System Analysis and Design

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Module I: Understanding System Concepts and Use

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within Industry
Unit 1. 1: Int rod uct ion t o t he Sy st em a nd It s Imp ort an c e

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Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

• De f in e t he I ntr o d uc t i o n a nd M e a ni n g of Sy s t em .
• Dis c us s t he Sy s t e m Im por t anc e .
• Ex pl a i n th e C har ac ter i s tic s of a Sy s t e m .
• Dis c us s t he E le m en ts of a Sy s t e m .

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• Dis c us s R ol e o f s y s te m / In fo rm at i o n s y s t em in c re at i n g ef fec t iv e
org a n iz a t io n .
• Ex pl a i n th e Ty p es o f S y s te ms
• Ex pl a i n th e C at e gor i es o f i nf or ma t io n

1. 1. 1 Int ro du ct io n an d M e an ing of S y ste m si

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Pr ob l e ms ar e s o lv e d thr o ug h th e us e of s y s te ms . T he s y s t e ms ap pr o ac h c a n b e
th o ug ht o f as a s y s t em a tic ap pr oac h t o s o lv i n g a n is s u e . I n t od ay 's f as t - p ac e d
env ir o nm e nt , th e s u bj ec t Sy s t em A n a ly s is an d D es i g n ( S AD ) f oc us es o n s of tw ar e
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dev e l op m en t.

A s y s t em is a c o l lec t io n of c om p on e nts t h at op er at e t og e th er t o ac h iev e s o m e

go a ls . I n g e ner a l, ev er y s y s t em has t hr ee k e y c o m po n en ts : in p ut , p roc es s i n g, a n d
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ou t pu t.
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Th e v ar io us c o m po n en ts of a s y s t e m ar e i nt e rd e p e nd e nt a n d c on n e c te d t o on e
an o th er. T h e hu m a n b ody , f or ex a m p le , is a c om p l et e n at ur al s y s t e m. We are als o
ti e d by a n u mb er o f n a ti o na l s y s t e ms , s uc h a s t he po l it ic a l, ec o no m ic , an d
ed uc at i on a l s y s t ems . Th e s y s te m's g o a l n ec es s it at es t ha t s o me ou tp ut be pr o d uc e d
as a r es u lt o f pr oc es s i ng t h e a ppr o pr ia te i np uts . A w e ll - d es ig n e d s y s te m a ls o
m

i nc l u des a fe e db ac k e l em e nt k n o wn as 'c o ntr o l,' w h ic h of fers in p ut to h e l p th e

s y s te m ac h iev e i ts g o a ls .

1. 1. 2 S y st em Im po rt a nc e
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Tec hn o l ogy i m pr ov e m en ts o n a r eg u l ar bas i s g iv e org a n is a t io ns w it h o pp or tu n ity t o

i nc or p ora t e th e mos t up - t o- d a te k no w le d ge i nt o t he ir da i ly o p era t i ons . Th e us e of
s y s te m an a ly s is a n d d es ig n t o ad dr es s in t er na l pr ob l e ms , i nc re as e e ff ic i enc y , an d
ex t e nd pros p ec ts has a d ir ec t im p ac t on a c o m pa ny 's bo tt o m l i ne . As a res u lt ,
we i gh i n g th e b e ne f its i s a w or t hy e n de av our for b us i nes s ow ners a nd ma n ag ers .
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Cus tom iz e d App ro ac h

Th e da t a- pr oc es s in g r eq u ir e me nts o f a c om p any di ff er b as ed o n th e ty pe o f
c om p any a nd t he s iz e o f its op er at i o ns . W he t her a pp l i ed fo r s pec i f ic pr oj ec ts or
 ac ros s t he e nt ir e br e ad t h o f a c o mp a ny 's ac t iv it i es , s y s te m a na ly s is a n d d es ig n
as s is t e nt er pr is es . B y d is c ov er i ng a n d ev a lu at i n g t h e c om p any 's s tr en g ths a nd

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l im i ta t io ns , s y s t e m an a ly s is an d d es i g n as s is ts a f ir m in i de n ti fy in g b ot h
op p ort u n it i es a nd c h a l l en g es . F oc us i n g on t he c om p any 's s tr en gt hs wh i l e s tr iv in g
for c o nt i n uo us d ev e l o pm e nt i n ar eas w h er e it f a lls s h or t al l ows th e c o mp a ny to

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i mpr ov e q ua l ity f r o m a c r os s b oar d .

Comp et ing
Mo re an d mor e o r g a n is a t io ns , ac c ord i n g to T h e O h i o S t at e Un iv ers ity F is her
Co l l eg e o f B us i nes s , mus t d is c ov e r s tra t eg i es to c o mp et e g l o ba l l y . In ma ny c as es ,

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th is e nt a ils t h e lar g e - s c a le d ev e l o pm e nt a n d de p loy m e nt of e - c o m merc e. I n c as es
wh e n t h e in te gr at i o n of a g lo b a l in fo rm at i o n s y s t e m is nec es s ary , s y s t e m a n a ly s is
an d des i g n a r e c r i t ic a l. Im pr ov e d m ark e t c ov er a g e ar e a, wh ic h of te n r es ul ts i n
i nc re as ed ear n i ngs , is o n e of t h e be n ef i ts of c o m pe t in g g l ob a l ly .

1. 1. 3 Ch a ra ct e ri st i c s of a S yst em
Ch ar ac t er is t ic s a n d ty pes of s y s t em :

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O rg an iz at ion
• ord er a n d s tr uc t ur e
• A n ex a m p le is a c o m p any 's h ier arc h ic a l s tr u c tur e.
• Co m pu te r s y s t em : t he a r r a n ge m e nt of n u m e rous c o mp o ne n ts s uc h as i n pu t,
ou t pu t, C P U, a n d s tor ag e d ev ic es .

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• Str uc tur e a n d or d er a r e i m p li e d by or g an is at i on . It c an a ls o be de f in e d as
th e c o nf i gu r a t io n o f c o mp o ne n ts th at a ids in th e ac h iev e me n t of g o a ls .
• For ex a mp l e, i n t he d es ig n of a c om p any s y s te m, t h e or ga n is a t io n s truc t ure
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is re pr es e n te d by th e h i er arc h ic a l l i nk s t ha t s tar t w it h t h e pr es id en t a t t he
to p a n d l ea d d o wn to t h e work ers . As a r es u l t, t h e a ut h or ity s t ruc t ur e is
es t a bl is h ed , as w e ll a s t he off ic i a l c o mm u n i c at i on f l ow .
• A n i np ut d ev ic e, a c en tr al proc es s i ng u n it , an o ut p ut d ev ic e, a nd o n e or
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mo re s t o r ag e u n its ar e a l l b u il t i nt o a c o m p ut er s y s te m .

Int er a ctio n
•
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Interactions between subsystems or components

• For instance, the main memory stores the data that the ALU must process.
• The way each component interacts with the other components of the system is referred to as
interaction.
• i.e., each component of a system should interact with one another.
• For example, in a company, there should be interaction between the purchasing and
production departments, as well as advertising and sales, and payroll and employees.
• To address a problem in a computer system, the central processing unit must interface with
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the input device. The main memory, in turn, stores programmes and data that the arithmetic
unit utilises to do calculations.

Int er dep en de nc e
m

• L ink a ge b e tw e en c o m po n en ts
• De p en d enc e o n c o mp o ne n ts
• Th is is o n e of a s y s t e m's m os t s ig n if ic a nt pr op er ti es .
• In ter d ep e n de nc e r ef er s t o th e i n ter d ep e nd e n c e of t h e p arts or c om po n en ts
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of a n or g an is at i o n or c om p ut er s y s t em . E ac h c o m po n en t or s ec t io n s o f a n
org a n is a t io n s h o ul d b e d e pe n de nt on t h e ot h er c o mp o ne n ts . F or op ti m a l
fu nc t i o ni n g, o n e c o mp on e nt or s ubs y s t em r e qu ir es t he in p ut o f a no th er
s ubs y s t em , i .e . o ne s u bs y s t e m's o ut p ut is r e qu ir e d i np u t for a n ot h er
s ubs y s t em . For ex a m p l e, t he us er in i t ia tes t h e d ec is i o n to c o m p ut er is e an
ap p l ic a t io n , th e a n aly s t an a ly s es an d d es i gn s i t, a n d t he c o m p ut er op er at or
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pro gr a mm es a n d tes ts i t. I n t he d i a gra m b e l ow , n on e o f th es e pe o p le c a n

fu nc t i o n pr op er ly w it h ou t t he as s is ta nc e of ot h ers i n th e c o m pu te r c e ntr e
s ubs y s t em .
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Int eg rat ion

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• Ho w s u bs y s t e ms ar e c on n ec t e d to m e et t h e s y s te m's g o a l
• Th e t er m " i nt e gr at i on " a l l ud es t o t he ho l is ti c n a tur e o f s y s t ems . To f u lf i l
th e or g an iz at i o n's f un da m en t a l g oa l , s y nt h e s is c o m es a ft er a n aly s is . It is
c onc er n ed w it h th e way a s y s t em is c o nn ec te d. I t's m ore t h an j us t
s har i n g a p hy s ic a l s p a c e or por t io n . I t me a n s th a t ev e n if e ac h p o rti o n of
th e s y s te m p er f or ms a dis t inc t fu nc t i o n, t h e pi ec es of th e s y s t e m w ork
to g et her w i t hi n t he s y s te m.

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Cen tr al O b j ect iv e

• I t s h o ul d b e k n ow n t hr o u g ho ut t h e e arl y s t ag es o f th e a n aly s is .
• A s y s t em 's fu n da m en ta l g o al is i ts fi n a l c ha rac t er is t ic . Re a l or d e c l are d g o als

si
are bo th ac c e p ta b le . T he c r uc i a l e l em e nt is t ha t f or a s uc c es s f u l d es ig n a nd
c onv ers i on , us er s m us t un d er s t a nd t h e c or e go a l o f a c o mp u ter a p p lic a ti o n
ear ly in t h e a na ly s is .
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1. 1. 4 E l em ent s o f a S yst e m

A s y s t em is a n i nt er c o nn ec te d s e t of b us i nes s o p era t io ns (or c om p on e nts ) t h at

fu nc t i o n to g et he r for a s p ec if ic g o al w i th i n a s i ng l e b us i n es s u n it . I n th e p ay r o ll
de p art m en t, f or ex a mp l e, a s y s t e m k ee ps tr a c k o f c h ec k s , w her e as a n i nv en to ry
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s y s te m k e eps t r ac k o f go o ds . T he t w o s y s t e ms ar e i nd e pe n d en t of o n e an o th er .
Th ere are n i n e c h ar ac t er is t ic s t ha t d ef i ne a s y s te m. E ac h a ttr i b ut e i s ex p la i n ed in
de p th b e l ow ; th e s y s t e m oc c ur s i n s id e a br o a der w or l d, o r env ir o nm en t. T he
 s y s te m is s e p ar at ed f r om its s u r r o u nd i n gs by a b or de r. Th e s y s t e m rec e iv es i n pu t
fro m t he ou ts id e w or ld , pr oc es s es i t, a n d th e n r et ur ns t he o u tc o m e to its

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s urr ou n di n gs .

El e men ts of a Sy st e m:

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On
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1. Comp on ent s: A s u bs y s te m is a n i rre d uc ib l e par t or a g gr eg at e o f p i ec es t h at
mak es u p a s y s t e m.
2. Int er r el at ed co mpon e nt s: D ep e n de nc e of o ne s y s t e m c o mp o ne n t on on e or
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mo re o t her s y s t e m c o mp o ne n ts .
3. Bound a r y: T h e b ou n d ar y b et we e n th e i n ne r an d ex ter i or o f a s y s t e m,
s ep ar at i n g it fr o m i ts s ur r ou n di n gs .
4. Pu rpo s e: A s y s t e m ’s ov er a l l o bj ec t iv e o r f u nc t i ons .
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5. En vi ro nm ent : Ev er y th i ng t h at i n ter ac ts wi t h a s y s te m fr o m th e o ut s i de .
6. Int erf a ce s: T he p o i nt at w h ic h a s y s te m i n te rac ts w i th its s urr o u nd i ngs or
wh er e s u bs y s t ems in t e r ac t w i th o n e a no t her .
7. Con st ra int s: Th er e is a l i mi t t o wh at a s y s te m c a n ac h i ev e.
8. Input : T he i nf or ma t io n t ha t e nt ers t he s y s t e m fo r proc es s i ng is r ef err ed t o
as i np u ts .
9. O utput : A s y s te m's m a in g o a l is t o pr od uc e an ou tp u t th at is us ef u l t o its
ity

us er . Th e f i na l r es u lt of pr oc es s in g is c al l e d o ut p ut .

1. 1. 5 Ro le of s y st em / I nf o rm at i on s y ste m in c re at ing eff e cti v e org an iz at ion

As a s y s t e ms a n aly s t, y ou w i ll b e ab l e t o ha v e a b i g i m p ac t on h o w y o ur c om p any
m

fu nc t i o ns . Th is l uc r at i v e an d r a p id ly r is i n g ro le c a n b e fo u nd in bo t h la rg e a nd
s ma l l b us in es s es . Ac c or d i n g t o ID C, a re n o wn e d c ons u lt i ng f ir m, e mp l oy me n t in
i nf or ma t io n t ec hn o l og y ( IT) w i l l ex p a nd at a r at e of mo re th a n 3 % eac h y ear u nt i l
at le as t 20 1 3. Fr o m 2 00 4 t hr ou g h 2 01 4, t h e B ur e au of L a bor St a t is t ic s f or ec as ts
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fur th er ris es i n th e n um b er of IT p os it i ons . Du ri n g t h is t im e , t h e pr of es s io n a l I T

work fo rc e in th e U n it ed St a tes is ex pec t ed t o gr ow by m or e th a n 1 m i l l io n n e w
pos i t io ns . W or k er s in t he f i e ld of i n for m at i on tec h no l ogy are s t i l l i n h ig h d e ma n d.
Rol e O f S ys t e m An a l yst : A s y s t ems a na ly s t's maj or r es p o ns i b i l it y is t o r es earc h
a c o m pa ny 's c h a ll e ng es a n d n e eds i n ord e r to d is c ov er h ow pe o p le , t ec hn i qu es ,
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an d i nf or ma t io n t ec hn o lo gy c an b e b es t u ti l is e d to i mp rov e t h e org a n is a t io n . A
s y s te ms a n a ly s t as s is t s s y s te m us ers a n d o t her c o m pa ny ma n ag e me n t i n d ef i ni n g
th e ir n ee ds f or n ew or i mpr ov ed in f orm a ti o n s erv ic es .
 Th e r o le of s y s t e ms a n aly s ts is c r uc ia l i n th e c re at i o n of s y s te ms . T o b e
s uc c es s f ul as a s y s te ms a na ly s t, y o u' l l n ee d to mas te r fo ur d if f er en t s k i l ls :

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• an a ly t ic a l,
• tec h nic a l,

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• ma n ag er i a l, a n d
• i nt erp er s o na l

Un d ers t a nd i ng t he c o mp a ny an d its f unc t io ns , i de n ti fy i ng o pp or tu n it i es a n d is s u es ,

an d an a ly s in g a n d s o l v i ng pr o b l ems a l l re q u ire an a ly t ic a l s k il ls . Sy s t e ms t h ink i n g

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or th e c a p ac i ty t o un d er s t a nd o r g a nis a ti o ns an d i n for m at i on s y s t e ms as s y s t ems ,
are o ne of t h e m os t c r it ic a l a n aly t ic a l t a l e nts y ou c an le ar n. S y s te ms t h ink i n g
prov i d e a fr a m ew or k f or u n der s t an d in g t h e i mp or ta nt l i nk a g es t ha t ex is t be tw e en
i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms , t he or g a nis a ti o ns i n w h ic h t hey ex is t, a n d t h e env ir o nm e nt i n
wh ic h th e c o m pa n i es o pe r a te .
Tec hn ic a l s k i l ls en a bl e y o u t o c o m pr eh e nd b o th th e be n ef its a n d dr aw b ac k s o f

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i nf or ma t io n tec h no l o g y . As an a n aly s t, y o u mus t b e a b l e t o i m ag i ne a n i nf or ma t io n
s y s te m t ha t w i ll as s is t us er s i n s o lv i ng pro b l ems wh i l e a ls o gu i d in g th e d es i gn a n d
dev e l op m en t o f t he s y s t e m. Y ou mus t a ls o b e f a m il i ar w it h p ro gr am m i ng
l an g ua g es l ik e C an d J av a , o pe ra t in g s y s te ms lik e W in d ows an d Li n ux , an d
c om p ut er h ar dw ar e p l at for ms lik e I B M a nd Mac .

