step
pickup contact t [s] in order to
trip contact measure T trip
t [s]
T max T max T max T59 trip

GRADIENT
[s]
NO TRIP TRIP
AREA AREA Gradient parameters
T59 trip ΔV/s : voltage slope

ΔV/s
X T max : maximum
Vn V59 pickup [V] duration time of the
[V]
applied voltage gradient
V stop
(enough to reach V
V59 pickup pickup)
ΔV/s
Vn
t [s] T measured ≠ T trip
pickup contact t [s]

V stop ≠ V pickup
trip contact t [s]

T59 trip
T measured
T max
REMARK 1
[V]
V stop
V59 pickup
ΔV/s
Vn
t [s]
Relay pickup t [s]
Relay trip
t [s]
T59 trip
T measured
T max
The measured time is different than the trip time
The trip time must be measured with a shot test

REMARK 2
[V]
V stop
V59 pickup
ΔV/s
Vn
t [s]
Relay pickup t [s]
Relay trip
t [s]
T59 trip
T measured
T max
V pickup  Vstop  V  Ttrip T trip must be

s accurately measured !
V pickup  Vstop  V  Tpickup T pickup ≈ pickup BEST CHOICE

s contact action time
REMARK 3
[s]
NO TRIP TRIP How to find

AREA AREA multiple pickup
T V> trip values?
T V>> trip ΔV/s
[V]
[V] Vn V> V>>
V>>
V>
These contacts are

ΔV/s already commutated
Vn
t [s]
Different contacts must
pickup contact t [s] be programmed
trip contact
t [s]
GRADIENT EXAMPLE
Relay settings:
U nominal = 100 [V] ; U pickup = 140 [V] ; T trip = 0.4 [s]
Test settings:
PREFAULT SHOT PREFAULT GRADIENT
V 1  57.735 * (140 / 100) *1.20

V 1  57.7350 V 1  57.7350 Vstart  V 1  V 2  V 2  57.735[V ]
V 2 57.735 * (140 / 100) *1.2240
V 2 57.735240 V 2 57.735240 slope  5[V / s ]
V 3  57.735 * (140 / 100) *1.2120
V 3  57.735120 V 3  57.735120 T max  10[ s ]
T max  0.8[ s]
Vstop  V pickup[V ]  (5[V / s] * 0.016[ s ]) 

--- Measured T trip = 0,416 ---  80.91[V ]
Tmeasured  80.91[V ] /(5[V / s ])  4.618[ s ]
X X
How to test the Drop-out ratio?

[s]
TRIP NO TRIP TRIP

AREA AREA AREA
T27 trip
T59 trip
V27 pickup Vn V59 pickup [V]

V27 reset V59 reset
Moving toward the no trip area, the pickup and trip contacts are reset
when the voltage reaches the reset values
1 Two ramps are necessary to find the pickup

2 and reset voltages
The best choice is to use gradients and monitor the pickup contact to
accurately measure the pickup and reset voltage values
[s]
NO TRIP TRIP
AREA AREA
V59reset
ΔV/s
1
X
V59 pickup
Vn ΔV/s V59 pickup [V]
V59 reset
[V]
V27reset
1
X
ΔV/s
V59 pickup V27 pickup
V59 reset
ΔV/s
Vn
t [s]
pickup
contact
V59 pickup V59 reset

t [s]
measure measure
DROP-OUT RATIO EXAMPLE
Relay settings:
U nominal = 100 [V] ; U pickup = 140 [V] ; Drop-out ratio = 0.95
Test settings:
PREFAULT GRADIENT 1 HOLD GRADIENT 2
V 1  80.91[V ]
V 1  57.7350 Vstart  V 1  V 2  V 2  57.735[V ] Vstart  V 1  V 2  V 2  80.91[V ]
V 2  80.91[V ]
V 2 57.735240 slope  5[V / s ] slope  2[V / s ]
V 3  80.91[V ]
V 3  57.735120 T max  10[ s ] T max  10[ s ]
T max  0.2[ s ]
Vstop  V pickup[V ]  (5[V / s ] * 0.016[ s ]) 