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Pr oj ec t m a na g em e nt , r es o ur c e m a na g em en t, r is k ma n ag e me nt ,
ma n ag e m en t ar e a l l th i ngs t h at m a na g em e nt s k i l ls as s is t y o u w it h.
a nd c h an g e
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W ork in g w i t h e n d us er s , as w e l l as o th er an a ly s ts a nd pr o gra m mers , r eq u ir es
i nt erp ers o na l s k i l ls . As a s y s t e ms an a ly s t , y ou 'l l s e rv e as a k ey l i nk be tw e en
us ers , pr ogr a mm er s , an d ot h er I T ex p erts . A na ly s ts mus t gras p ef fec t iv e wr it t en
an d or al c o m mu n ic at i o n, as we l l as ex p ert is e i n c o n duc t in g m ee t in gs , i nt erv i ew i ng
en d us ers , an d l is t en i n g. Th es e fo ur c at e gor i es of s k i lls a re s uc c es s f u lly
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c om b i ne d by e ff ec tiv e an a ly s ts .
E xa mpl e s:
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Co ns id er tw o s c e n a r i os in w h ic h y o u c a n enc o un t er org a n is a t io na l is s u es as a
s y s te ms a na ly s t.
Fir st ,
Y ou w ork i n a l ar ge ma g az in e c o m pa ny 's i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms d ep ar tm e nt . T h e
org a n is a t io n is h av i ng t r o u bl e k ee p i ng i ts s ubs c r i pt i o n l is t u p to da t e a n d c orr ec t,
an d s o m e c o n s u m er s ar e r ec e iv in g t wo p u bl ic at i o ns i ns t e ad o f o ne . If t h e
ity

pro b l ems pe r s is t, th e c o m pa ny w i l l l os e mo n ey a n d s u bs c r ib e rs . Us e rs of th e
c urr en t c o mp u ter s y s t em , as w e l l as f in a nc i a l m an a gers , s u b mi t t he ir pro b l ems t o
y ou an d y o ur c o l l ea gu es i n t h e i nf or ma t i on s y s t e ms d ep ar tm en t i n or d er t o
es t a bl is h a m or e ef f ec tiv e tr ac k in g s y s t em .
S ec ond ,
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Y ou w ork i n a u n iv er s ity 's i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems de p art m en t a nd are t as k ed w i t h

res o lv i n g a n or ga n is a ti o na l is s u e s uc h as s en d i ng s t u de n t gr ad es to th e wr o ng
ad dr es s es .
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Tr an sa ct ion P ro c e ss i ng S yst em s (T P S)
Tra ns ac t io n pr oc es s i n g s y s t e ms ( T P S) ar e t he f ou n da t io n a l b us i n es s s y s t e ms t h at
s up p ort a n or g an iz at i on 's op er at i on a l l ev el . A tr a ns ac t io n pr oc es s i ng s y s t e m is a
c om p ut er is ed s y s t e m th at ex ec u tes an d rec ords th e ev ery day r o u ti n e tr ans ac t i o ns
th at ar e re q ui r e d f or b us in es s o p er at i ons . T he tra ns ac t i o n pr oc es s i ng s y s te ms t h at
s up p ort t h e b us i n es s 's d ay - to - d ay o pe ra t i ons are f o un d a t t h e b ot to m o f th e
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org a n is a t io n a l s tr uc t ur e.
 Co ntr o l Sy s te ms for P r oc es s es M on i tor a n d c on tr ol i n d us tr i al or p hy s ic a l pr oc es s es
wi t h proc es s c o n tr o l s y s te ms .

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Co ntr o l Sy s te ms for P r oc es s es M on i tor a n d c on tr ol i n dus tr i al or p hy s ic a l pr oc es s es
wi t h proc es s c o n tr o l s y s te ms .

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P etr o le u m r ef i n in g , p o wer g e ner at i n g, a nd s t ee l pr o duc t io n s y s te m s ar e on ly a fe w
ex a m p les . A p e tr o l e u m r ef i ner y , f or ex a m p le , us es e lec tr on ic s ens ors l i nk e d t o
c om p ut ers t o c o nt i n uo us ly m on i tor c he m ic a l proc es s es a n d m ak e i ns t a nt (r ea l - ti m e)
mo d if ic at i o ns to c o n tr o l t h e r ef i n ery pr oc es s . Eq u i pm e nt , c o mp ut er pr ogr a m mes ,
an d op er at i o na l p r oc e dur es a ll m ak e u p a proc es s c on tr o l s y s t e m. Co l l ab or at i o n

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S of tw ar e f or Bus i nes s es ( O f f ic e A ut o ma t io n Sy s t e ms ) O ne of th e mos t ex t ens iv e ly
ut i l is e d for ms of i n for ma t io n s y s te ms for as s is t i n g m a na g ers in c on tr ol l i n g t he f l ow
of i n for m at i o n i n bus i n es s es is of f ic e a u to m a ti o n s y s te ms . E nt er pri s e c o l la b ora t io n
s o lu t io ns ( o ff ic e a u to ma t io n s y s t e ms ) i m p rov e c o mm u n ic a t io n an d p ro d uc t iv ity
wi t hi n t ea ms a n d w or k gr o u ps . O t h er for ms o f i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms i nc lu d e of fi c e
au t om at i o n s y s t ems , wh ic h ar e n ot pa rt ic ul ar t o a ny o ne l ev e l of t h e c o mp a ny b ut
prov i d e v i ta l s up p or t t o a w i de r a ng e o f us ers . I n for m at i o n tec h n o lo gy is us e d t o

ty
s up p ort o ff ic e t as k s v i a of f ic e in fo rm at i o n s y s te ms . O ff ic e i nf or ma t i on s y s t e ms c an
ha n d le v o ic e ma i l, m u lt i me d i a s y s t e ms , e l ec tr o nic m a i l, v i d eo c on f ere nc i ng , f i l e
s har i n g, a n d ev en g r o up dec is i ons .

si
Ma na ge me nt Inf o rm a t ion S y st em s
Ma n ag e m en t i nf or ma t i on s y s t e ms ar e a ty p e of c o mp u ter i n for m at i on s y s t e m t h at
may c o l l ec t a n d p r oc es s da ta fr o m ma ny s ourc es t o ai d i n m a na g er ia l d ec is io n -
mak i n g. I nf or m at i on s y s te ms f or m an a ge m e nt T o a id i n c or por at e d ec is io n - m ak i n g,
er
prov i d e i nf or ma t io n i n th e f or m of pre - d e fi n ed r ep or ts a nd dis p lay s . L ow - l ev e l
ma n ag ers a nd s u p er v i s or s oc c u py th e nex t l ev e l o f t he or g an iz a ti o na l h i erarc hy .
Th is l ev e l c o nt a i ns c om p ut er s y s t ems t h at ar e d es i g ne d t o a i d o p er at i on a l
ma n ag e m en t i n mo n it or i ng a n d s up erv is i ng t he c ler ic a l l ev e l's tra ns ac t i on
iv

proc es s i ng ac tiv i t ies . Th e d a ta g en er at e d by t h e T P S is us e d by ma n ag e me n t

i nf or ma t io n s y s t e ms ( MI S) to pr ov id e s up er v is ors w it h t h e r el ev a nt c on tr o l re p orts .
Ma n ag e m en t i nf or ma t i on s y s t e ms , ac c ord i n g t o H as a n, ar e i nf o rm at i on s y s t ems
th at tak e in t er n a l d at a fr o m a s y s t e m a n d s u m m ar is e it i nt o r el ev a n t a nd us ef u l
Un

for m ats s uc h as m a na ge m en t r e p orts , wh ic h ar e t he n us ed t o s u p por t m a na g em e nt

op er at i o ns an d d ec is io n m ak i n g.

De ci s ion S uppo rt Sy st e m s
A C h o ic e S u pp or t S y s te m is a c o mp u ter - bas e d s y s t e m d es i g ne d t o as s is t a
ma n ag er or , mor e c o m mo n ly , a gr ou p of ma n ag ers a t a ny or ga n is a t io n al l ev e l in
mak i n g a d ec is io n i n t he pr oc es s of s o lv i n g a s e m i - s truc tur e d d ec is io n .
He i da rk h a ni c la i ms th at . D ec is i on S u pp or t Sy s t e ms ar e a ty p e of c o m pu te ris e d
ity

org a n is a t io n a l in f or m a ti o n s y s te m th a t as s is ts ma n ag ers i n m ak in g dec is i ons t h at

req u ir e m od e l li n g, f or mu l at i n g, c a lc u la t in g, c om p ar in g , p ic k i n g th e b es t a l ter n at iv e,
or pre d ic ti n g s it u at i on s . D ec is io n - s up p ort s y s te ms , ac c or d in g to K ha n or e e t a l. , are
s pec i f ic a l ly dev e l op e d to as s is t m an a gers i n m ak i ng d ec is i o ns in s it u at i ons w he n
th e pos s i b le e ff ec ts of s uc h ac t io ns ar e unk n ow n. A d ec is io n s up p ort s y s t em ,
m

ac c or d i ng to S h im , is a c o m pu t er - b as ed i nf o rm at i on s y s te m t h at a i ds m an a g ers i n
mak i n g a v ar i ety of c o mp l ic at e d d ec is io ns , s uc h as th os e r eq u ir ed to tac k l e po or ly
de f in e d or s e m i - s tr uc t ur e d s i t ua t io ns .
)A

E xe cut iv e Inf or m at io n Sy st em s
Ex ec u t iv e I nf or ma t io n Sy s t e ms ( E IS ) h av e b ee n d es i g ne d to a l l ow q uic k ac c es s to
bo t h in t ern a l a nd ex t er n a l i nf or m at i on , wh i c h is of t en pr es e nt ed i n a gr ap h ic a l
fas h io n b ut c a n a ls o pr es e nt m or e ex t e ns iv e un d er ly in g d at a if n ee d ed . Ex ec ut iv e
i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms o ff er ex ec u tiv es a nd m an a ge rs w i th es s e nt i al i nf or ma t io n fr om
a v ar i ety o f i n ter n a l a n d ex ter n a l s o urc es ( MI S, D SS , a n d ot h er s o u rc es c us to m is ed
(c

to t he i n for m at i on n ee ds of ex ec ut iv es ) i n e as y - to- us e d is p l a y s . Ac c or d i ng t o
P at ters o n, a n EI S is a s y s te m t h at as s is ts t op ma n ag ers in mak i ng s tr a te g ic a nd
tac t ic a l dec is i ons . An ex ec u tiv e in f orm a t io n s y s te m, ac c ord i n g t o S hi m , is m ea n t t o
 ge n er at e in fo r m at i o n th at is a bs tr ac t e n ou g h t o d is p l ay t h e en t ir e c or p or at e
fu nc t i o n i n a s i m pl i f ie d m a nn er t o s at is fy to p ma n ag e m en t.

e
E xp ert Sy st em s
Ex per t s y s t e ms ar e t h e AI c at e g ory t h at h a s ha d th e m os t s uc c e s s i n d ev e lo p i ng

lin
c om m erc i al a p pl ic a ti o ns . Ex p er t s y s t ems , ac c or d i ng t o O ' Br i e n a nd M ark , a re
k no w le d ge - b as ed s y s te ms th a t prov i d e e x per t a dv i s e a n d op era t e as ex p er t
c ons u lt a nts t o us er s . A n ex p er t s y s t e m, a c c ord i n g t o P at t ers o n , is a c o m p ut er
s of tw ar e t h at a tt e m pt s t o m im i c h u ma n r e as o n i ng . Ex pe rt Sy s te ms , ac c or d in g t o
S hi m , ar e a c o l lec t io n o f c o m pu te r pr og ra m mes t h at d o t as k s at t h e l ev e l o f a

On
hu m an ex p er t.

Know le dge Ma na ge m ent S y st em s

K no w le d ge m an a ge m en t s y s t e ms ar e k n o wl e dg e - b as e d i n for m a ti o n s y s t ems th at
he l p c o mp a ni es c r e at e, or g an is e, a n d d is s e m i na te b us in es s k n ow l ed g e t o
em p l oy e es a n d m a na ger s ac r os s t he or ga n is at i on . K n ow l e dg e m an a ge m e nt is t he
i mp l e me nt a ti o n of a c om pr e he ns iv e s y s t e m th at h e l ps an or g an iz a ti o n's k n ow l ed g e
ex p a nd . S a l is bur y , M .W . Sy s t ems of Str a t e g ic I nf or m at i on St ra te g ic i nf or m at i on

ty
s y s te ms a pp ly i n for ma t io n t ec h n o lo gy to a c o mp a ny 's pr o du c ts , s erv ic es , or
bus i n es s o p er at i ons i n or d er to pr ov i de i t a c om p et i tiv e a dv a nt a ge . Str a te g ic
i nf or ma t io n s y s t e ms , ac c or d i ng t o Be l l e e t a l. , ar e a u n i qu e ty p e of or ga n is at i on a l
i nf or ma t io n s y s t em th at is us ed t o g a i n or ma i nt a i n a c o m pe t it iv e a dv an t ag e i n t he

si
ma rk e tp l ac e. B us i n es s Sy s t e ms T ha t Work (I n for m at i o n Sy s t ems fr o m F unc t io n a l
P ers p ec tiv e) In f or m a t i on s y s te ms th at f oc us o n op er at i o na l an d a d m in is tra t iv e
ap p l ic a t io ns i n s up p or t o f es s e n ti a l b us i n es s o per a ti o ns are k n o wn as fu nc t io n al
bus i n es s s y s t ems . Ac c ou n ti n g, f in a nc e , m a rk et i ng , op er at i ons m an a ge m e nt an d
er
hu m an r es our c e ma n a ge m en t a r e ex a m p les of in f orm a t io n s y s t e ms t h at s erv e th es e
ap p l ic a t io ns . S a l es a n d m ar k et i ng s y s te ms , ma n uf ac t ur i ng a nd pr o duc t io n s y s t e ms ,
fi n anc e an d ac c o u nt i n g s y s t ems , an d h u m an r es o urc e s y s t e ms ar e t h e f ou r ty pes of
i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems c l as s if i ed by org a n iz a t io na l f u nc t i on .
iv

S al es and M a rk et ing Inf o rm at ion S y st em s

Th e s a l es a n d m ar k et i ng d ep ar tm e nt is in c har g e o f s e l l i ng th e c om p any 's pr o duc t
or s erv ic e . M ar k e t in g i s c o nc er n ed w i th es ta b lis h i ng w ho t h e f ir m's c o ns u m ers ar e,
Un

dec i d in g w h at t h ey n e ed or d es ir e , p l an n i ng an d d es i gn i ng pr od uc t s a n d s erv ic es to
fu l fi l t he ir d e ma n ds , an d a dv er t is in g a nd ma rk e t in g th es e pr od uc ts a n d s erv ic es .
Co nt ac ti n g c o ns u m er s , s el l i ng it e ms an d s e rv ic es , rec e iv in g or d e rs , an d f ol l ow i n g
up o n s a l es ar e a l l par t o f s a l es . Th es e op er at i ons ar e a i de d by s a les an d
ma rk e t in g i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms . Ac c or d i ng to S h i m, a ma rk e t i ng m a na g em e nt
i nf or ma t io n s y s te m ( MI S) h e l ps ma n ag ers w it h pr od uc t c r ea t io n, m ark et i ng mix ,
d is tr i bu t io n , pr ic i n g, p r o mo t io n al ef fec t iv e n e s s , an d s a l es for ec as t i ng .
ity

Ma nuf act ur ing and Pr oduct ion I nfo rm ati on S y st em s

Th e m an uf ac tur i n g an d pr od uc t i o n d ep ar tm en t is in c h ar g e of ac tu a l ly mak i n g th e
go o ds a n d s er v ic es t h at th e c om p any s e l ls . Ma n uf ac t ur i ng a nd pr o duc t io n s y s te ms
are c o nc e r n e d w it h th e p l a nn i ng , dev e l op m en t, a nd m a in t en a nc e of m an uf ac tur i n g
fac i l it i es , as we l l as th e es t a b lis h me n t of pr od uc ti o n go a ls , th e ac q u is it i o n,
m

s tor a ge , an d av a i la b i li ty o f pr od uc ti o n m at er i als , a nd t he s c h e du l i ng o f eq u i pm e nt ,
fac i l it i es , m at er ia ls , an d la b o ur re q ui re d t o f as h io n f i n is h e d pro d uc ts . Th es e
op er at i o ns a r e a i de d by ma n uf ac t ur i ng a n d pr od uc ti o n in f orm a t io n s y s t e ms . Th e
pro d uc t i o n in fo r m at i o n s y s te m , ac c or d i ng t o Her n a nd ez an d R iv e r a, is a c o mp u ter
)A

s of tw ar e t ha t h a n dl e s a d at a bas e of pr o duc t io n - r e la t ed d at a. A ma n uf ac t ur i ng
i nf or ma t io n s y s t em 's o bj ec t iv e , ac c ord i n g to S hi m , is t o u s e c o m pu ter t ec hn o l ogy t o
i mpr ov e a pr o duc t io n s y s te m's pr oc es s a nd e ff ic i enc y , r es u lt i ng i n h ig h er pr od uc t
qu a l ity a n d lo w er m an uf ac t ur i ng c os ts . A m an u fac tur i n g s y s te m, i n ot h er w or ds , is
a s y s t em t ha t t ak es ma te r i a l, e qu i p me nt , da ta , ma n ag e me n t, an d in f o rm at i o n
s y s te ms t ec h n ol o gy as i n pu t a nd e m p loy s m a nu f ac t ur in g a nd in f orm at i on p roc es s es
(c

to pr o duc e s u p er ior f i n is he d pr o duc ts as o ut p ut .

Fin an ce a nd A cc ount ing Inf or mat ion S yst em s

 Th e fi n a nc e f u nc t i on i s i n c h ar ge of t he c o mp a ny 's f i na nc i al as s ets , s uc h as c as h,
s toc k , bo n ds , a n d ot h er i nv es t me nts . T h e ac c o u nt i ng d e pa rt m en t is in c h ar g e of

e
k ee p i ng a nd m on i tor i ng th e c om p any 's f i na nc ia l r ec ords , s u c h as r ec e ip ts ,
de pr ec ia t io n , a nd pay r o ll . S h i m c l a i ms th a t Ac c ou nt i n g s o ft war e's pr i m ary f unc t io n
is t o au to m at e t h e t e d io us w or k of e nt er in g a n d p os t i n g ac c o un ti n g tr a ns ac t io ns .

lin
Th is da t a is s tr uc t ur e d in a n e lec tr on ic f or ma t s o t h at f i na nc ia l s ta te m en ts c a n b e
ge n er at ed , a n d it m a y b e ac c es s i bl e ins ta nt ly t o a i d i n t he f ir m's m a na g e me nt .
Fi na nc i a l in for m at i o n i s pr ov i d ed t o al l f in a nc ia l m an a ger s ins i de a n or g a nis a ti o n
us in g a f i n anc i a l m an ag e me n t i nf or m at i on s y s te m. T h e i nf or m at i on ge n er at ed by
th e ac c ou n ti n g s y s te m is oft e n us ed t o m ak e f i na nc ia l d ec is i ons .

On
Hum an R es ou rc e Inf o rm at i on S y ste m s

Hu m an R es our c es I nf o r m at i on Sy s t e ms ( HR I S) ar e a m e th o d of g a t her i n g,
org a n is in g, s t or i ng , a n d d is s e m i na t in g h u ma n r es ourc e d at a t o as s is t ma n ag ers a t
a ll lev e ls o f a c o mp a n y i n m ak in g in for m e d d ec is i o ns . H u ma n res o u rc e i nf or ma t i on
s y s te ms ar e n ow us e d by t h e maj or ity of s uc c es s f u l f irms t o s u p po rt da i ly h u ma n
res o urc e ac tiv i t ies Kh an or e. T he hu m an r es ourc es d e par t me n t is i n c h arg e o f

ty
at trac t in g , dev e l op i n g, a n d r et a i ni n g th e c o m pa ny 's w ork forc e . Hu m an r es o urc es
i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems h e lp w i th t as k s i nc lu d i n g d is c ov er i ng po s s i b le e m pl oy e es ,
k ee p i ng c o m p le t e r ec o r ds o n c ur r en t e mp l oy ees , a nd dev e lo p i ng p rog ra m mes t o
he l p p eo p l e d ev e l op t h e ir ab i l i ti es a n d s k i l ls . Co nc lus i o n In c o m m er c i al

si
org a n is a t io ns , v ar io us ty pes of i n for m at i on s y s te ms ar e e mp l oy ed . Tra ns ac t io n
proc es s i ng s y s t e ms ar e us ed t o k e ep tr ac k o f t h e d a ily tr a ns ac t i on s t ha t ar e
req u ir ed t o r u n a f ir m.
er
1. 1. 6 Ty pe s of S y st e ms

Ty p es of Sy s t e ms
iv

Th e s y s te ms c a n b e d i v i de d i nt o t he f o l lo w i n g ty p es −
Ph y si ca l or A bst r a ct S yst em s
• Physical systems are real-world objects. We can reach out and touch them.
Un

• Physical systems can be either static or dynamic. Desks and chairs, for example, are static
physical components of a computer centre. A programmable computer is a dynamic system
that allows programmes, data, and applications to alter in response to the needs of the user.
• Abstract systems are non-physical or conceptual entities that can be formulas, models, or
representations of real systems.

O pen o r Cl os ed Sy st em s
ity

• A n op e n s y s te m mus t c om m u nic a te w i th its s urr ou n di n g s . I t r ec e iv e s i n pu ts

fro m t he ou ts id e w or ld a n d s en ds o ut ou tp u t s . A n i nf or ma t io n s y s t em , f or
ex a m p le , th a t m us t a d ap t t o c ha n g in g e nv iro nm e nt a l c o nd i t io ns .
• A c l os ed s y s t e m is o n e th a t do es n ot in t erac t w i t h its s urro u nd i n gs . I t is
pro t ec t ed f r o m o uts i d e i n fl u enc es . In ac t ua l it y , a c o mp l et e ly c l os ed s y s t em
m

is u nc o m m on .
Ada pti v e and N on - A d apt iv e S y ste m
• A da pt iv e s y s t ems ad a pt t o c h an g es i n th e e nv iro n me n t i n or der t o i m pr ov e
th e ir p er f or ma nc e a nd ens ur e th e ir s urv iv a l. Hu m ans an d a n im a ls , for
)A

ex a m p le .
• Th e ter m " n o n- a d ap t iv e s y s te m" re fe rs to a s y s te m t ha t d oes n o t r e s po n d to
its s ur r o u nd i n gs . M ac h i nes , for ex a m p le .
P er ma ne nt o r T emp o ra r y S y st e m
(c

• P erm a ne n t Sy s t em is a s y s t em th a t l as ts a l o ng t im e . C ons i d er c orp or at e

po l ic i es .
 • Te mp or ar y s y s t ems ar e bu i l t for a s pe c if ic p er i od of t i me a n d th e n
d is m a nt l ed . A DJ s y s te m, f or ex a m p le , i s s et u p f or a s ho w an d th e n

e
d is m a nt l ed af ter wa r d .
Nat ur al and M an uf a ct ur ed S y st e m

lin
• Na tur e is t h e o ne w h o c r ea t es na t ura l s y s t e m s . F or i ns ta nc e, c o ns i der t h e
s o lar s y s t e m a nd t h e s eas o na l s y s t e m.
• Th e ter m " m a nu fa c t ur ed s y s t e m" r ef ers t o a s y s te m t ha t h as be e n c rea t ed by
hu m ans . R oc k e ts , da m s , an d ra i l way s , for ex am p l e.
Det e rm ini st ic o r P rob abi li st ic Sy st em

On
• Th e i nt er ac t i on b et w e en s y s t e m c o mp o ne nt s is k n o wn w it h c o nf i de nc e i n
de t er m i n is t ic s y s t ems . W at er, f or ex am p l e, is m a de up o f tw o hy dr o g en
mo l ec u les a n d o ne ox y ge n m o l ec u l e.
• Th e be h av io ur of t h e Pr ob a b il is t ic Sy s t e m is i nc o nc l us iv e . T he pr ec is e
ou t pu t is u nk no wn . W e at h er for ec as t i ng an d ma i l d e l iv ery are t w o e x am p l es .

ty
So ci a l, Hu ma n - M a ch i ne, Ma ch in e S ys te m

• P eo p l e mak e u p t he s oc ia l s y s t em . S oc i al c l ubs an d s oc i et i es , f or ex a m p le .

si
• In a H u ma n - M ac h i n e S y s te m, bo th hu m ans a nd mac h i nes w ork t og et h er to
c om p l et e a t as k . T ak e , f or i ns t a nc e , c o mp u te r pr o gra m m i ng .
• Hu m an inv o lv em e nt is no t a l lo w ed in a mac h i ne s y s t e m. T he
er
mac h i nec o mp l et es a l l of t h e du t ies . Tak e, f o r ex a mp l e, a s e lf - dr iv i ng r ob ot .

Ma n – M ad e Inf o rm at io n Sy st em s
iv

• It is a n et wor k o f i nt er c on n ec t e d in f orm a ti o n res ou rc es us e d t o m a na g e da t a

for a s pec i fic or g a n is a ti o n a nd is m an a ge d d i rec t ly by ma n ag e me n t (DM C).
• Th is s y s t em c ons is ts o f h ard w are , s o ft wa re, c o m m un ic at i o n, d at a, an d
Un

ap p l ic a t io ns f or pr o duc i n g i nf or ma t io n bas e d o n a n or ga n iz a t io n's

req u ir e me nts .

Ma n- m ad e i n for m at i on s y s t ems ar e div i d ed i nt o t hr e e ty pes −

• For ma l Inf or m at io n S yst e m It is b as e d o n th e f l ow of in f orm a ti o n fr om th e
to p t o l ow er l ev e ls of ma n ag e m en t i n t he f or m o f m em or an d a, dir e c ti o ns , a n d
s o o n.
ity

• Info rm al I nf o rm at i on S yst em ( II S): T h is is an em p l oy e e - bas e d s y s te m t ha t

ad dr es s es day - t o- d ay wor k - r e l at e d is s ues .
• Comp ut e r- B as ed S y s t em For h a nd l i ng b us i nes s a p pl ic a ti o ns , t his s y s te m is
c om p l et e ly r e li a nt o n th e c o mp u ter . A ut o ma t ed l i br ary s y s te m s , ra i l way
res e r v a t io n s y s t ems , f i na nc i al s y s t e ms , an d s o for t h.
m

O p era t io n a l- l ev e l s y s t ems , m an a g em e nt - l ev e l s y s t e ms , a n d s tr at e g ic - l ev e l s y s te ms
are t h e t hr e e bas ic ty pes o f i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms th a t s erv e d is t in c t org a nis a t io n al
)A

l ev e ls . O per a t io n al - l e v e l s y s t e ms as s is t o per a ti o n al m a n ag ers by t rac k i ng t h e

org a n iz a t io n' s b as ic ac t iv it i es an d tra ns a c ti o ns , s uc h as s a l e s , rec e i pts , c as h
de p os its , p ay r o l l , c r e d it d ec is io ns , a nd ma ter i a l f lo w i n a pl a nt . At th is l ev e l, t h e
pr im ary g oa l o f s y s t ems is t o ans w er r o ut i ne q u er ies a n d f o l l ow th e f lo w of
tra ns ac t i ons w it h i n t h e c o m p a ny . H ow m a ny par ts d o y ou h av e in s toc k ? W he re d i d
Mr. W il l i a ms ' p ay m e nt g o? I n or d er to a ns w er th es e k i nds o f q uer i es , d at a m us t b e
(c

rea d i ly av a il a b le , r ec en t, an d c orr ec t . A s y s te m t ha t r ec or d s b ank de p os i ts fr om

au t om at ic t e l ler m ac h i nes or o n e th a t c ou nts t he n u mb er o f ho urs work e d eac h d ay
by p ers o n ne l o n a f ac t or y f lo or ar e ex a mp l es o f o per at i o na l - l ev el s y s te ms .
 M id d l e m a na g er s ' m on i tor i n g, c on tr o ll i n g, dec is i on - m ak in g , a n d a d m in is tra t iv e
op er at i o ns ar e s up p or te d by m a na g e me nt - l ev e l s y s te ms . T he pr i ma ry c o nc ern o f

e
s uc h s y s te ms is w he th er or n ot t h i ngs ar e ru n ni n g s m o ot h ly . M an a ge m e nt - l ev e l
s y s te ms of te n g en er at e r ep or t s o n a r eg u l ar bas is ra th er th a n pro v i di n g r ea l - t im e
da t a o n ac t iv i ti es . A r e loc at i o n c o ntr o l s y s te m, for ex a m p le , re por ts o n ov er a ll

lin
re loc at i n g, ho us e - h u n ti n g, an d h o m e - f i na n c i ng c os ts f or em p l o y ees ac r os s a l l
c orp or at e d iv is io ns , h i gh l i gh t in g a ny ar e as w her e ac tu a l c os ts ex c e ed bu d ge ts .

Ro ut i n e dec is i on - m ak i ng is no t s u pp ort e d b y s ev er al m a n ag e me n t - l ev e l s y s te ms .
Th ey pre fe r t o c o nc e nt r at e o n les s - s tr uc t ur ed d ec is i o ns w i th a m b ig uo us i nf or m at i on

On
req u ir e me nts . T h es e s y s te ms fr eq u en t ly s o lv e " w h at - i f" pro b l ems , s uc h as : W h at
wo u ld h ap p en to pr o duc t io n pl a ns i f s a l e s d o u bl e d i n D ec e m b er? W h at i mp ac t
wo u ld a s ix - m o nt h de l ay i n a pro d uc t i on s c h e du l e hav e o n our re t urn o n
i nv es tm e nt ? A ns w er s to t h es e c o nc erns f req u e nt ly n ec es s i ta te n ew d at a fr om
ou ts id e t he or g an is at i on , as we l l as d at a fr om w i th i n th e or ga n is at i on t h at c a nn ot
be eas i ly ex tr ac t ed fr o m o per a ti o na l - l ev el s y s te ms .

S en i or ma n ag e me n t c an us e s tr at e g ic - l e v e l s y s t ems to a tt a c k an d ad dr es s

ty
s tra te g ic c o nc er ns a nd l on g - ter m tr e nds bo t h w it h in t h e c o m pa ny a n d i n t he
ex t er na l env ir o nm e nt . T he ir ma i n f oc us is ens ur i ng th at c ha n ge s in t h e ex ter n a l
env ir o nm e nt ar e m atc he d w i th or g a n is a t io n a l c a pac i ty . W ha t w i ll t h e e mp l oy me n t
s it u at i on be l ik e i n f iv e y e ar s ? W h at a re t h e l o ng - t erm c os t t re n d s in t h e i n dus try ,

si
an d h ow d oes o ur c om p any f i t in ? In f iv e y ears , wh at pr o d uc ts s h o u ld w e be
pro d uc in g ?

S al es a nd m ar k et i ng , ma n uf ac t ur i ng a n d pr od uc ti o n, f in a nc e a n d ac c o u nt i n g, an d
er
hu m an res o ur c es ar e a m on g th e p ri m a ry c orp or at e op er at i ons s erv ed by
i nf or ma t io n s y s t e ms . Eac h f u nc t i on a l ar e a i n a ty p ic a l or ga n is at i on c on ta i ns
op er at i o na l , m a na g e me n t, an d s t ra te g ic s y s te ms . O n an o pe r at i on a l lev e l, th e
s a les f unc t io n, f or ex am p l e, us ua l ly h as a s a les s y s t em t o rec or d d a i ly s a les d at a
iv

an d ex ec u te or d er s . A s y s t e m at th e m a na g em e nt l ev el tr ac k s m on th ly s a l es
nu m be rs by s a le s r eg i on an d g en er at es re p orts o n t err it or i es wh e re s a les ex c e e d
or fa l l s h or t o f ex pe c ta t io ns . T he s tr at e g i c l ev el is s erv e d by a s y s t em t h at
for ec as ts s a les tr e n ds ov er a f iv e - y ear p er i od . We b eg i n by d es c ri bi n g t h e m a ny
Un

ty p es o f s y s te ms t ha t s er v e e ac h or ga n is a t i on a l l ev e l , as w e ll a s t he ir us e fu l n es s
to th e c om p a ny . T h en , f or e ac h im p ort a nt b us in es s f u nc t i on , w e de m ons tr at e ho w
fir ms us e t hes e p l at fo r ms .

Four Ma jo r Ty pe s of S yst em s

Th e ty p es o f i nf or ma t i on s y s t ems t ha t c orr e s po n d t o e ac h or g an is at i on a l l ev e l ar e
de p ic t e d i n t h e d i ag r am . At t h e s tr at e g ic l ev e l , t he org a n is a t io n h as ex ec ut iv e
ity

s up p ort s y s t e ms ( E S S ) ; at th e m a na g em e nt l ev e l , it h as m an a ge me n t in f orm a ti o n
s y s te ms (M I S) a n d d e c is io n - s u pp ort s y s te m s (D S S) ; a nd at t h e o per a ti o n al l ev e l , i t
has tr ans ac ti o n pr oc e s s i ng s y s te ms ( T PS ). E ac h o f t he pr i m ary f u nc t i on a l are as is
s erv e d by s pec i a l is e d s y s te ms at e ac h l ev e l. As a r es u lt , s t an d ar d o rg a nis a ti o n al
s y s te ms ar e des i gn e d to a i d wor k ers or m a na g ers at a l l l ev e ls , a s we l l as i n th e
m

fu nc t i o ns of s a l es a nd mar k e ti n g, m a nu f ac t ur in g a n d pr od uc t i on , f in a nc e an d
ac c o u nt i ng , a nd hu m a n r es our c es .
)A
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ty
si
Th e fo ur m aj or ty p es o f i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems are de p ic t e d i n F i g ure 1.
er
TP S , D S S, MI S , a nd E S S ex a mp l es ar e s ho wn in th is d ia gr am , a l on g w i th th e lev e l
of t h e org a n is a t io n a n d b us i n es s fu nc ti o n th at e ac h s u pp or ts .
iv

Th e c h ar ac t er is t ic s of th e f o ur ty pes o f i n for ma t io n s y s te ms are s u m mar is e d i n t h e

ta b le . I t's w or th no t in g t h at eac h of t h e m a ny s y s t e ms m ay c on ta i n c om p on e nts th a t
are us e d by or ga n is a t i on a l l ev e ls a nd g ro u p s ot h er th a n th e pr i ma ry s t ak e h ol d ers .
Un

A s ec r e tary m ig h t n ee d t o us e a M I S t o f in d in for m at i o n, or a m i d d le ma n ag e m en t
m ig ht ne e d to ex tr ac t da t a fr o m a T P S.

TAB LE C ha r a ct e r ist ic s o f I nfo rm at ion P ro c es s ing S y st em s

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TRA N SA CTI O N PRO C E S SI NG S Y ST E M S

Tra ns ac t io n pr oc es s i n g s y s t e ms ( T P S) ar e t he f ou n da t io n a l b us i n es s s y s t e ms t h at
s up p ort a n or g an iz at i on 's op er at i on a l l ev el . A tr a ns ac t io n pr oc es s i ng s y s t e m is a
c om p ut er is ed s y s t e m t h at ex ec ut es a n d r ec or ds t h e ev ery d ay nor m a l b us in es s
(c

tra ns ac t i ons . Sa l es o r de r e ntr y , h ot e l r es erv a t io n s y s t e ms , p a y ro ll , e m p loy e e

rec o rd k e e p in g, an d s h ip p in g ar e j us t a fe w ex a m p les .
 Tas k s , res o ur c es , an d go a ls ar e s e t an d h ig h ly s tr uc t ur e d a t t h e o per a ti o n al l ev e l.
A lo w er - lev e l s u p er v is or , for ex am p l e, dec i d es w he t her or no t t o i s s ue c r e d it t o a

e
c us t o mer b as e d o n pr e d et er m in e d c ri t er i a. A l l t ha t re m a ins is t o s e e if t h e
c ons u me r s at is fi es t he r e q ui r e m en ts .