Vstop  Vreset  (2[V / s] * 0.016[ s ])  76.74[V ]
 80.91[V ]
80.91[V ]  76.74[V ]
--- 80.91[V ] --- Tmeas   2.085[ s ]
Tmeas   4.618[ s ] 2[V / s]
5[V / s ]
X X
Drop-out ratio measured = 76.74 / 80.91 = 0.948
FREQUENCY PROTECTION
UNDERFREQUENCY (81U)
OVERFREQUENCY (81O)
RATE OF CHANGE FREQUENCY (81R)
Frequency protection 81U / 81O / 81R - Distribution & Smart Grid
The frequency in a grid is quite constant

everywhere and it’s very close to the value for
which it has been designed.
This voltage is called NOMINAL FREQUENCY
Frequency protections must open the circuit

breaker when the measured frequency differs too
much from the nominal frequency
Any frequency variation is related to the rotating speed variation of

the generators
The rotating speed increases when the generator is unloaded
Overfrequency condition
LOAD 1
LOAD 2
G LOAD 3
LOAD 4
Nominal Frequency
Vice versa the rotating speed decreases when the generator is overloaded
Nominal Frequency
LOAD 1
LOAD 2
G LOAD 3
LOAD 4
Underfrequency condition
When the power demand is close to the maximum power availability, some
areas of the grid must be disconnected to avoid the collapse
The disconnection of some areas from the generators is called
LOAD SHEDDING
The frequency variation is not sudden, but it changes with a kind of ramp
Usually the protection against frequency swing is a combination of
* Time independent underfrequency characteristic 81U
* Time independent overfrequency characteristic 81O
* Time independent rate of change frequency characteristic 81R
All these protective functions are active and they overlap
Attention must be paid during the testing !

A tipical relay settings can be the combination of the following characteristic

[s]
TRIP NO TRIP TRIP

AREA AREA AREA
T81U trip
T81O trip
F81U pickup Fn F81O pickup [F]
[s]
These two TRIP NO TRIP Here the

AREA AREA controlled
trip areas parameter is the
overlap frequency
T81R trip derivative
- dF81R / dt 0 [dF/dt]
pickup
Why these two trip areas overlap?

Relay settings:
F nominal = 50 [Hz]
F81U pickup = 48 [HZ] ; T81U trip = 0.3 [s]
dF81R /dt pickup = - 1 [Hz/s] ; T81R trip = 0 [s] (istantanueous)
SHOT GRADIENT
[Hz] [Hz]
dF81R dF81R
pickup pickup
Fn dt Fn dt
F81U F81U
pickup dF pickup dF dF81R
   pickup
dt dt dt
t [s] t [s]
pickup
t [s] contact t [s]
pickup
trip
contact
t [s] contact t [s]
trip
T measured ≈ 0 [s] 0 [s] < T measured < T81U trip
contact
81R will always trip and T81U trip cannot be measured

SOLUTION 1 : enable only one protective function
This is the easiest way to avoid that the two protective functions
interfere with each other
If it is not possible to disable one protective function, the

overlapping can be avoided by setting a very long trip time to the
protective function that must be escluded
SOLUTION 2 : measure the time difference between the pickup and trip contact
[Hz]
dF dF
 81R pickup First test
Fn dt dt
F81U pickup
Gradient with a variation
dF81R slower then dF81R /dt pickup
pickup
dt
t [s]
When the frequency
pickup contact t [s] reaches F81U pickup, 81U
trip contact
t [s] protection trips after its time
≈ 0.3 [s] setting
[Hz]
dF81R
Fn dt
pickup Second test
dF dF
F81U pickup  81R pickup Gradient with a variation
dt dt
faster then dF81R /dt pickup
t [s]
pickup contact
t [s] 81R protection trips
trip contact
t [s]
≈ 0 [s]
SOLUTION 3 : program different contacts to 81U and 81R protection

dF81R
A [Hz] dt
pickup B [Hz]
Fn Fn
A: measure of T81U trip
F81U pickup
t [s] t [s] B: 81U no trip

81R pickup contact t [s] t [s]
81R trip contact
t [s] t [s] A & B  verify of
81U pickup contact t [s] t [s] F81U pickup
81U trip contact
t [s] t [s]
≈ 0.3 [s]
C [Hz] D [Hz]
Fn Fn
C: measure of T81R trip
F81U pickup
t [s] t [s]
81R pickup contact
D: 81R no trip
t [s] t [s]
81R trip contact
t [s] t [s]
81U pickup contact
C & D  verify of
t [s] t [s]
dF81R /dt pickup
81U trip contact
t [s]
≈ 0 [s] ≈ 0.3 [s] t [s]
CONCLUSIONS
The operations that must be done to test properly a protection relay are
1 - Connect the relay to DRTS
2 - Generate the PREFAULT condition
3 - Check the wiring:

* what the test set is generating must be correctly measured by the relay
* the relay must not trip
* check the status of the pickup and trip contacts (normally open / closed )
4 – Prepare the FAULT condition:

* be sure of the proper test selection (SHOT, DELTA RAMP, GRADIENT)
* set the maximum fault time to be long enough
* set the digital input contacts (Dry, wet, NO, NC)
5 – Generate the FAULT condition and get results

PHASE OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT (Time Independent) (50)
INVERSE TIME OVERCURRENT (Time Dependent) (51)
Phase overcurrent protection 50 / 51 - Distribution & Smart Grid
During the normal operation, in the lines flow the load current
In case of fault the current increases to very high amplitude values
The overcurrent protection must open the circuit breaker with a time
delay that is adequate to the fult current level
High fault current Time Independent ( Instanteneous) (50)
Low fault current Time Dependent (Time-delayed trip) (51)

There are two main family of trip characteristic
TIME INDEPENDENT TIME DEPENDENT

[s] [s]
NO TRIP NO TRIP
TRIP AREA TRIP AREA
AREA AREA
T trip
[A] [A]
I > pickup I > pickup
When the fault current rises beyond When the fault current rises beyond
the pickup value, the trip time is the pickup value, the trip time is
independent from the current value dependent from the current value
The Time Dependent characteristics are classified into IEC and ANSI standard
(and other)
Generic IEC formula
A * TD  K1
Ttrip  P
 B * TD  K 2
 I 
 
I 
 pickup 
Generic ANSI formula
B D E
Ttrip  M * A  M * M* M*
 I   I 
2
 I 
3
 C  C  C
I  I  I 
 pickup   pickup   pickup 
The IEC and ANSI standards define a list of particular characteristic curves
with predefined values of the coefficients in the generic formulas
Examples are
0.14
Ttrip  TD[ s ] * 0.02
 I 
IEC Class A Normal Inverse  
I 
 pickup 
13.5
IEC Class B Very Inverse Ttrip  TD[ s ] *
 I 
 
I 
 pickup 
Different curves allow to adjust the trip time in order to match the best
coordination with other protections in the grid
TD = 1.1[s]
Time [s]
IEC Class A Normal Inverse
IEC Class B Very Inverse
Current [A]
If a Time Dependent characteristic is selected in the relay setting, only two

parameters are available
* I pickup
* TD [s] : Time Dial (or Time

Multiplier)
Time [s]
TD = 1.1[s]
NOTE: it’s possible to
find relays that use the
trip time at 10 times
the pickup current as
time multiplier
TD = 0.1[s]
Current [A]
Time Dependent and Time Independent characteristic can be combined
Time Dependendent
curves are used to protect
against overload
conditions
Time Independendent
curves are used to protect
against fault conditions
STATUS OF THE NEUTRAL
The neutral status is defined by the power transformer neutral connection
The neutral can be
Y Δ
ISOLATED
Y Y If Z = 0 [Ω]
the neutral is called
EARTHED
Z SOLID EARTHED
In case of fault in one feeder of the Distribution Grid, the fault

current can be extremely high because many parallel feeders can
contribute to feeding the fault
Y Y
For this reason the Distribution grid is usually an isolated neutral

network or earthed network with a finite impedance in order to reduce as
much as possible the fault current
Faults simulation in Isolated Neutral networks
When one of the conductors touches the ground, the fault current cannot
flow through the ground, so the loop is closed by the equivalent
capacitance of the other cables not involved in the fault
CTs
LC
LB 50
Y Δ LA 51
X IA IB IC
The fault current IA is divided into the healty phases, where flows in the
opposite direction
IB IC I A  I B  180
Amplitude IA   Phase shift I B  I C
2 2
RELAY CONNECTIONS
LC P1 P2 RELAY
S1 S2
LB P1 P2
DI CB STATUS
S1 S2
LA P1 P2
OPEN CMD
S1 S2
IA
Wye 50
connected IB
CTs
IC 51
RELAY CONNECTIONS TO DRTS 66
DI
IA
IB
IC
CB STATUS
OPEN CMD
50 51
Phase overcurrent test software
How to define the overcurrent characteristic
Add characteristic
curve
Select the
characteristic
curve type
and set the
other
parameters
Set nominal values
CT ratio
and then set the tolerances for the automatic Pass/Fail result assessment
According to the CT ratio, all currents can be expressed as
Secondary side values
Primary side values
Relative (Per Unit) values