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A pay r o l l T P S, as s ho w n i n F i g ure 2 - 3, is a c o m mo n ac c o u nt i ng tr ans ac ti o n
proc es s i ng s y s t em s e en i n mos t bus i nes s es . T h e mo n ey p a i d to e mp l oy ees is
trac k e d by a p ay r o l l s y s te m. D at a el e m en ts are d is ti nc t p i ec es o f i nf or ma t io n (s uc h
as a n a me , a d dr es s , or e m pl oy ee nu m b er) th at mak e u p t h e m as ter f i l e. T he da t a
e le m en ts ar e u pd a te d as d at a is e n ter e d i nt o t he s y s t e m. T h e ma s t e r f il e's c on t en ts

On
are m ix ed a n d m atc h ed i n v ar io us w ay s t o c re a te r e p orts for ma n ag e m en t a n d
gov er n me nt a ge nc ies , as we l l as to d is tr i bu t e p ay c h ec k s t o e mp l oy ees . O t h er
rep or t c o mb i n at i ons o f c ur r e nt d a ta p i ec es c an be g e ne ra te d us i ng t hes e T P S.

ty
si
er
iv
Un

Figu r e: A gr a ph ic a l i l l us tr at i o n of a T P S f or pay r o l l.

A p ay ro l l s y s t em is a s ta n dar d ac c ou n ti n g T P S t ha t h an d les tra ns ac t i ons lik e

em p l oy e e t i me c ar ds a nd s a lar y an d d e duc t i on c ha n ges . I t k e eps t rac k o f e mp l oy ee
s a lar i es , w i th h o ld i ng t ax es , a nd pay c h ec k s .

Fi gu re s ho ws s om e o th er c om m o n TP S ap p l ic a t io ns . S al es /m ark et i n g,
ity

ma n uf ac t ur i ng / pr o d uc t i on , f in a nc e / ac c o u nt i n g, hu m an r es o urc es , an d o t her for ms

of T PS t ha t ar e u n i qu e to a g iv en i n d us try ar e s ho w n in th e d ia gr a m. A
ma n uf ac t ur i ng T P S is th e Un i t ed P arc e l S erv ic e (U P S) p ac k a g e trac k i n g s y s t e m
de t ai l e d i n C ha p ter 1. U P S pr ov i d es p ac k ag e d e l iv ery s erv ic e s , a nd t h e T P S
s y s te m rec or ds a l l of i ts pac k a ge s hi p m en t tr ans ac ti o ns .
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TP S is us e d i n a v ar i e ty of w ay s , as s ho w n i n th e d i ag ra m.

si
TP S is d iv i de d i nt o f iv e f u nc ti o na l c a te g or ies : s a l es / m ark e t in g,
ma n uf ac t ur i ng / pr o d uc t i on , f in a nc e / ac c o u nt i ng , h u ma n res o urc es , a n d o th er
i nd us try - s p ec if ic s y s t ems . T h er e ar e s ub - fu nc t i o ns w i th i n eac h of t hes e maj or
fu nc t i o ns . T h er e is a s i gn i fic a nt a pp l ic at i on s y s te m f or e ac h o f t hes e s u b tas k s ( fo r
er
ex a m p le , s a l es ma n a g em e nt) .

Tra ns ac t io n pr oc es s i ng s y s te ms ar e ty p ic al ly s o im p ort a nt to a c o m pa ny 's

op er at i o ns t h at ev e n a br i ef o u ta g e c an r es u lt in t h e c om p a ny 's d e m is e , as w el l as
iv

th e d e m is e of ot h er c om p an i es r el a te d t o it . C ons i der w ha t m i gh t h a p pe n if U P S's

pac k a ge tr ac k in g s y s te m br ok e d ow n! W ha t wo u ld t he a ir l i nes d o if t he ir
res e rv a t io n s y s t ems w er e n' t c o mp u ter is e d?
Un

TP S is us ed by m an ag er s to k e e p tr ac k of i nt er na l o pe ra t io ns an d th e f irm 's
re la t io ns h ips w i th t h e o uts i d e wo r l d . T P S are a ls o k ey i nf or ma t i on prov i d ers for
ot h er s orts of s y s t e m s . ( F or ex a m p le , t h e pay r o l l s y s te m s h ow n b el o w, to g et h er
wi t h o t her ac c o un t in g TP S , f e eds d at a to t he c o m pa ny 's g en er a l l ed g er s y s t e m,
wh ic h k ee ps tr a c k o f th e fir m 's inc o me a n d ex pe ns es an d g en er at es r e por ts l ik e
i nc o m e s ta te m e nts a n d b al a nc e s he ets .)
ity

MA NAG E M E NT IN FO R MA TIO N S Y ST E M S

Th e s t u dy of i nf or m a ti o n s y s t e ms i n bus i nes s a n d ma n ag e me nt is d ef i n ed as
ma n ag e m en t i nf or ma t i on s y s t e ms . M a na g e me n t i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms ( M I S) a ls o
ref ers to a s ubs et o f i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms th at s u pp ort m a na g em e nt - l ev e l fu nc t io ns .
m

Ma n ag e m en t in f or m a ti on s y s t ems (M I S) prov i de r e po rts a nd , in m a ny c a s es , o n l i ne

ac c es s t o t he or ga n i z at i on 's c ur r e nt p erf o rm anc e an d his t or ic a l r ec o rds to th e
org a n iz a t io n's m a na g em e nt l ev e l. MI S ar e us u a l ly al w ay s f oc us e d o n in t ern a l
ev e n ts , r at he r t ha n e n v ir on m en t al or ex t ern a l o nes . At t h e m a na g em e nt l ev e l , M I S
)A

l arg e ly s er v es t h e pl an n i ng , c on tr ol l i n g, a nd d ec is io n - m ak i n g a c tiv i t ies . F or th e

mos t p art , t hey r e ly o n u n der ly i ng tr a ns a c t i o n pr oc es s i n g s y s te ms for d a ta .

Th e c or e o p er at i ons o f th e c om p any ar e s u m mar is e d a nd r e por t e d o n by th e MI S .

TP S's c ore t r a ns ac t i on d at a is c o mpr es s ed a nd f re q ue nt ly prov i d ed i n lar g e r e por ts
th at ar e g en er at e d o n a r eg u l ar bas is . T h e d ia gr am d e p ic ts h o w a ty p ic a l M I S
(c

c onv er ts tr ans ac ti o n - l ev e l da t a fr om i nv e n to ry , pr o duc t io n, a nd ac c ou n ti n g i n to MI S

fi l es th a t ar e us e d to g en er at e r e p orts f or ma n ag e m en t. An ex a mp l e r e po rt fr om
th is s y s t em is s h ow n i n F i g.
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FIG Ho w c a n m an a g em e nt in for m at i o n s y s te ms g et d at a fr om t he T P S of a n
org a n is a t io n

si
Thr ee TP S g iv e s u m ma r is e d tr a ns ac t io n d at a t o t h e M I S r ep or ti ng s y s te m at th e
c onc l us io n o f th e t i m e p er i o d i n th e s y s t e m d ep ic te d i n t his d i agr a m. Ma n ag ers
hav e ac c es s to or ga n i s at i on a l da ta v i a t h e MI S , w h ic h a ls o pr ov i des th e m w i th th e
er
nec es s ary r e po r ts .
iv
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ity
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A s a m pl e M I S r e por t i s s h ow n i n FIG

Th e MI S in F i g c r ea t e d a r e po r t t ha t s u m ma ris ed a n n ua l s a l es d at a.

A lt h ou g h s o me M I S a l l ow m a na g ers to d ri l l do w n t o ac c es s d a ily or h our ly d at a i f

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ne e de d , m os t MI S s er v e m an a ge r s wh o ar e pr im ar i ly i nt er es t e d i n we ek ly , mo nt h ly ,
an d y e ar ly r es u l ts . M I S ty p ic a l ly r es p o nd t o ro ut i ne q u er ies t h at hav e b ee n pr e -
de f in e d a nd h av e a pr e - d e fi n e d s tra te gy f or res p o n di n g to t h em . F or ex am p l e, M I S
rep or ts m i gh t lis t t h e to ta l po u nds of l et tuc e c o ns um e d by a f as t - fo o d c h a in th is
qu ar ter , or c om p ar e to ta l an n ua l s al es n um b ers f or v ar i o us g oo ds t o p l an n e d
tar g ets , as s h o wn i n Fi g ur e 2 - 6 . I n g en e ra l, t hes e s y s te ms ar e r i gi d a nd l ac k
(c

an a ly t ic a l c a pa b i li t ie s . I n c o ntr as t t o s op h is t ic at e d m at he m at ic a l mo d e ls or
s ta t is t ic al m e th o do l og i es , m os t M I S us e s i m p le pr oc es s es s uc h as s u mm ar i es an d
c om p ar is o ns .
 DE CI S IO N - SU P PO RT S Y ST E M S

Dec is i on - s u pp or t s y s t ems ( DS S) are eq u a l ly us ef u l at t h e ex ec ut iv e l ev e l o f a

e
c om p any . D S S as s is t m a na g er s i n mak i ng d ec is i o ns t ha t ar e o n e - o f- a- k in d,
fre q ue nt ly c ha n g in g, an d d i ff ic u lt t o pr e dic t i n a dv a nc e. T hey a re us ed to s olv e

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pro b l ems wh er e th e t e c hn i q ue f or a rriv i n g at a s ol u ti o n is n' t c o mp l et e ly pr ed e fi n e d
ah e ad o f t im e . A lt ho u gh D S S us es i nt er na l da t a fr o m T P S a n d MI S, t h ey f re q ue nt ly
us e d at a fr o m o uts i de s o ur c es , s uc h as c ur ren t s toc k pr ic es or c om p et i tor pr o duc t
pr ic es .

DS S c l e ar ly hav e h ig her a n a ly t ic al p ow er th a n o t her s y s t ems b y d es i g n. Th ey

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an a ly s e d a ta us i ng a n um b er of a l gor i th ms or c o nd e ns e v as t am o un ts o f da t a in to a
for m at th a t d ec is io n mak er s c a n u n ders t an d. D S S ar e c r e at ed i n s uc h a way t ha t
c ons u me rs c a n i nt er a c t w it h th e m di rec t ly ; t h es e s y s t e ms f e at u re us er - fr i en d ly
s of tw ar e. D S S a r e i nt e r ac t iv e in t he s e ns e t h at th e us er c an a lt er a s s um p ti o ns , as k
ne w q ues t io ns , an d a d d n ew d at a .

Th e v oy a g e - es t im a ti n g s y s te m o f a s u bs i di ar y of a l ar g e Am er ic an me t als f ir m th at

ty
op er at es ex c l us iv e ly t o t r a ns por t bu lk c ar g o es of c o a l, o i l, or es , a nd f i nis h e d g o o ds
for its p are n t c o m pa n y is a n in tr ig u i ng , m o des t, b ut po we rf u l D S S. T h e c o m p any
ow ns s om e s h ips , c ha r ter s o th er s , a n d c o m pe t es f or ge n era l c ar go tr ans p ort at i o n
c on tr ac ts o n th e fr ee ma r k e t. Th e f in a nc ia l an d t ec h n ic a l d et a i ls of a v oy a ge ar e

si
c a lc u l at e d by a v oy ag e - es t i ma t in g s y s te m. S hi p /t i me c os ts (f u e l, l ab o ur, c a p it a l),
fre i gh t ra tes f or v ar i o us ty p es o f c ar go , a n d p ort c h ar ges are al l i nc l ud e d i n th e
fi n anc i a l c a lc ul a ti o ns . Sh i p c ar g o c a pac i ty , s p e ed , p ort d is t anc e s , fu e l a n d wa t er
us a g e, a nd l o ad i n g p at ter ns ar e o n ly a f e w o f t h e t ec hn ic a l f e a tur es ( l oc a t io n of
er
c arg o f or d if f er e n t por t s ) .

Q u es t i ons l ik e t h es e c an be ans we re d by th e s y s t em : W h ic h v es s e l s h o u ld be
as s ig n ed a t wh a t r a t e t o op t im is e pr of it a b i li ty giv e n a c l i en t de l iv ery s c he d u le a n d
iv

an of f ere d f r e i gh t r at e ? Wh at is th e o p ti m u m s pe e d a t w h ic h a v es s e l c a n m ax i m is e
pro f it w h i le s t i l l m e et i ng its d e l iv ery d ea d l in e? W ha t is t h e bes t l o ad i n g pa tt er n f or
a s h i p s a i l in g fr o m M a lay s i a t o t he W es t Co as t of th e U n it e d St a tes ? T he D SS
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c rea t ed fo r t his c o m p any is s ho w n i n F i g ur e 2 - 7 . Th e s y s te m r u ns o n a p ow er fu l

des k t op c o m p ut er a nd f ea t ur es a m en u s y s te m t ha t m ak es it s i m p le f or us ers t o
en t er da t a a nd r e tr i ev e i nf or ma t io n .
ity
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FIG A s y s t e m for es t i ma t in g a n d m ak i n g d e c is io ns a b ou t a tr i p.
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Th is D S S r u ns o n a po w er f u l c o m pu t er. M an a ge rs t ha t mus t g e ner a te b ids f or

s h ip p in g c o nt r ac ts ut i l i s e i t on a da i ly b as is .
 Th is D S S f or es t im a ti n g v oy a ges la rg e ly re l i e s o n an a ly t ic a l m o de ls . O t her v ers io ns

e
of D S S ar e l es s mo d el - dr iv e n , f oc us e d ins t e ad o n r etr i ev in g me a n i ng f ul i nf or m at i on
fro m l ar ge a m ou n ts of d at a to a i d dec is i on - mak i n g. I ntr aw es t, fo r ex a m p le , c o ll ec ts

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an d m a i nt a ins mas s i v e a mo u nts o f c l i e nt d at a fr o m it s W eb s it e , c a ll c en tr e ,
ac c o m m od at i o n r es er v at i ons , s k i s c ho o ls , a nd s k i e q ui p m en t r en t a l o u tl e ts , a mo n g
ot h er p l ac es . It a na l y s es t hes e d a ta w i t h s o p h is t ic at e d s of tw a re t o as s es s t he
v a lu e, i nc om e po t en t i a l, an d l oy a l ty o f e ac h c o ns um er s o t h at ma n ag e m en t may
be tt er ta rg et t he ir m a r k et i ng in i ti a tiv es . C u s to m ers are d iv i de d i nt o s ev e n gr ou ps

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de p en d i ng on th e ir n e eds , a tt i tu d es , a n d h a b its , w it h c l as s if ic at i o ns r a n gi n g fr om
" pas s i o na te ex p er ts " t o " v a lu e - c o ns c i o us f a m ily v ac a t io n ers ." T h e c or p or at i on t h en
s en ds o ut v id e o s n ip p ets t o e ac h p ar t i n or der t o e nt ic e m or e pe op l e t o v is it i ts
res o rts .

B ec a us e DS S s y s t e m s ar e foc us ed o n as s i s ti n g us ers in m ak i ng b et ter b us i nes s

dec is i ons , t hey a r e s o me t i mes r e f err ed t o as b us in es s i n te l l i ge nc e s y s te ms .

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E xe cut iv e Supp ort Sy st e m s

Ex ec u t iv e s u pp or t s y s te ms ( E S S) as s is t s en i or m a na g ers i n m ak i n g d ec is io ns . T he

si
s tra te g ic l ev e l of t he or g a n is a t io n is s erv e d by ES S . B ec aus e t he re is n o a gr ee d -
up o n t ec hn i q ue f or a r r iv in g at a s o l ut i on , t hey h a nd l e no n - r ou t in e d ec is i ons t ha t
req u ir e j ud g e me nt , a p pr a is a l, an d i ns ig h t.
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Ex t er n al ev e nts , l ik e as ne w t ax r e gu l at i o n s or c o mp et i to rs , ar e i nc or p ora t ed i n to
E S S, bu t t hey a ls o p u ll s um m ar y d a ta fr o m i nt er n al MI S an d DS S . Th ey f i lt er ,
c om pr es s , a n d t r ac k i mp or ta n t d a ta , d is p l a y i ng o n ly t h e i nf or ma t i o n t ha t ma tt ers
mos t t o s e n ior ex ec u t iv es . F or ex am p l e, t h e C EO o f L e in er H e al th Pro d uc ts , t he
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na t io n's la r g es t pr iv a t e - la b e l v it a m in an d s up p l em e nt ma n uf ac t ur er, has an E S S

th at g iv es h i m a r e a l - t i me v ie w of t h e c o m pa ny 's f i na nc i al p erf or m anc e as
me as ur ed by w or k in g c a p it a l, ac c ou n ts r ec e iv a b le , ac c ou nts p ay ab l e, c as h f lo w,
an d i nv en t or y o n h is d es k t o p.
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E S S us es c u tt i ng - e d g e gr a p h ic s t o ols t o pr es e n t gr a p hs a n d da ta fro m a v ar i ety of

s ourc es . T h e in f or m a t i on is fr e qu e nt ly s u pp l ie d t o s en i or ex ec u ti v es v i a a p or ta l ,
wh ic h pr es en ts in t egr at e d t ai l or ed b us in es s c on te n t fr o m a r an g e of s ourc es v i a a
W eb i n ter f ac e . U n l ik e ot h er ty p es of i nf or m a ti o n s y s t e ms , E S S ar e n't b u i lt w it h th e
go a l of s o lv in g a s p ec if ic pr ob l em in m i nd . E S S, o n t h e ot h er ha n d, g iv e a
ge n er al is e d c o mp u ta t i on an d c om m un ic at i o ns c a pa b i l ity t h at ma y b e a p p l ie d t o a
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wi d e r a ng e of is s u es . E S S ar e l es s l ik e ly t o ut i l is e a n a ly t ic a l mo de ls , des p it e t he
fac t th at ma ny D S S ar e s u pp os ed t o b e ex t r em e ly a n aly t ic a l .