According to the nominal frequency, all the timing can be expressed as
seconds
cycles
NOTE: in this example the nominal frequency is 50 Hz, where 1 cycle = 20 ms

Once the setting of all parameters is completed, the testing can start
NO TRIP
TRIP AREA
AREA
Time and Current Maximum current

tolerances generable from each
DRTS current channel
DIRECTIONAL PHASE OVERCURRENT

PROTECTION
(67)
Directional phase overcurrent protection 67 - Distribution & Smart Grid
The Directional phase overcurrent protection is, as the name suggests,

a phase overcurrent protection plus a directional element that controls
the current flow direction
The directional element is fundamental in case of parallel feeders
A fault in one feeder is seen by

the other relay installed in the
parallel feeder
Relay
Y Δ GRID
Relay
Voltage inputs are added to the relay to implement the directional

element
Faults simulation in Isolated Neutral networks

Phase to ground fault
• the fault current returns through the two healthy phases and not through the ground
• the fault current magnitude does not depend upon the fault location
• the voltage of the faulty phase is reduced
• the voltage of the healthy phases is increased
LC
LB
67
LA Amplitude
IB IC
IA  
Y Δ IA IB IC 2 2
LC
LB Phase shift
67
LA
RF
X IA IB IC
I A  I B  180
I B  I C
The voltage of the faulty phase is reduced as much as the fault resistance is small,
while the voltage of the two healthy phases increases and the phase to phase
voltages remain constant
   
VCn VC  VCn 3 VCn
  
U CA U CA U CA
      
U BC V An U BC VA  VAn U BC VA  0
  
U AB U AB U AB
   
VBn VB  VBn 3 VBn
No fault Fault on Phase A Fault on Phase A
RF   RF  10[] RF  0[]
The phase to phase voltage of the two healthy lines is used as reference
quantity for the directional discrimination
Phase to phase fault

• the fault current flows into the two faulty phases loop
• the loss of two phase voltages make difficult the directional discrimination
• a backup 50/51 can be used to protect the line against severe phase to phase
faults
LC
IB
LB Amplitude
67
IA
LA
I A  IB
Y Δ
LC Phase shift
LB
67 I A  I B  180
LA
Definition of the trip sector
The directional element computes the phase shift between the phase
current and the phase to phase voltage of the other two phases
C C
  C
U CA IB

IA
A A A
 
U BC U AB
B B B

Ic
When the current in any phase rises over the pickup value, the
corresponding element is activated
The trip sector is defined by an angle range where the phase shift of the
controlled quantities must lie to make the relay trip
BACKWARD BACKWARD FORWARD

LC
C
LB
 67
IA LA IA
A Y Δ
 LC
U BC LB
LA
B
FORWARD
Trip sector parameters
MTA
 Lagging
IA limit
I pickup
 
Leading
U BC U BC
Fault angle Leading
limit
limit
ANGLE REFERENCE VOLTAGE
I pickup
Counterclockwise  Lagging
positive angle IA limit
convention
Clockwise
positive angle
convention
MTA
Phase sequence
The phase sequence defines the angle reference values
ABC ACB
 
VC VB
 
U CA U AB
   
U BC VA U BC VA
 
U AB  30 U AB  330
   
U AB U BC  270 U CA U BC  90
  

VB U CA  150 VC U CA  210
Can be easily noted that a mistake in the wiring leads to a mistake in the
directional discrimination
RELAY CONNECTIONS (CTs starpoint toward line)
RELAY
LC P1 P2
S1 S2 DI CB STATUS
LB P1 P2
S1 S2
LA P1 P2 OPEN CMD
S1 S2
VA
Wye VB
connected
CTs VC
Wye 67
connected
VTs IA
IB
IC
RELAY CONNECTIONS (CTs starpoint toward busbar)