Th e f ol l ow i n g ar e s o me of th e q u es t i on s th at E S S c a n h e l p w i th : W h at k i nd of
bus i n es s s h o u ld w e b e in ? W h at ar e y o ur r i v a ls u p to ? W h at fres h p urc h as es mi g ht
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s h ie l d us fr om c om p a ny c y c l ic al s w i n gs ? W h ic h as s e ts s ho u l d we s e l l i n or d er to
ra is e f un ds f or ac qu is i ti o ns ? A m o de l of a n E S S is s h o wn i n F i gu r e 2 - 8 . I t c ons is ts
of work s t at i ons wi t h me n us , i nt er ac t iv e gr a ph ic s , a n d c o m mu n ic a ti o ns c a p ab i l it i es
for ac c es s in g h is tor ic a l an d c o mp e ti t iv e d a ta fr o m in t ern a l c or po rat e s y s te ms a n d
)A

ex t er na l d a ta b as es l ik e D ow J o n es N ews /R e tri ev a l a nd St a nd ar d & Po or's . B ec aus e

E S S ar e i nt en d ed f or us e by s e n i or ex ec u tiv es w h o m ay hav e l it t le or no d irec t
ex p er tis e w i th c o m p ut er - bas e d i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms , t h ey i nc lu d e s i m p le gra p h ic
i nt erf ac es .
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A ty pic a l ex ec ut iv e s u pp or t s y s te m is de p ic t ed in F IG

Th is s y s t e m ga t her s da t a fr o m a v ari e ty of i nt er n al a n d ex t er na l s o urc es a n d

pres e nts it t o ex ec u t iv es i n a n eas y - t o- u n d er s ta n d for m at .
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Re lat ion sh ip of S y st e ms t o O n e Anoth e r

Th e re l at i o ns h i p be tw ee n th e s y s te ms s erv i ng d if f ere n t lev e ls of t he or g an is at i o n i s

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de p ic t e d i n Fi g . T P S a r e us ua l ly a k ey da t a s ourc e f or o th er s y s t e ms , w h ere as E SS
are l ar ge ly d at a r ec e i v er s fr o m lo wer - l ev e l s y s te ms . O t her ty pes of s y s te ms may
a ls o c o mm u n ic a te w it h o n e a n ot h er. Da ta c an a ls o b e s har e d a m on g s y s te ms t h at
s erv e v ar i ous f u nc t i o n a l ar eas . An ord er c a pt ur ed by a s al es s y s t em , f or ex a mp l e ,
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c ou l d be s e nt as a tr a ns ac t io n to a m an u fac tur i ng s y s t e m f or pr od uc t i on or d e liv ery

of t h e g oo ds i n d ic a t ed i n t h e or der , or t o a ma n ag e m en t i nf or m at i on s y s t e m (M I S)
for f i na nc i a l r ep or t in g .
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1. 1. 7 S y st em Mo de l s
 S ch em ati c Mo de ls
• A s c h em a tic mo d e l is a tw o - d im e ns io n a l d i agr a m th a t de p ic t s s y s t em

e
e le m en ts a nd t h e ir c o nn ec ti o ns .
• In for m at i o n f l ow , m at e r i al f l ow , a nd i n for m at i on f e ed b ac k are a l l re pres e nt e d
by d if fer e nt a r r o ws .

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Flow Sy st em M od el s
• Th e or d er ly f l ow o f m at er ia l , e ner gy , an d i n for m at i on t h at h o l ds t he s y s t e m
to g et her is d ep ic te d i n a f l ow s y s t e m m od e l.

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• For ex a mp l e, t h e Pr o g r a m Ev al u at i o n an d R ev ie w T ec h ni q ue ( P ER T) is us ed
to a bs tr ac t a r e a l - w or l d s y s te m i n to a mo d e l.

St ati c S y st e m Mo de l s

• Th ey d e pic t a s i n gl e pa ir of r e l at i ons h i ps , s uc h as ac t iv ity –t i m e or c os t –

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qu a nt i ty .
• Th e G a nt t c h ar t, f or ex a m p le , d e pic ts t h e ac t iv ity - t im e r el a ti o n s h ip i n a
s ta t ic ma n ne r .
Dyn a mi c S y st e m Mod el s

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O rg an iz at i o ns i n th e b us in es s w or ld ar e dy n am ic s y s t e ms . T he s o r t of or g an is at i o n
er
or a pp l ic at i on t h at a n a ly s ts de a l w it h is a p pr ox im at e d by a dy n am i c m o de l .

It d e pic ts t he s y s t e m's c ur r e nt s t at e , wh ic h i s a l way s c h a ng i n g. I t i s m a de u p o f

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• E nt er in g t he s y s t e m's i np uts
• Th e dev ic e t ha t a l lo ws m et a m orp h os is to t ak e p lac e .
• Th e pr ogr a m( s ) n ee d e d to proc es s t he d a ta
• Th e it e m( s ) t ha t ar e pr od uc ed as a r es u lt o f t he proc es s i ng .
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Cat ego r ie s of Inf o r m at i on

Th ere are t hr ee ty p es of d a ta p er ta i n in g t o m an a ge ri a l l ev els an d t he dec is i ons

ma d e by m a na g er s .
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 St ra teg i c Inf o rm at ion
• Th is d at a is n ec es s ar y by t o p ma n ag e m en t f or l on g - te rm p l a nn i n g i n it i at iv es

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i n th e n ex t y e ar s . Tr e n ds i n r ev en u e, f i na nc i a l i nv es tm e nt , h um a n res o urc es ,
an d p o pu l at i o n i nc r e as e, f or ex a mp l e.

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• W it h t he he l p of a Dec is io n S u p por t Sy s te m , th is ty pe of i n for m at i o n c a n be
ob t ai n ed ( DS S) .
Ma na ge r ia l Inf o rm at i on
• M id d l e ma n ag e m en t r e qu ir es t h is ty p e o f da t a for s hor t a nd in t erm ed i at e -

On
ter m p l an n i ng , wh ic h i s m e as ur e d i n m on t hs . S a l es an a ly s is , c as h f l ow
proj ec t i o ns , a n d a nn u a l fi n anc i a l s ta t em e nts ar e j us t a fe w ex am p l es .

• It is ac c o m pl is h ed t hr o ug h t he us e o f M a na g em e nt I nf or m at i on Sy s te ms
(MI S)

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O pe r atio na l inf o r mat i on
• Lo w m an a g em e nt r e q u ir es th is i n for m at i o n fo r d a i ly a nd s h or t - t er m p la n ni n g
i n or d er t o e nf or c e d a y - to- d ay o per a ti o na l a c ti o ns . Ke e p in g tr ac k of
em p l oy e e a tt e nd a nc e , ov er d u e purc h as e ord ers , a n d c urr e nt s t oc k l ev e ls , for
ex a m p le .

si
• Da ta Pr oc es s i ng Sy s t e ms ar e us ed t o d o th is (D P S) .
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1. 1. 8 C ate go ri e s of i n f or mat ion

Fur th er C at e gor iz ed a s :
• Formal Information Systems (FIS) are in charge of the flow of data from upper management
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to lower management. Lower authority, on the other hand, might provide feedback to top
management.
• Informal Information Systems: Informal information systems are built on employees. These
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are designed to address difficulties that arise in the workplace on a regular basis.
• Computer-Based Information Systems (CBIS): These systems rely on computers to manage
business applications.
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Info rm at ion s y st e ms ( IS )
Data is captured and managed in businesses in order to provide meaningful information that benefits
the organization's employees, customers, suppliers, and partners. Many businesses believe that
information systems are critical to their capacity to compete and obtain a competitive advantage. Most

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businesses have realised that employees must be involved in the development of information
systems.

1. Tra ns ac t io n pr oc es s in g s y s te ms (T P Ss )

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2. Ma n ag e m en t In f or m a ti on s y s t e ms ( M I Ss )
3. D ec is i o n s u pp or t s y s t ems ( DS Ss )
4. Ex ec u t iv e in f or m a ti o n s y s te m (E I S)
5. Ex per t s y s t ems
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6. Co m mu n ic at i ons an d c o ll a bo ra t io n s y s t em

A ut o ma t io n s y s t ems
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• O rd er s , c r e d it c ar ds , pay m en ts , a n d r e s er' l at l ons ar e a l l proc es s ed us i n g

tra ns ac t i on pr oc es s i ng s y s t ems (T P Ss ) .
• Tra ns ac t io n d at a is us e d by m an a ge m en t i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms (M ISs ) t o
ge n er at e i nf or ma t io n t ha t m an a g ers ne e d to run t h e ir b us i n es s es .
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• DS Ss ( d ec is i o n s u p por t s y s t e ms ) as s is t v ari o us d ec is io n mak ers i n

i de nt i fy in g a nd s e lec t i ng op t io ns or d ec is io n s .
• Ex ec u t iv e i nf or m at i on s y s t e ms ( EI S) ar e des i g ne d t o m ee t t h e s p ec if ic
i nf or ma t io n r e q ui r e m e nts o f ex ec ut iv es w ho pl a n f or th e f ut u re of th e
c om p any an d ev a lu a te p er f or m anc e a g ai ns t t hos e o b j ec t iv es .
• Ex per t s y s te ms c a pt ur e an d r ec r e at e a n ex p ert pr o b le m s o lv er's o r d ec is i o n
mak er 's k no w le d ge , a nd t h en s im u l at e t ha t ex p er t's " th i nk i ng ."
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• In ter n a l a n d ex t er na l c om m u nic a ti o n an d c o op er at i o n ar e i mp rov e d w i th t he

us e of a c o m m un ic at i o ns a nd c o l l ab or at i o n s y s te m.
• Fi na l ly , of f ic e a u to m at i on t ec hn o l og i es as s is t em p loy e es i n c r ea t in g a n d
s har i n g d oc u m en ts th a t ar e nec es s ary fo r da y - to- d ay of f ic e op er at i ons .
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Impo rt ant In f o rm at i o n Sy st em Co nc ept s

Sy s t e ms a na ly s ts n ee d to k no w s ev era l o t he r i m p ort an t s y s t ems c o nc e p ts :

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1. Dec o mp os it i o n
2. Mo d u lar i ty
3. Co u pl i n g
4. Co h es i o n

Th e proc es s o f br eak i ng d o wn a s y s t e m i nt o its s ma l l er c o mp o ne nts is k no wn as

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dec o mp os i ti o n. T h es e c om p on e nts m ay c o n s ti t ut e s y s t e ms (s u bs y s te ms ) i n a n d o f
th e ms e lv es , a n d t h ey c an b e s p l it d ow n f ur t her . Dec o mp os i ng a s y s te m a ls o a l l ows
us t o f oc us on a s i ng l e c o m p on e nt of t he s y s te m, m ak in g i t e as i er t o c onc e iv e o f
 way s t o i mpr ov e th at c o m po n en t wi t ho u t a ff ec ti n g th e r es t of t h e s y s t e m.
Dec o mp os it i o n is a t ec hn i q ue t h at a l l ows a s y s te ms a na ly s t to do t he f o l lo w in g :

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1. Bre ak a s y s t e m do w n i nt o s m a l l, m a na g ea b le , a nd u n de rs t oo d s ubs y s t ems .

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2. C o nc e ntr a te y our a tt e nt i on o n o n e a rea (s ubs y s t em) at a t im e, fr e e o f
d is tr ac t i o ns fr om o th e r r eg i o ns . Co nc en tr at e o n t h e p ar ts o f t h e s y s t e m t h at a r e
re lev a nt t o a s p ec if ic gr o u p of us ers , r a th er th a n d is tr ac t i n g th e m wi t h irr e lev a nt .

3. B u i ld di ff er en t e l em en ts of t h e s y s t e m at d if fer e nt t i mes a n d wi t h th e as s is t a nc e

On
of v ar i o us a na ly s ts .

Dec o mp os it i o n is a d ir ec t e ff ec t of m o du l ar it y . I t r e fers t o t he div i s i on o f a s y s t em

i nt o p i ec es o r m o du l e s of a c o ns is t en t s iz e . M od u les c a n r ep res e nt a s y s te m i n a
s i mp l e way , m ak i n g it e as ier t o c o mpr e he n d an d r e des i g n. E ac h of t h e s ep ar at e
s ubs y s t em m od u l es f or th e M P3 p l ay er, for ex a mp l e, d em o ns tr a tes h ow
dec o mp os i ti o n s i m pl i f i es u nd er s t a n di n g of t h e ov era l l s y s t em .

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Co u pl i n g T h is i n d ic a te s t ha t s u bs y s t e ms ar e i n ter d ep e nd e nt . S u bs y s te ms m us t be
as s e lf - c o nt a i ne d as pos s i b le . I f o ne s ubs y s te m f a il s a nd ot he r s u bs y s te ms ar e
he av i ly r e li a nt o n it , th e ot h er s w i l l e i t h er f a i l or hav e d if fic u lty o per at i n g. A

si
ha n dh e l d M P3 p lay er 's c o m po n en ts ar e t ig ht l y c o n nec te d .

Th e c o ntr o l s y s t e m, w h ic h is ma d e u p o f t h e pr i nt e d c i rc u i t b oa rd an d its c h ips , is

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th e b es t ex am p l e. Th e b oar d a nd c h i ps e na b l e ev ery o p era t io n t ha t t h e M P3 p l ay er
may ac c o m pl is h. R at her o f at t em p ti n g to is ol a te a n d s olv e t he pr ob l e m on t h e
bo ar d, a f a i lu r e i n o ne p or t i on o f t he c ir c u it bo ar d w o u ld ty p i c a lly l e ad to t he
rep l ac em e nt o f t h e e n tir e b oar d . Al t ho u gh i t is pos s i b l e t o r ep a ir a c irc u i t bo ar d in
an M P3 pl ay er , it is us u a l ly n ot c os t - ef fec tiv e ; th e c os t of l ab o ur t o i de nt i fy a nd
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re me dy th e pr ob l e m may b e gr ea t er t h an th e v a l ue o f t h e c ir c u it b oar d i ts e l f.
B ec a us e t h e s ubs y s t e ms , s uc h as th e s p eak ers , a m p li f ier , r ec e iv er , a n d CD p l ay er ,
are p hy s ic a l ly s e p ar a te a nd o per a te i nd e p en d en t ly , th e c o mp o n en ts in a ho m e
au d i o s y s t em ar e l o o s e ly c o nn ec te d. O n ly th e a m p l if i er i n a h o me s te re o s y s t e m
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has t o b e f ix e d i f i t fa i l s .

Coh es ion

Cohesion Is the amount to which a subsystem carries out a single task? Providing electricity is a
single function in the MP3 player example. This quick overview of systems should help you better
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understand computer-based information systems and how they are constructed. Many of the same
ideas apply to information systems as they do to systems in general. In the next section, we'll look at
how the process of developing information systems has evolved over time, as well as the
technologies that have aided it.
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Check Your Understanding

A. Fill in the Blanks:

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1. …… … …… … … is a s er v ic e pr ov i d er to t h e a p p lic a ti o n pr ogr a ms .
2. To ac c es s th e s er v ic e s o f th e o p era t in g s y s t em , t he in te rf ac e is pr ov id e d by th e
…… … …… … …
3. O p era t in g s y s t em pl ac ed in …… …. . m e mory .
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4. If a process fails, most operating system write the error information to a .............
5. .................is not a real time operating system?
 True/False

1) Th e m ai n f unc t io n o f t he c om m an d i n ter pr et er is t o pr ov id e t he in t erf ac e

e
be tw e en t h e A P I an d a pp l ic at i on pro gr a m
2) In O per at i n g Sy s te m s , pr i or ity is a C P U s c h ed u l in g a l g ori t hms

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3) CP U s c h e du l i ng is th e b as is of mu l ti pr o gra m m in g o p era t in g s y s t em s
4) K ern e l is t h e pr ogr a m th at c ons t it ut es t he c e ntr a l c or e of t h e o per a ti n g s y s te m
5) P ow er f ai l ur ew i l l b e h an d l e by th e o p era t in g s y s t em

On
Su mm ar y

• Pr ob l e ms ar e s o lv e d t hr o u g h t h e us e of s y s t ems . Th e s y s t ems ap p roac h c a n b e

th o ug ht of as a s y s t e m at ic a p pro ac h to s olv i n g a n is s ue . In t o day 's fas t - p ac ed
env ir o nm e nt , th e s u bj ec t Sy s t e m A na ly s is a nd D es i gn ( S AD) f oc us es o n
s of tw ar e dev e l op m e nt.

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• Tec hn o l ogy im pr ov e m en ts o n a r e g ul ar b as i s g iv e or ga n is at i ons w it h
op p ort u n ity t o i nc or p or at e t he m os t up - t o- da t e k n ow l ed g e i nt o t he ir d a i ly
op er at i o ns . Th e us e o f s y s t em an a ly s is a nd des i g n to a d dr es s i nt e rna l
pro b l ems , i nc r eas e e ff ic ie nc y , an d ex te n d pr os p ec ts has a d irec t i mp ac t on a

si
c om p any 's b ot to m l i n e . As a r es u lt , w ei g h in g t he be n ef its is a w ort hy e nd e av o ur
for b us i nes s ow ner s a nd ma n ag ers .