RELAY
LC P1 P2
S1 S2 DI CB STATUS
LB P1 P2
S1 S2
LA P1 P2 OPEN CMD
S1 S2
VA
Wye VB
connected
CTs VC
Wye 67
connected
VTs IA
IB
IC
From the relay point of view, the current is “positive” if it flows inside the
terminal marked with a dot
LC LC
LB Wye connected LB Wye connected
CTs CTs
LA (toward line) LA (toward busbar)
IA IB IC IA IB IC
RELAY RELAY
In this case the currents

direction is considered
“opposite” then the actual
direction
Usually there is a parameter where the CTs starpoint side is declared in

order to consider always the correct direction of the current flow
The correction is performed by adding 180° to each current
LC LC
LB Wye connected LB Wye connected
CTs CTs
LA (toward busbar) LA (toward busbar)
OPPOSITE ! CORRECT !
IA IB IC IA IB IC
CT side Line CT side Busbar
In case this parameter is not available, the correction must be performed

with a proper wiring
RELAY CONNECTIONS TO DRTS 66
DI
VA
VB
VC
IA
IB
IC
CB STATUS
OPEN CMD
67
Phase overcurrent test software
How to define the overcurrent characteristic and the trip sector
Add
characteristic
curve
Select the
characteristic
curve type
Choose the direction

Set nominal values
and then set the tolerances for the automatic Pass/Fail result assessment
Angle
tolerances
TRIP AREA
FAULT
NO TRIP ANGLE
AREA
NO TRIP
AREA
TRIP AREA
Time and Current tolerances

Maximum current generable from
each DRTS current channel
Each current pickup value has its own directional element, so the trip sectors
can overlap
Must be noted that the overcurrent characteristic curve changes according to the
fault angle
EARTH FAULT OVERCURRENT

PROTECTION
INSTANTANEOUS E.F. OVERCURRENT (50N)
TIME-DELAY E.F. OVERCURRENT(51N)
Earth fault overcurrent protection 50N / 51N - Distribution & Smart Grid
The Earth fault overcurrent protective function provides a more sensitive

protection against phase to ground fault
The controlled parameter is the Residual current and not the Phase current
Ideally the residual current is different then zero only in case of earth fault
What is the Residual current?
The 3-phase current (and voltage) system can be expressed by another mathematical
representation called Symmetrical Components
 
IA 1 1 1 I0 Zero sequence current
 1 
Phase currents IB   1  2   I1 Positive sequence current
 3 
IC 1  2 I2 Negative sequence current
2
 i
where  e 3
represents a phase shift of 120°
Symmetrical components provide additional information about the status of the

line, in particular the zero sequence current is different then zero only in case of
earth fault  
I residual  3  I 0
Faults simulation in Earthed Neutral networks
When one of the conductors touches the ground, the fault current flows
through the ground toward the earthed point, so the loop is closed by
the earthing impedance connected to the transformer
CTs
LC
LB 50N
Y Y LA 51N
IA
RF
Z IA IA
IA
   
I0

1 1 1 IA

1 1 1 IA IA 3   
1
I1  1  2
1
 IB   1   2  0  0 I residual  3  I 0  I A
 3  3
I2 1 2  IC 1 2  0 0
How to measure the residual current?
From the formula can be noted that the residual current is three times the
vectorial sum of the three phase currents
 
  1      
I residual  3  I 0  3  I A  I B  I C  I A  I B  I C
3
That’s why the residual current is ideally zero if the three phase currents are
perfectly balanced (only the positive sequence is different then zero and it is
equal to the three phase current system)
The residual current can be measured as follow
Conventional Phase CTs Core balance CT
LC LC
LB 50N LB 50N
LA 51N LA 51N
Internally computed Directly measured

The earthing impedance can be
Y Y Y Y
Resistive Inductive (Peterson coil)
Both solutions have the task to reduce the fault current to avoid the fault current when the
ground is involved
The Peterson coil has a variable reactance that can be tuned to compensate the equivalent
capacitance of the cables. If the coil reactance perfectly compensates the cable reactance,
the fault current is ideally zero
The use of core balance CT is suitable when the fault current (i.e. the residual
current) is very low and a very sensitive measurement is needed
A core balanced CT is a good solution when the earthing impedance is

temporally disconnected for maintenance.
While the earthing impedance is disconnected the neutral becomes isolated
LC
50N
Y Y LB 50N
51N Y Y LA 51N
Z
Z IA IB IC
     
I0 1 1 1 IA 1 1 1 2I A 2I A  I A  I A
 1  1  1   
I1  1  2  I B   1   2   I A   2 I A  I A   2 I A
 3  3  3   
I2 1 2  IC 1  2   IA 2 I A   2 I A  I A

I0  0 The residual current is ideally zero!