• A s y s te m is a n i nt e r c on n ec t e d s et of b us i n es s op er at i ons (o r c o mp o ne n ts ) t h at
er
fu nc t i o n t o ge th er fo r a s pec i f ic g o a l w i th i n a s i ng l e bus i n es s u n it . In th e p ay ro l l
de p art m en t, for ex a m p l e, a s y s t e m k e e ps tra c k o f c h ec k s , w h er eas a n i nv en t ory
s y s te m k ee ps tr ac k of go o ds . T h e tw o s y s te ms ar e i nd e pe n de nt o f on e a n ot h er.
Th ere a r e n i ne c har ac ter is tic s t h at d ef i n e a s y s te m. Eac h a ttr i bu t e is ex p l ai n ed
i n d e pt h be l ow ; t h e s y s te m oc c urs i ns i de a bro a d er w or ld , or env i ron m e nt . T he
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s y s te m is s e p ar a t ed f r o m its s urr o u nd i ngs by a bo rd er . T h e s y s te m r ec e iv es

i np ut fr o m t he o u ts i d e w or ld , pr oc es s es i t, an d t he n re tu rns t h e ou tc om e t o its
s urr ou n di n gs .
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Act iv it y

Pr ep ar e a P P T on V ar i ous ty p es of s y s t e m .

Questions & Exercises

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1. De f in e t he I ntr o d uc t i o n a nd M e a ni n g of Sy s t em .
2. Dis c us s t he Sy s t e m Im por t anc e .
3. Ex pl a i n th e C har ac ter i s tic s of a Sy s t e m .
4. Dis c us s t he E le m en ts of a Sy s t e m .
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5. Dis c us s R o le o f s y s t e m / In f or m a ti o n s y s te m i n c r e at i ng ef fec t iv e or g an iz at i o n .
6. Ex pl a i n th e Ty p es o f S y s te ms
7. Ex pl a i n th e C at e gor i es o f i nf or ma t io n
)A

G lo ss a ry

• Comp on ent s: A n ir r e duc i b le p art or ag gr eg a ti o n o f par ts t h at mak es up a

s y s te m; als o c a l l ed a s ubs y s t em .

•
(c

Int er r el at ed co mpon ent s: De p e nd e nc e o f on e p art o f t h e s y s te m on o n e or

mo re o t her s y s t e m p ar ts .
 • Bound a r y: T h e l i n e th at mar k s th e ins i de a n d o uts i de of a s y s t em an d t h at s ets
of f th e s y s t em fr o m i ts e nv ir o n m en t.

e
• Pu rpo s e: Th e ov er al l go a l or f u nc t i on o f a s y s te m.

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• En vi ro nm ent : Ev er y th i ng ex t ern a l t o a s y s te m th a t i nt er ac ts w it h t he s y s t e m.

• Int erf a ce s: Po i nt of c on t ac t w h ere a s y s t e m m e ets its env ir o nm en t or wh er e

s ubs y s t ems me et eac h o th er .

On
• Con st ra int s: A li m i t t o wh a t a s y s te m c a n a c c om p l is h.

• Input: I n pu ts ar e t he i nf or ma t io n t ha t e nt ers i n to t h e s y s te m f or pr oc es s i n g.

• O utput : T he ma i n o bj ec t iv e of a s y s t em is t o g et a n o u t p ut wh ic h is he l pf u l f or
its us er . O u tp ut is th e fi n a l ou tc om e o f pr oc e s s i ng .

ty
Furt he r R ea din gs
• Ho w t o D o Sy s t e ms A na ly s is , J o h n E . G i b s on , W i ll i a m T. Sc h er er, W i l l ia m F .
G i bs o n , M ic h a e l C. S m it h
• Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn Pr in t ed Ac c es s C ard ), H arry J . R os e n b la tt

si
• Th e Sy s te ms T hi nk e r , A na ly t ic a l Sk i l ls : Lev e l U p Y o ur Dec i s i on Mak i ng ,
Pr ob l e m S o lv i n g, a n d De d uc t i on Sk il ls . No t ic e T h e De t ai ls O t h ers M is s .
er
Ans w e r s t o S elf - A ss e ss me nt Q ue st ion s

Fil l Up the B l an ks:

1. O p era t in g Sy s t em
iv

2. Sy s t e m c a l ls
3. l ow or h i g h
4. l og f i l e
Un

5. Palm OS

Tru e/ Fa l se :
1. Fa ls e
2. Tru e
3. Tru e
4. Tru e
5. Tru e
ity

Unit - 2 .1 R ol e o f S yst em
m

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

)A

• De f in e t he R o l e of s y s te m / i n for m at i o n s y s te m i n v a l u e ge n er at i on w i th i n
org a n iz a t io n a l l ev e l .
• Dis c us s t he A ut om a ti o n Sy s te m S tr uc t ur e i n bus i n es s pr oc es s .
• Ex pl a i n th e In t egr a t ed b us i nes s m o du l e s - ma n uf ac t ur i ng a n d s erv ic e
i nd us tr y .
•
(c

Dis c us s t he Tr a di t io n a l E R P Sy s te m .
• Dis c us s O n l i ne ER P S y s te m .
 Int rodu ct ion

e
Ma n go has a c or e of d es i gn er s a n d pr od uc ti o n fac i l i ti es c a pa b l e of r ap i d ly
pro d uc in g n ew f as h io n d es i g ns . M a n go , o n t he ot her ha n d, w o ul d n ot b e a b le t o
s toc k its s t or es w it h tr e ndy f as h io n tr en d s as r ap i d ly w it h ou t its s op h is t ic at e d

lin
i nf or ma t io n s y s t e ms . T o pr o mo te i nv e nt ory re p le n is hm e nt , t hes e in fo rm at i o n
s y s te ms as s is t f in e ly c a li br at e d b us in es s p r oc es s es t h at org a n is e it e ms d ep e nd i n g
on s ty l e a nd c us t o mer tas tes .

Y ou 'l l wa n t t o d is c ov er h o w i n for m at i on s y s te ms c an a id y o ur o rga n is at i on as a

On
ma n ag er . Yo u' l l n ee d to k n ow wh a t k in ds of i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms are av a i la b l e a n d
wh at t h ey c a n do f or f i r ms .

W e b eg i n by ex a m in i n g v ar i ous c las s i f ic a t io n m et h ods b as e d on t he org a n is a t io n a l

l ev e l , bus i nes s f u nc t i ons , an d b us in es s proc es s es th at in fo r ma t io n s y s t ems
s up p ort . En t er pr is e a pp l ic at i ons , w h ic h inc l ud e en te rpr is e s y s t e ms , s u pp ly c h ai n
ma n ag e m en t s y s t e ms , c us t om er r e la t io ns h ip ma n ag e me n t s y s t em s , a nd k no w l ed g e

ty
ma n ag e m en t s y s te ms , ar e n ex t br i ef ly d is c u s s ed . Th es e en t erpr is e ap ps c ov er t he
en t ire c or p or a t io n , i n t egr a ti n g da ta fr om m a ny f u nc t i ons a nd b us i n es s pr oc es s es t o
i mpr ov e ov er a l l p er for ma nc e.

si
Ma jo r Ty pe s of S y st e ms n O r gan iz atio ns

V ar ie d ty p es of s y s t ems ex is t i n an or g an is at i o n b ec aus e d i ff ere n t i n ter es ts ,

s pec i a lt i es , a n d l ev e ls ex is t . T h er e is n o s in g le s y s t e m t h at c a n p rov id e a l l of t he
er
i nf or ma t io n t h at a c o mp a ny r e q u ires . F i gur e 2 - 1 de p ic ts on e me th o d o f d ep ic t in g
th e ma ny ty p e s of s y s te ms f o un d i n a n or ga n is a t io n. Th e or ga n is a ti o n is s e p ara t ed
i nt o s tr at eg ic , m a na g em e nt , a nd o per at i o na l lev e ls i n t h e d i agr a m, an d t h en
fu nc t i o na l d iv is io ns s uc h as s a l es a nd m a rk et i ng , m an u fac tu ri n g an d pr o duc t io n,
iv

fi n anc e a nd ac c o un t i ng , an d h um a n r es o urc es ar e fu rt he r s e gm e nt e d. Th es e
v ar io us or g an is at i o na l i n ter es ts are s erv e d t hro u g h s y s t e ms (A n th ony , 1 96 5) .
Un
ity
m
)A
(c

Fi g: Ty pes of i n for m at i on s y s t e ms
 S al es a nd m ar k e t in g , ma n uf ac t ur i ng a n d pr od uc ti o n, f in a nc e a nd ac c o u nt i ng , an d
hu m an res o ur c es ar e t he f our b as ic f un c t i on a l c a te g or ies t ha t org a n is a t io ns c an b e

e
s ep ar at e d i n to at th e s tr a te g ic , m an a ge m e nt , an d o p er at i on a l lev e l s . E ac h o f t hes e
l ev e ls a n d fu nc t i o ns is s er v e d by i nf or m at i on s y s t ems .

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2. 1. 1 Ro le of s y st em / i nf o rm at i on s y ste m in v alu e ge ne r ati on w ithi n
org an iz at ion a l le v el

By de l iv er in g ac c ur a t e an d up - t o- d a te d at a an d pe rf or mi n g an a ly t ic ac t iv it i es ,

On
ma n ag e m en t i nf or m at i on s y s t e ms c a n as s is t y ou in mak i n g s o un d d ec is i o ns . Yo u
mus t e ns ur e t h at t h e ma n ag e m en t i nf or m at i on s y s t e m y o u s e l ec t i s c o m pa t ib l e w it h
th e in fo rm at i o n f or ma t s us e d in y o ur f ir m a n d i nc l ud es t h e c a p ab i l i ti es y ou r e qu ir e.
Th e b as ic da t a ac c e s s i bl e fr o m y o ur c om pa ny 's ac tiv i t ies a nd rec ords c a n be
s truc tu re d i n to r ep or ts by s u it a bl e ma n ag e m en t i n for m at i o n s y s te ms , prov i d in g y ou
wi t h d irec t io n f or y o ur dec is i ons .

Info rm at ion f r om Co mpa ny O p e rat ion s

ty
W he n y o u m ak e j u d g me n ts b as ed o n da t a fro m m an a ge m en t i nf o rm at i on s y s t ems ,
y ou 're r ef l ec t i n g i n for ma t io n f r o m y o ur c o mp a ny 's ac t iv it i es . Da ta c r ea t ed at th e
work i n g lev e l is o r g a ni s ed in t o us e f ul f or m at s by m a na g e me nt in f o rm at i on s y s t e ms .

si
S al es fi g ur es , ex p e n s es , i nv es t me nts , an d l a b our d at a a re c om m o nly s e en i n
ma n ag e m en t in fo r m at i on s y s te ms . M a na g e me n t i n for m at i on s y s t ems c a n pr ov i de
re li a b le s ta t is t ic s i f y ou ne e d t o k n ow h o w m uc h pr of i t y o ur f ir m h as m a de e ac h
y ear f or t h e pas t f iv e y ear s in or d er t o m ak e a d ec is i o n.
er
Cap ab il it y t o R un S c en ar io s
iv

A s i gn i fic a nt d ec is io n - mak i n g t o o l is t h e c a p ac ity to ru n s c en ar i os . T his f ea t ure is

i nc or p ora t ed i nt o c er t a i n m a na g e me nt i n for m at i on s y s t ems , wh i l e o th ers c an s u p ply
th e d at a ne e de d t o r un s c e nar i os i n ot he r p ro gr am m es , s uc h a s s p re a ds h e ets .
W ha t ha p p ens i f y ou m ak e a g iv e n dec is i on i n fl u enc es y o ur d ec is i o n. Wh at - i f
Un

s c en ar i os d em o ns tr at e h ow s ev er a l v ar i ab l es c h a ng e as a r es u l t of a d ec is i o n.

Y ou c a n e nt er l ow er s t a ff l ev e ls or h i g h er pr o m ot i on b ud g ets t o ex a m i ne h ow
d if fer e nt de gr ees of c ut b ac k s or inc r e as es af fec t re v e nu e , ex pe n d it ures , a n d pr of i t.
Ma n ag e m en t i n for m at i on s y s te ms ( MI S) s y s t ems ar e es s en t i al for c rea t in g r ea l is tic
s c en ar i os .
ity

P roj e cti on s t o A s si st in D e ci sio n M ak ing

A ny ac ti o ns y o u mak e a ff ec t t he c o mp a ny 's pre d ic t e d res u lts a nd may n ec es s i ta te

rev is i o n s t o y o ur b us i nes s p la n a n d u l ti m at e g o als . Tr en d a n a ly s is is e it h er b u i lt
i nt o m an a ge m en t i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems or c a n s up p ly i nf or m at i on t ha t a l lo ws y o u t o
m

do s o. A l l f un d a me nt a l o p er a t in g r es u lts a re proj ec t e d i n m os t c o m pa ny s tr at e g ies .

A tr en d a na ly s is e n ab l es y ou t o d e mo ns tr a te w ha t th es e ou tc om es w ou l d b e in t h e
c urr en t c irc u ms t anc es a n d ho w t hey w i l l c h an g e o nc e t h e d ec is i ons y ou 'v e m a d e
)A

hav e be e n ex ec ut e d. Th e n ew i d ea ls wi l l s erv e as th e f o un d at i o n f or y our fu t ure

s tra te g ic a p pr o ac h.

Imp le me nt a t io n and E va lu at i on
Y ou mus t tr ac k c om p a ny r es ul ts t o ens ur e t h ey ev olv e as a n tic i p at ed , ev en if y o u
mak e d ec is io ns w it h p ar t ic u lar go a ls i n m i nd a n d hav e d oc um e nt at i on fr o m
(c

ma n ag e m en t i nf or m at i on s y s t e ms a nd tr e nd an a ly s is to bac k u p y o ur ex pec ta t i ons .

Ma n ag e m en t i nf or m at i on s y s t e ms pr ov id e y o u w it h th e d at a y o u n e ed t o s e e i f y o ur
dec is i ons w er e s uc c es s fu l or if y o u n e ed t o mak e c h a ng es t o ac hi ev e y our
 obj ec t iv es . I f c er ta i n r es u l ts ar en 't m e et i ng ex p ec ta t io ns , y ou c a n ut i l is e
ma n ag e m en t i nf or m at i on s y s t e ms t o as s es s th e s i tu a ti o n a nd , i f ne c es s ary , t ak e

e
ex tr a m e as ur es .

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2. 1. 2 Aut om at i on S y s t em St r uct ur e in bu s i ne ss p ro ce s s

B us i n es s Pr ac t ic e Au t om a ti o n ( B P A) is t h e proc es s of e m pl oy i ng tec h no l ogy a n d

ot h er m et h ods to h el p b us in es s es ru n mo re s m o ot h ly , an d it i s t h e s u bj ec t o f

On
to d ay 's gu i de . W e' l l l o ok a t t h e v a ri o us as p e c ts o f B PA , as w e l l as th e in f lu e nc e i t
has on bus i nes s es , a s w e ll as h ow i t m ay b e a pp l i e d an d t h e us u a l t oo ls o f t he
tra d e.

Th is h as ev o lv e d i nt o a v er y s op h is t ic at e d pr oc es s , bu t t h e c onc e pt was f irs t

c onc e iv ed in 1 9 13 w h en H e nr y F or d d ev is e d a m et ho d t o m ore e f fec t iv e ly b u i ld h is
au t om o b il es . Wi t h t h e a dv an c e m en t of t ec h n o lo gy , w ha t be g an as a mov i n g
as s e m b ly l i ne i n pr o d uc t i on has n ow ev o lv ed ev e n mor e . B P A i s n o w a s t a nd ar d

ty
par t of t he ins tr um e n ts us e d to c o nt i n uo u s ly i mpr ov e en t erp ris es , fr om ro b ot ic
pro d uc t i o n to ar t if ic i a l i nt e ll i g enc e.

Th e B as ic s of Bus i n es s P r oc es s A ut o m at i on

si
" A pr oc es s of ma n a g in g i nf or m at i on , d at a, a n d pr oc es s es t o d ec r eas e c os ts ,
res o urc es , an d i nv es t me n t," ac c or d in g t o B us in es s Pr oc es s A ut o ma t io n .
er
B us i n es s Pr oc es s A u to m at i on , or B P A, is i n te n de d t o m ak e b us in es s es m ore
ef f ic i e nt a n d to as s is t o r g a nis a t io ns m a in ta i n l o ng - t erm ef f ic ie nc y . Cer ta i n
ac t iv it i es ar e a ut o m at e d us i n g a r a n ge of t ec h n ol o g y - bas e d s o l ut i o ns , m os t
iv

c om m o nly s of tw ar e a p p lic a ti o ns , s o t ha t f ew er res o urc es ar e c o m m it te d t o mak i ng

th es e th i ngs ha p pe n m an u a lly .

Ac c ord i n g t o a r es ea r c h by V en tur e B e at , B P A c a n he l p f ir ms s av e up t o 40 0
Un

perc e nt of t he ir c os ts . It w as th e f as t es t - gr ow i ng s of tw ar e c at e g ory i n t he f o ur t h
qu ar ter of 2 01 9, a nd i t w i ll c o nt i nu e t o ex p a nd as it bec o mes m or e w i de ly ad o pt e d
ac ros s in d us tr i es .

B us i n es s pr oc es s a ut o ma t io n is b as ed on thr e e f un d am en t al pr i nc i p l es .
O rc h es tr at i o n is t he f ir s t of t h es e . B ec aus e of t h e w ay a B P A s y s te m is s et u p ,
fir ms w i l l b e a b le to c ons tr uc t ma ny c o nc u rre nt s y s t e ms to be tt er m a na g e th e ir
ity

c om p ut er i n fr as tr uc t ur e.