  2   2
I 1 I A

3 Due to the not perfect symmetry

  2  2 
I 2 I A
 of the circuit a very small
residual current will flow
3
RELAY CONNECTIONS (Conventional CTs)
LC P1 P2 RELAY
S1 S2
LB P1 P2
DI CB STATUS
S1 S2
LA P1 P2
OPEN CMD
S1 S2
IA 50N
Wye
connected IB
CTs
IC 51N
RELAY CONNECTIONS (Core balanced CT)
P1 P2
LC RELAY
LB
DI CB STATUS
LA
OPEN CMD
50N
Neutral
S2 S1
conductor if
present IRES 51N
Cable
sheath
Earth fault overcurrent test software
How to define the overcurrent characteristic
Add characteristic
curve
Select the
characteristic
curve type
and set the
other
parameters
Set nominal values and Generation mode
Set Generation mode to match the measurement input configuration of the relay.
In case of one current, set the core balanced CT ratio.
DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT

OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
(67N)
Directional earth fault overcurrent protection 67N - Distribution & Smart Grid
The Directional earth fault overcurrent protection is, as the name

suggests, an earth fault overcurrent protection plus a directional
element that controls the current flow direction
If the desired sensitivity cannot be achieved with the earth fault

protection 50N / 51N alone, a directional element must be added
Voltage inputs are added to the relay to implement the directional

element
The controlled parameters are

• Residual current  Ires
• Residual voltage  Vres
• Phase shift between Ires and Vres
NOTE: the residual current and voltage are called Polarizing Quantities
What is the Residual voltage?
The 3-phase voltage system can be expressed by another mathematical representation

called Symmetrical Components
 
VA 1 1 1 V0 Zero sequence voltage
 1 
Phase voltages VB   1  2
  V1 Positive sequence voltage
 3 
VC 1   V2
2
Negative sequence voltage
2
 i
where  e 3
represents a phase shift of 120°
Symmetrical components provide additional information about the status of the

line, in particular the zero sequence voltage is different then zero only in case of
earth fault
 
Vresidual  3 V0
How to measure the residual voltage?
From the formula can be noted that the residual voltage is three times the
vectorial sum of the three phase voltages
 
  1      
Vresidual  3 V0  3  VA  VB  VC  VA  VB  VC
3
That’s why the residual voltage is ideally zero if the three phase voltages are
perfectly balanced (only the positive sequence is different then zero and it is
equal to the three phase voltage system)
The residual voltage can be measured as follow

Phase VTs
Open Delta VTs
LC LC
LB LB
LA 67N LA 67N
Internally computed Directly measured

What is the Open Delta VTs?
It is the series of three delta connected voltage transformers, in this way it’s possible to
perform the vectorial sum of the three phase voltages

VC

U CA
 
VC VA 
 Vres 
U BC VA

VB  
Vres U AB

VB
Usually the VTs used to make an Open Delta have a special ratio to reduce
the maximum voltage across the terminals
VLL primary VLLsecondary

KTV 
3 3
The maximum voltage across the Open Delta VTs terminals occurs in case of single
phase to ground fault in an isolated neutral network:

VA  0 (Fault on Phase A)
Standard ratio
30 VLL primary VLLsecondary
KVT 1 
3 3
 
 VLN primary  VLN primary
3 VC  3  3 VB  3  Special ratio
KVT KVT
VLL primary VLLsecondary
KVT 2 
3 3
  
 VLN primary 3 VLN primary VLN primary
Vres  2  cos(30)  3   2  3  3
KVT 2 KVT KVT
Since KVT2 = 1.73*KVT1 , the same fault produces a 57,7% greater voltage if
standard ratio VTs are used. This fact leads to a cheaper relay voltage input design.
Definition of the trip sector
The directional element computes the phase shift between the residual current
and residual voltage
NOTE: if the residual quantities are not suitable to protect the feeder, can be
substitute by the negative sequence quantities 
VC