A no th er o f t h es e i d ea s is i nt e gr a t io n . Wh e n al l o f t h es e p arts a re s i mp l if i e d in t o
on e s y s t e m, t h ey c a n wor k t o ge t her for be tt er e ff ic ie nc y a n d s y n e rgy w he n i t c o m es
to ac h i ev i n g fu t ur e c or por a te o bj ec t iv es .
m

Fi na l ly , th er e's a u to m at e d ex ec u ti o n, w h ic h is , af ter al l , w ha t i t's a ll ab o ut . Hu m a n

en g ag e m en t is mi n i m i s ed as m uc h as p os s i b le w h en ex ec u ti o n is a u to m at ed . T his
s av es m on ey by r e d u c i ng th e n u m ber of r es o urc es re q u ire d an d t he n um b er o f
)A

tas k s t h at s t af f m us t a c c om p l is h.

B us i n es s pr oc es s a ut om a ti o n s y s t ems are c om p l ic at ed in an d o f t he ms e lv es , b ut
th ey a i m t o dr as t ic al ly s i m p l ify h o w a c o m pa ny o per a tes . B P A s y s t ems en a b l e y ou
to c o or d in a te a s tr a t egy , i nt e gr at e a l l o f y our bus i n es s pr oc es s es , a n d ex ec u t e
(c

i mp or ta nt t as k s a ut o m at ic a lly .

Th e g o al o f B P A is to ma i nt a i n y o ur c o mp ut i ng i nfr as truc t ure c l e a n a n d or g an is e d.

Th is mak es ev er y t h in g m or e tr a ns p ar en t, a n d it m ak es it e as ier f or v i ta l i nf or m at i on
 to b e tra ns m it te d a nd us ed by ev ery on e w ho n e eds it w it h in a c orp or at i o n. To
c rea t e s i m p lic i ty a n d tr a ns par e nc y , a ll b us i nes s pr oc es s es t h at f it i nt o s p ec if i e d

e
box es ar e c o ns ol i d at e d as m uc h as p os s i b l e .

Fi na l ly , as pr ev io us ly s ta te d , t he g oa l of b u s i nes s pr oc es s a ut o m at i on is to r e duc e

lin
hu m an en g ag e m en t. Dev ot i n g i mp or ta n t p ers o n n el r es o urc es , mo n ey , a n d o th er
res o urc es t o o p er at i o ns t ha t m ay be a ut o ma t ed wi l l s wi ft ly de p l et e a c om p a ny 's
res o urc es a nd br in g i t do w n i n th e l o ng r u n .

Th es e s y s t e ms pr ov i d e nu m er ous a dv an ta g es f or b us in es s es , a n d it is c r it ic a l t o

On
dev e l op th e m as q u ic k ly as p os s ib l e in or d er t o max i m is e a c o m pa ny 's p ot e nt i al .
Th e m aj ori ty of t h es e s y s te ms ar e m ad e up of thr e e pr i m ary c o m p on e nts , w h ic h w e
wi l l g o t hro u gh in t h e nex t p ar t .

Wh at a r e t h e El em ent s o f Bus in e ss Pr oc e s s Auto mat ion ?

ty
W he n y o u lo ok a t t h e t hr e e es s e nt i a l " bu i ld i n g bl oc k s " of a b us in es s pr oc es s
au t om at i o n s y s te m t h at y o u j us t r e ad a b o u t, t her e ar e s o m e is s ues t h at t h ey ar e
des i g ne d t o a d dr es s , j u s t l ik e any ot h er s y s t em th at is in tro d uc ed to he l p i nc r eas e
org a n is a t io n a l e ff ic i e nc y . Th e as p ec ts o f th e s t ra te gy th a t b us i nes s es ne e d t o

si
c rea t e to mak e t his ha pp e n w il l b e re f erre d t o as t he c h a l le n ge s t h at B PA s olv es .

B P A s y s t e ms c an b e q ui t e c o m p l ic a t e d , h ow ev er t h ey us u a l ly c ons is t of th re e
er
c om p on e nts . T he f ir s t o f t h es e f ac tors is b us in es s ru l es a n d l o g i c . B us in es s r ul es
are es s en t ia l ly t h e p o l ic ies th at a c om p any im p l em e nts ; h o wev er , t his is a m or e
for m a l um br e l la w or d th at e nc o mp as s es a ll of t hos e p o l ic i es . B us i nes s l o g ic is i n
l in e w it h th is s i nc e it is h ow p o lic i es ar e c o nv er t ed i n to pr oc es s e s , w h ic h a re t he
proc e d ures th a t m ov e a c o m pa ny to w ard i ts obj ec t iv es . Th is e le m e nt of th e s y s te m
iv

wi l l b e t h e b as e li n e t h at i nf or ms t h e r em a i n der o f t h e s y s t e m in b us in es s proc es s
au t om at i o n.
Un

Th e r e as o n i ng w i l l b e de f in e d by t h e r u l es , a nd mos t o f t he lo g ic c an be au t om a te d.
Ev en p ar ti a l a ut o ma t i on c a n h e lp t o r e duc e hu m a n erro r an d k e ep t h in gs m ov in g
a lo n g s m oo th ly .

Th en th er e's s tr uc tur ed d at a. Da t a is a v a lu a bl e as s e t f or y ou r c om p any , a n d

s truc tu re d d at a is o n e of t h e ty p es o f da t a th at w i l l b e r ef err e d to t he mos t.
ity

Th is is th e ty pe o f da t a t h at a na ly t ic s u s es t o as s is t in fo rm fu t ure b us i nes s
proc es s es a n d as s es s p er for m a nc e . B P A pl ans of te n c o n ta i n pr o c es s e s th at he l p
ex p e d it e t he c o l lec t io n a n d i n te gr at i on of th i s d a ta i nt o us a bl e an d s uc c i nc t r e por ts
s o th a t it may b e e ff ic i en t ly us ed .
m

Uns truc t ure d d at a is l ik ew is e c ov er e d by B P A s y s te ms . Uns truc t ure d d at a is b es t

th o ug ht o f as " a ny t h in g e ls e" t ha t is n't s tr u c tur e d. R ev ie ws , s oc i a l me d i a, e ma i ls ,
an d ne ws le tt er s ar e e x am p l es o f t h is ty pe o f c o nt e nt , w h ic h is of t en tex t - bas e d b u t
c an a ls o i nc or por a te ph o tos , f i l es , an d o th er el e m en ts . A s uc c es s f u l b us i nes s
)A

proc es s a u to m at i on pr o gr a mm e w i l l s e am l es s ly in t egr a te t h es e thr e e as pec ts ,

a ll o wi n g t h e m t o wor k i nd e pe n de n tly w h i le s ti l l pr ov i d i ng a c o m pr eh e ns iv e v i ew o f
eac h .

Wh at a r e t h e B en ef it s o f Bus in e ss Pr oc e s s Auto mat ion ?

(c

W he n fac e d w i th th e t as k o f c ons tr uc t i ng a s y s te m t h at is p l ai n ly c om p l ex , i t c a n be
d if fic u lt to s ee th e v a lu e i n inv es ti n g i n o n e w it h ou t k n o wi n g w ha t t he en d
 ou tc om es w i l l b e. S o, le t's t ak e a lo ok a t a f e w o f B P A's m os t i m por t an t
adv a nt a ges .

e
Inc r e as e d pr o d uc t iv ity is t h e m os t ev i de n t be n ef i t. W he n y ou a u to m at e b us i nes s
proc es s es a nd w or k f l ows , t h e a mo u nt o f t i me i t t ak es t o e x ec u t e ac t iv it i es

lin
dec r e as es dr a ma t ic a l l y . Wh e n y o ur work f orc e is n o l on g er r eq u ir e d f or c ert a i n j o bs
th at hav e be e n a ut o ma t ed , y o u c a n be tt e r ma n ag e y o ur r es o ur c es . T h e t im e of
th os e p e o pl e c a n no w b e s pe nt o n ac t iv i ti e s th a t w i l l i nc re as e r e v en u e an d dr iv e
i nn ov at i on in t h e or g a n is a t io n. T hey ' ll als o hav e m or e ti m e t o f o c us on c us t o mer
s erv ic e .

On
As a res u lt , i m pr ov e d c us t o m er s erv ic e wi l l b e a p ri m ary b e ne f it o f b us in es s
proc es s a ut o m at i on . C us t o mer s w i l l b e ne f it fr o m i nc re as ed ac c ur ac y an d
c ons is te nc y s i nc e th e w or k f or c e wi l l h av e mo re t i me t o d ev o t e to t hes e g o als .
Fur th er mor e , B P A l o wer s th e pos s i b i li ty of hu m a n m is tak e a c ros s t h e w ho l e
c orp or at e s t r uc tur e . T he a ut o ma te d ac t i ons wi l l be pe rf or me d e x ac tly th e s am e w ay
ev ery t i m e, w i th n o o p por t un i ty for erro r.

ty
As a r es u lt , t h e c us t o me r s w h o r e ly on y o ur b us in es s w il l n o t s uf f er as a r es ul t of
th es e er r or s , a n d y o u wi l l n ot be ar t he c os t of c or rec t in g t he m .

si
Re d uc e d ex pe ns es , t i me s pe nt on d u ti es , c us t o mer ha p pi n es s , an d o th er f ac t ors
wi l l a l l c o ntr i b ut e to i mp r ov e d op er at i o na l e ff ic ie nc y i n t he lo n g r u n.
er
A no th er a dv an t ag e o f bus i n es s pr oc es s a u to ma t io n is t h at it im pr o v es tra ns pa re nc y
thr o ug h ou t th e or g a n is a t io n. Bec a us e a ut o ma te d s y s t ems gi v e a v is ua l a n d
s truc tu re d e nv ir on m e nt w h er e a l l o f t he pe o p le pa rt ic ip a ti n g i n a proj ec t c a n
ex a m i ne t h e s a me i nf or ma t io n a n d fo l l ow p rog res s , c o mm u n ic a t i on c an be m or e
s i mp l if i e d. . D et a ils m i gh t b e los t a nd i ns tru c ti o ns m is c o ns tru e d w he n as s i gn m en t s
iv

are g iv en m an u a l ly or c om m u nic a ti o n oc c ur s v i a p h on e c al ls a nd em a i ls . Th is wi l l
ha p pe n f ar les s f r e q ue n tly wh e n ev ery t h i ng is a ut o m at ed a nd h o us e d in on e
l oc a t io n, wh ic h w i l l h e l p k e ep ev e ry o n e o n t he s a me pa g e. I n for m at i on c a n b e k e pt
Un

up- t o- d a te a ut o m at ic a l ly , w it h t he as s ur anc e t h at ev ery on e w ho req u ir es ac c es s

has it . No on e o uts i d e of t h e pr oj ec t n ee d s t o b e k ep t u p - t o- da t e or i nv ol v e d i f i t
do es n ot af fec t th e ir d ay - t o- day r es p o ns ib i l it i es an d p er for m anc e .

Inc r e as i n g c o mm u n ic a ti o n t hr o ug h ou t y ou r c om p any in t h is w ay w i l l he l p it b ec o me
mo re c o l l a bor at iv e a n d e ns ur e t h at ev ery on e i nv o lv e d is o n t he s am e p a ge .I t a ls o
en a b les t h e p er s o n i n c har g e t o k ee p tr ac k o f wh er e ev ery o n e is a t a n d ens ur e t ha t
is s ues ar e a d dr es s e d as s o on as t h ey e mer g e.
ity

Th is me t ho d of c o r p or at e m an a ge m en t a ls o a ll o ws y ou t o mak e gr ea t er us e o f y our
me tr ic s . Yo u' l l h av e a b et t er u nd ers t a n di n g o f pr oc es s es as t h ey oc c ur, an d y o u
wo n' t h av e t o w ai t f or i nf or ma t io n t o b e c om mu n ic at e d t o y o u b ef o re i t c a n be us ed .
Me tr ic s ar e c r it ic a l f o r g u id i ng s tr at e g ies a nd ac h i ev i n g obj ec t iv es . Y o u c an g et
m

v a lu a bl e me tr ic s i nf or ma t io n fr o m t he pr oc e dur es y ou au to m at e t ha t y o u w o ul d n't
hav e g ot t en o t her w is e .
)A

B ey o n d t h is , t h er e ar e a s l ew o f ot he r a dv a n ta g es t o b us i n es s pr o c es s au to m at i o n,
bu t t his is o nly a tas te o f wh a t th is ty pe of s y s te m c a n d o for a c o mp a ny .

Cha ll en ge s of Bu sin e ss P roc e s s Auto mat i on

Th ere are v ar io us d i ff ic ul t ies i n a ut om a t in g c or p or at e pr oc es s e s . We be l i ev e t h at

(c

th e b e ne f it f ar o u tw e ig hs t he da n ger , b ut it is b e ne f ic ia l t o h av e a h o lis t ic p ic t ur e o f
s om e th i n g t h at c a n b e c om e s o i m po rt an t to a c om p a ny 's fu nc t i o n ov er t i m e. I n t h is
s ec t i on , w e' l l g o ov er t h e m aj or pr o bl e ms . Ma ny in d iv i du a ls re g a rd a ut o m at i on as
 th e w ay of t h e f ut ur e an d ar e a nx io us t o j u mp o n b o ard ; y et, t her e ar e ma ny ot h ers
wh o w an t to lo ok a t th e s i tu at i o n fro m a l l a n g les b e for e m ov in g f or war d.

e
It's c ruc i a l t o r e me m b er t h at b us in es s pr oc e s s a ut om a t io n do es n ot a lw ay s r e p lac e
ev ery o n e e n ga g ed . As th e s y s te m ma t ures a nd is c o m pl e te ly i nt e g rat e d t hr ou g ho u t

lin
a ll as pec ts of a f ir m, s om e it e ms w i l l ne e d t o be ev a lu at e d, ov ers e en , or m o n it or ed
on a r eg u l ar b as is .

W ork f l ows ar e o n e of th e m os t d i ff ic ul t is s u es to ov erc o me . B ef or e work f lo w s c a n

be a ut o ma t ed , t h ey m us t b e c o m p le t ely c o m pre h e nd e d fr o m t o p t o bo tt o m, a n d t h is

On
me a ns o n a s t e p - by - s te p b as is . Eac h s t a ge m us t be c l ear ly des c ri be d i n s uc h a
way t ha t it c a n be a u t om a te d s o th at t h e p r op er c o nd i t io ns w il l a l way s tr i gg er th e
ri gh t ac t i o ns . I f a c om p any do es n ot go i n to g re at de ta i l w h il e d ef i n i ng its
work f lo ws , t h e s y s te m may no t b e ab l e t o fu l l y a ut o ma t e pr oc es s es .

A no th er pr ob l e m t ha t bus i n es s es e nc o u nt er is g e tt i ng of f t h e gr o un d t o o q u ic k ly .
Do i ng to o muc h at onc e a n d f ul ly ov e rh a u l i n g ev ery p roc e dur e m ig ht be d if f ic u l t f or

ty
em p l oy e es a nd ma n a ger s . W h en a u to m at i ng a bus i nes s , y o u s ho u l d au t om at e
work f lo ws on e at a t i me or i n p has es t o e n s ure t h at ev ery as p ec t of t he s y s t e m is
th or ou g h ly ev a l ua te d . Inv es ti n g in a b us in e s s pr oc es s a ut o m at i o n t ec hn o l ogy c a n
be b e ne f ic i a l to a c o mp a ny or , i f no t us e d a ppr o pr ia te ly , c an q u ic k ly de p le t e b o th

si
pers o n ne l a n d r es our c es .

G o als ar e d if fic u lt t o ac h i ev e in a ny bus i ne s s s y s te m , b u t t h is is es p ec i al ly tr ue i n

er
th e c as e o f bus i n es s pr oc es s a ut o m at i on . G o als i n b us in es s m u s t b e d ef i ne d i n
ord er to trac k pr ogr es s a n d e ns ur e th a t t he p ro p er m e as ur es are c o ns ta n tly d on e;
th is e ns ure s t h at y o ur c o m pa ny 's k ey r es o u rc es ar e n ot w as t e d. B ec a us e y o u wi l l
hav e c l e ar v is ua l is at i ons o n pr o gres s a n d h ow i t is e n ha nc in g y o ur o per at i o na l
ef f ic i e nc y , tes t in g w or k fl o ws a nd tes t in g pro c es s es w il l as s is t les s en th e pro b l ems
iv

of d ev e lo p in g t h is s y s t e m ( or n ot) . T h os e me c ha n is ms c a n be mo d i fi e d i f it is n 't .

In a de q ua te s of tw ar e c an po t en t ia l ly l e ad to t he f a i l ure of a wh o le b us in es s pr oc es s
Un

au t om at i o n s t r a te gy . Th er e w i l l be a v ar i e ty o f s of tw ar e to o ls t ha t do d i ff er en t
th i ngs , a nd eac h b us in es s w il l h a v e i ts ow n s et o f r e qu ir e m en ts .

Mak i n g s ur e y o u fo l l o w t h e a p pr opr i at e m et ho ds fo r s e tt i n g g o a ls a nd m e as ur i n g
th e m, as w el l as k n o w i ng eac h w ork f lo w a t i ts m os t bas ic l ev e l , w i l l a i d y o ur t e am
i n d ec i d in g wh ic h s of t war e is b es t f or y ou . W h en s o ft war e d oes n't d o e no u gh , it
l im i ts th e ex te nt of a u to m at i on in y o ur c o m pa ny a n d mak es t he s y s te m f ee l m or e
ity

l ik e a bu rd e n th a n a b en e fi t.

Th ere are o t her is s u e s as s oc ia t ed w i th ov e rly s o ph is t ic a te d s o ft war e. W he n y o u

on ly n ee d a l i mi t ed s et of t o ols a n d s p e nd a l ot of m o ney o n s of tw ar e t h at d oes
th i ngs th a t ar e c o ns i d er a b ly mor e c om p l ex t ha n y our c o mp a ny 's n ee ds , t he s y s te m
c an b e ex p e ns iv e , d i ff ic ul t t o us e, an d a po or i nv es t me n t. Un ders t an d i ng y o ur
m

c om p any 's n ee ds is t h e m os t e ff ec t iv e s tr at e gy to ov erc o me t h is o b s ta c l e.