VC
 
I res 3I 2
 
 VA  VA
Vres 3V2
 
VB VB
Residual quantities Negative sequence quantities

Trip sector parameters
MTA
 Lagging
I res limit
I pickup
 
Leading
Vres Vres
Fault angle Leading
limit
limit
ANGLE REFERENCE VOLTAGE
I pickup
Counterclockwise  Lagging
positive angle I res limit
convention
Clockwise
positive angle
convention
MTA
RELAY CONNECTIONS
These are the most common relay connections
Open Delta VTs

VA VA
Phase VTs
Phase VTs
VB VB Vres
VC VC
67N 67N 67N
Core balanced CTs

Core balanced CTs
IA
Phase CTs
IB Ires Ires
IC
NOTE: the phase VTs and CTs can be substitute with voltage and current sensor,
they provide a low voltage signal proportional to the primary voltage or current
Earth fault overcurrent test software

How to define the overcurrent characteristic and the trip sector
Add
characteristic
curve
Select the
characteristic
curve type
Choose the direction

Set nominal values and Generation mode
Set Generation mode to match the measurement input configuration of the relay.
In case of one current, set the core balanced CT ratio.
In case of one voltage, set the residual voltage ratio
Angle
tolerances
TRIP AREA
FAULT
ANGLE
NO TRIP
AREA
NO TRIP
AREA
TRIP AREA
Time and Current tolerances Maximum current generable from

each DRTS current channel
Each current pickup value has its own directional element, so the trip sectors
can overlap
Must be noted that the overcurrent characteristic curve changes according to the
fault angle

Distribution &amp; Smart Grid

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Distribution &amp; Smart Grid

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Workshop on Distribution Relay Testing & Smart Grid

Author : Eng. Simone Meneghin

Trainer : Andrej Sepcic

The Power Grid is divided in two main grids

The transmission grid is

• Meshed, all nodes of the grid are interconnected

In case of faults the probability of wide service outages is

• Fast service recovering

The distribution grid is

• Not meshed, due to the presence of many consumers

In case of faults there is the probability of disconnection

Can a solution be found?

The main benefits of a SMART GRID are

• Distributed generation: many small power plants instead of few

To build a SMART GRID are necessary

• High tecnology devices

The grid is composed by many complex and very expensive equipments

In case of fault, the faulty area must be identified and disconnected as

• serious damages due to strong electrical stress

A proper protective system must be implemented

The core of the protective system are the

Relay transient disturbance

• if the fault is NOT located in

The energy demand is The grids complexity is

Power quality and power reliability

Proper test equipments

The voltage in a grid is quite constant everywhere

Voltage protections must open the circuit breaker

Undervoltage conditions Loss of stability

Overvoltage conditions Collapse of insulation equipments

In case of fault there is no more

RELAY CONNECTIONS (phase to ground)

UAB UCA DI CB STATUS

UBC OPEN CMD

RELAY CONNECTIONS (phase to phase)

UAB UCA DI CB STATUS

UBC OPEN CMD

4 binary outputs 2 analog inputs 12 digital / analog(1) inputs

LCD display 6 current 6 voltage Auxiliary Vdc

RELAY CONNECTIONS TO DRTS (examples)

Phase to ground Phase to phase

Each voltage threshold V (or U) pickup has an associated Trip Time

Trip command NOT released Trip command released

RELAY TRIP CHARACTERISTIC

TRIP NO TRIP TRIP

V27 pickup Vn V59 pickup [V]

How to test a Time Independent characteristic?

Generate the PREFAULT condition

 the voltages must be measured properly by the relay

Generate the FAULT condition

SHOT TEST the easiest way to simulate a fault

The voltage is reduced or increased with a voltage step

The pickup voltage

The fault voltage cannot be equal to the pickup voltage value !

T27 trip ZOOM IN

Very close around the threshold there is an uncertainty area

Measured T trip = T1 + Nominal T trip + T2

PREFAULT SHOT1 PREFAULT SHOT 2

V 1  57.735 * (60 / 100) *1.050 V 1  57.735 * (60 / 100) * 0.950

Measured T trip = timeout Measured T trip = 0.213 [s]

RAMP TEST find the pickup voltage

The voltage is continuosly reduced or increased

There are two different ramp type

DELTA RAMP : the voltage ΔV

Distribution & Smart Grid

Distribution & Smart Grid

V 1  57.735 * (60 / 100) 1.050 V 1  57.735 (60 / 100) * 0.950