W h il e a ny s y s t e m t ha t is p ut w it h i n a c or p ora t io n h as h ur d les , bus i n es s pr oc es s

)A

au t om at i o n is a m a in ly pr of i ta b l e i nv es tm e nt . Th e k ey t ak e a way fr o m th is s h o u ld b e
th at au to m at i n g y ou r bus i n es s w il l p ay o ff h a nds o me ly if y o u mak e s ur e y o u'r e
do i n g ev ery t h in g y o u c an to mak e t h e m os t o f it , s uc h as i de nt i fy in g w ha t y o u n ee d ,
purc h as in g s of tw ar e to m ee t t h os e n ee ds , a n d tr ac k in g ho w i t's h e l p in g y our
c om p any ac h i ev e its o bj ec t iv es ov er t i me .
(c

Y ou c an 't j us t " s et an d f or ge t" wh e n i t c o m es t o b us in es s pr oc es s a ut o ma t io n. Lac k

of f ol l ow - u p o n t h e bu s i nes s pr oc es s au to m at i on p l a n t h at h as be en i m p le m e nt ed
m ig ht a ls o pr ov id e p r ob l e ms . F o l lo w - ups en a b le or ga n is a t i ons t o ad dr es s a ny
 is s ues th a t m ay oc c u r l at er in t he s o ft war e or s y s t em as a w h o le , as w e ll as
ens ur i ng th a t t he c or r ec t m etr ic s are b e in g us e d ac ros s t he b oa rd t o mak e B P A

e
work f or y o u.

Typ e s of B us in es s P r oc es s Aut om atio n

lin
No w t ha t y o u k no w h o w b us in es s pr oc es s a ut o ma t io n c a n he l p y o ur c o m pa ny , l et 's
l ook a t t h e ma ny f o r ms of b us in es s pr o c es s au to m at i o n. W h en i t c o mes t o
au t om at i o n, n ot ev e r y or g a n is a t io n w il l h av e t h e s a m e lev e l of d em a nd , an d eac h
ty p e m ay b e th e g r e a tes t f it f or y o ur c o m p any . D ep e nd i n g on th e s c a le of t h ei r

On
ne e ds , s o m e b us in es s es us e a c o mb i n at i on of t h es e s or ts o f au t o ma t io n .

Th ere ar e fo ur d i ff er e nt f or ms o f B P A, ra n g in g fro m t he m os t b as ic t o th e m os t
c om p l ic at ed . Th es e ar e th e f o ll o wi n g:

• B as ic A ut om a t io n
• Pr oc es s Au t hor iz at i o n

ty
• In te gr at i o n A ut o ma t io n
• Art i f ic ia l I nt e l li g e nc e A ut o ma t io n

Th e m os t bas ic f or m o f b us in es s p roc es s a u to m at i on is ba s ic a utom at ion . It

si
foc us es on t he mos t b as ic t as k s i n a n o rga n is at i on a n d or ga n is es a l l r e l at ed
i nf or ma t io n i n o n e ea s y - to- f in d l oc at i o n s o th at ev ery o ne w h o n e eds it c a n f i nd it .
As we s a i d ea r l i er , o n e s i mp l e ex a m p le o f t h is is us i n g a mes s a g i ng p l at fo rm f or a
gro u p o f e mp l oy ees o r a s pec i f ic pr oj ec t, ens ur i ng th at a ll c o m mu n ic at i on tak es
er
p lac e i n o ne t o o l a nd t ha t n o i nf or ma t io n is l os t b e tw ee n t ea m m e mb ers .

P ro ce s s Aut om at i on is a l i tt l e m or e c o m p l ic a te d, a nd i t's her e t ha t s pec i a l is e d

iv

B P A s of tw ar e ( a b ou t w h ic h y o u' l l l e ar n mo re la ter ) c o mes in to p l ay . Pr oc es s

au t om at i o n is us e d to s tr e a m li n e t he ma n ag e me n t of t as k s , pr oc es s es , a n d pr oj ec ts
s o t h at ev er y t h i ng is c ons is te n t a n d on t i m e. Th e d ed ic at e d s of t war e pr ogr a m me
wi l l i nc l u de a das h b oa r d w h er e a l l o f t h e in f or ma t io n w i l l be s av ed an d ac c es s i b le ,
Un

wh ic h w il l p r o m ot e tr a ns p ar e nc y .

Int eg rat ion A ut om at i on is t he s t ar ti n g p o i nt f or ac tu a l a ut o ma t i on . Th is ty p e of

au t om at i o n e m p loy s mac h i nes or s oft w are to per f orm j o bs t ha t wo u ld n orm a l ly b e
per f orm e d by h u ma ns . Ho wev er , s o me hu m an inv o lv em e nt is s t il l re q u ire d i n t h is
for m o f au to m at i o n. B ec a us e r u les a re c re a te d by h um a ns , t h is is a n ar ea o f B P A
wh er e pr o per ly de f in ed wor k f lo ws ar e c r i tic a l. Cus to m er s erv i c e p os it i ons , f or
ity

ex a m p le , ar e o n e ar e a wh er e t h is ty p e o f a ut o ma t io n c o u l d be us ef u l. A c us t o m er
s erv ic e p l atf or m t h at c o ll ec ts c us to m er c om p l a in ts c a n b e pr oc es s e d t hr ou g h
s of tw ar e t ha t as s i g ns a c h ec k l is t t o an e mp l oy e e w h o is r es po ns i b le for r es olv i n g
th os e c o mp l a in ts ; t h i s m e ans th at pr oc es s a ut o m at i on or pr oc es s m an a ge m e nt
s of tw ar e is i n te gr at e d i n to t h e c us t o mer s er v ic e s of tw ar e, w h ic h i s w hy i t is c a l le d
i nt egr a ti o n a ut o ma t io n .
m

Fi na l ly , Ar t if ic ia l I n te l l ig e nc e A ut o ma t io n is t he m os t c o m p lex s o rt of B P A. Mor e
th a n ev er b ef or e, AI i nt egr a ti o n is dr iv in g bus i n es s in n ov a t i on a nd s tr e am l i n in g
)A

op er at i o ns . Ar t if ic ia l i nt e l li g enc e r e fers to t he a b il i ty of c o mp u ter s o ft wa re

ap p l ic a t io ns t o m ak e hu m an - l ik e d ec is i o ns or pr ov i d e tec h no l o gi c a l as s is t anc e i n
th e s am e way th a t a hu m a n e m pl oy e e c o u ld . AI b us i n es s p ro c es s a u to m at i on
em p l oy s s o ft w ar e s y s t ems t o o r g a nis e d at a an d th e n in i ti a te a p roc es s b as ed o n
th e i nf or m at i on r ec e iv ed by th e s o ft war e .
(c

Th ere ar e m or e f or m s o f b us i nes s pr oc es s a u to m at i on th a t y o u w i l l l e arn ab o ut

thr o ug h ou t t h is t u tor i a l, b ut th es e a re th e m os t fu n da m e nt a l u m br e ll as un d er w h ic h
a ll of t he ot he r ty p es f a ll .
 Wh at Bu si ne s se s U s e Bu sin e ss P roc e s s Auto mat ion ?

e
As y ou m ay r ec a l l, b us in es s pr oc es s au t o ma t io n b eg a n w it h th e inv e nt i on of t he
as s e m b ly l i ne i n th e a ut o mo t iv e in d us try . I t' s d i ff ic u lt t o b e l iev e t h at s o m et h i ng t h at

lin
no w a p pe ar s t o be s o i mp or ta nt to b us i n es s es h a d s uc h h u mb l e b eg i n ni n g s , bu t it's
tru e. O v er t he la s t s e v er a l dec a des , t ec h n o l ogy h as a dv anc e d t o t he po i nt wh er e
th e e nt ir e l a nds c a p e of b us i nes s proc es s au t om at i o n h as s h if te d, a n d i t is no w
s om e th i n g t h at any c o mp a ny c a n us e to m ak e p os i t iv e i mpr ov em e n ts .

On
Hav i ng s a i d th a t, t her e ar e p art ic u lar i n dus tr ies w h ere bus i n es s proc es s
au t om at i o n is mos t p r ev a l e nt . I n t h is pa rt , we' l l d is c us s v ar i o us i nd us tri es a nd h ow
th ey e mp l oy B P A in t h e ir op er at i o ns .

Ev ery in d us tr y is d is ti nc t i n ho w i t o p er at e s a nd t he ro l e it p l ay s for i ts c l i en ts ,
wh et h er t hr o ug h pr o d uc ts , s e r v ic es , or o th er me a ns . F ur th er m or e, e ac h c o m pa ny
wi l l h av e a d iv e r s i f ie d wor k f or c e w it h i ts u n i qu e s et o f s tr e ng th s an d o per a ti o na l

ty
s truc tu re . T h es e ar e c r it ic a l c o ns id er at i ons i n d et er mi n i ng w h ic h b us in es s es ut i l is e
B P A an d h ow th ey e m p loy i t. B P A m ay be b en e fic i a l t o a ny s ec t or ; b e l ow ar e s om e
i ns t anc es of i nd us t r i es w her e it is es s en t ia l to th e bas i c op er at i ons o f
org a n is a t io ns w it h i n th at in d us tr y .

Ban k ing
si
er
S om e b ank i n g an d f i na nc e pr oc es s es , s u c h as au t om at i n g c r ed i t an d m on ey
tra ns f ers , pr oc es s in g l oa ns , a nd i nt erf ac i ng w i th ot h er f i na nc i a l s y s te ms t h at may
hav e d i ff er en t p o l ic ie s a n d pr oc ed ur es i n p lac e, ar e ex t re m ely rep e ti t io us . I n th e
ba nk i ng i n dus tr y , o ff i c e p r oc es s es a re a ls o lar g e ly a u to m at e d b ec a us e t h e s am e
bas ic ac ts m us t b e c o nd uc te d o n a re g ul ar b as is .
iv

Hu m an e rr or may b e d is as tr o us f or b ot h i n d iv i d ua ls w h o r e ly on b ank s an d t he
ba nk s ' c or p or at e r e p ut at i o ns , h e nc e bus i n es s pr oc es s au t om a ti on i n ba nk i ng is
Un

c rit ic a l. B P A als o a s s is ts b ank s i n mov i ng m on ey mor e ef f i c i en t ly f or t h ei r

c ons u me rs , r ed uc in g t he wor k l o ad f or f i n anc i al i ns t it u ti o n e m pl oy e es . C o ns id er h o w
i nc o nv en i en t i t wo u l d be if e ac h p ay m e nt h a d to be h a nd l e d s ep ar at e ly .

He alt hc a r e

B us i n es s pr oc es s a ut om a ti o n is us e d i n ev ery t h in g fr o m b i ot ec h n o lo gy b us in es s es
ity

to hos p it a ls , d oc t or 's of f ic es , p h arm ac eu t ic a l l a bs , an d mor e . Fo r ov er a c e n tur y ,

he a lt hc ar e has b e en o ne of t he in d us tr i es wh er e i nn ov at i on a nd s tr e a ml i n in g
proc es s es h av e b ee n at t h e f or e fr on t o f b u s i nes s . B ec aus e s o m any pa t ie n ts a nd
i nd iv i du a ls r e ly o n th e he a l thc ar e s y s te m t o s tay h e a lt hy a nd r e s po n d to me d ic a l
em er g enc i es , e ff ic i en t op er at i ons ar e c ru c i al t o ac hi ev i ng t h e gre a t pa t ie n t
m

ou tc om es t ha t e ac h bu s i nes s s tr iv es fo r.

He a lt hc are is o ne o f t he w or l d's m os t q ua l i ty - dr iv e n s ec t o rs . It als o pr ov i des

s tri n ge n t re q ui r e m en ts on wh at m et ho ds s ho u ld be us ed an d ho w proc es s es s h o u ld
)A

be c arr ie d o u t i n or de r t o pr es er v e pa t ie n t s af ety , e ns ure da ta pr i v ac y , a n d s o o n .

A ut o ma t io n o f pr oc e dur es l ik e as r ec or d k ee p in g , pr oj e c t m an a ge m e nt , a nd
l og is tic s is es s e n ti a l t o t he r u nn i n g o f a ny he a lt hc ar e f ac i l i ty , an d t ha t's j us t t h e
be g i nn i ng .
(c

Tel e com mun i cat ion s

Telecommunications is a broad term that includes broadcasting, telephone communication, and
internet communication, among other things. More than 60% of the world's population utilises the
internet on a daily basis, and even more people use their phones on a daily basis; the average
 consumer also watches television for more than four hours each day. This industry is involved in
practically everything we do on a daily basis, therefore there is always a lot going on behind the

e
scenes. Billing, customer and technical support, databases, and office systems are just a few of the
things that BPA systems have automated for telecoms firms.

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Tr adi ng an d Ma nuf ac t ur ing

Th e ma n uf ac t ur i ng in dus tr y was t h e f irs t t o de p l oy bus i nes s p r oc es s a u to m at i on ,

an d it h as d e pe n de d on i t m or e s ig n if ic a nt l y s i nc e th e n. Ev ery d ay , m ore pr od uc ts
are m a de av a i la b l e, pur c h as ed , an d us e d as th e po p u la t io n gr ows , pe o pl e b uy

On
mo r e , a n d m or e pr od u c ts ar e m a de av ai l a bl e, purc h as e d , a n d us e d. F or t h e t hi n gs
th ey n e ed t o s u r v iv e an d t h e th i n gs th ey u s e t o e nt ert a i n th e ms e lv es , ev ery on e i n
th e w orl d r e l i es o n th e m a nu fac t ur in g a nd t ra d in g o f go o ds .

Mos t t h i ngs ar e n ow ma n uf ac t ur ed as e f f ic ie n tly as pos s i b le t o s av e t i m e a n d

ens ur e th at d e m an d i s s at is f ie d w it h s uf f ic i en t s up p ly . I n th e m an u fac tur i n g an d
c om m erc e i nd us tr i es , war e ho us e ac t iv it i es , res o urc e m an a ge m e nt , doc u me n t f l ow

ty
ma n ag e m en t, an d a v ar ie ty o f ot h er pr oc e d ures are au t om a t e d t o k e ep t h e w orl d
mov i n g a nd e ns ur e t h a t c ons u me r s hav e ac c es s to w h at t h ey ne e d.

Wh at Ty pe s of Bu si n es s P ro c e ss e s Sho ul d B e Aut om ate d?

si
No w th a t y o u'v e l ear n ed ab o ut t h e m any f or ms of bus i n es s pr oc es s a ut o m at i on a n d
th e in d us tr i es t ha t u t i l is e th e m, l et's tak e a c l os er l o ok a t t h e d if fer e nt s orts of
proc es s es th a t c a n an d s h ou l d b e au t om a te d w it h t he he l p of a B P A s y s t em .
er
B us i n es s pr oc es s a ut om a ti o n is u ni q ue in t ha t it is n o t l im i te d to a s i ng l e ty p e of
work or gr ou p of pr oc e s s es . Ins t ea d, i f t h e t h i ngs y o ur c o m p any p er for ms fa l l un d er
a s p ec if ic s e t o f c r it er i a, it c a n be ex ec u t ed i n a v ar i ety of w ay s . W he n it c o m es t o
iv

au t om at i n g a b us i n es s pr oc es s , t her e ar e a f ew f ac t ors t o k ee p i n m in d . T o b eg i n
s tar te d , he r e ar e s o m e f an t as t ic q ues t io ns t o as k :

•
Un

Is t h er e a l ar ge n u m be r o f tas k s in t h is pr oc e s s ?
• Is it n ec es s ar y to as s i gn t h es e r es p o ns ib i l it i es to nu m ero us p e op l e ?
• Is it n ec es s ar y to d o t hes e ac t iv i t ies w i th i n a c ert a i n a mo u nt o f t i me ?
• Is t h er e a b en ef i t to a ut o ma t in g t h is proc es s f or ot h er s y s t ems o r p roc es s es ?
• W i l l a ut om a t in g t h is pr oc es s a l l ow us to r em a i n c o mp l i an t w i th c urre n t
reg u l at i ons ?
• W i l l au t om at i n g th is pr oc e d ur e mak e f ut ur e a ud i t in g e as ier ?
ity

If y ou a ns w er e d " y es " to th e q ues t io ns ab ov e, th is is m os t c ert a i n l y a p roc es s th at

s ho u l d be au t om at e d an d a ut o m at i ng it w i l l hav e a g o od i mp ac t o n y o ur c o mp a ny 's
ov er a l l op er at i ons . T h os e q ues t io ns c an b e a b i t h az y , b ut h ere ' s a ru n do w n o f
s om e f an t as t ic i ns ta nc es of au to m at e d o per a ti o ns .
m

Br ing ing In N ew Emp loy e es

E mp l oy ee o n bo ar d in g is a mu l ti- s t ep p roc e s s t ha t i nc lu d es th i ng s l ik e f il l i ng ou t
)A

pa p erw ork , s c h ed u l in g or i e nt at i on an d tr a in i ng , g at h er in g a l l o f a ne w e m pl oy ee 's

doc u me n ta t io n an d i nf or ma t io n , s e tt i n g u p p ay m en t ac c o u nts , an d as s ig n i ng
s om e on e t o m en t or or ma n ag e t h em in t h ei r n e w r o l e.

B ec a us e o f th e nu m er ous du t ies i nv o lv e d, t h is pr oc es s c a n tak e a l o ng ti m e, an d

an e mp l oy ee m ay b e r eq u ir ed to d o a s i gn i f i c an t a m o un t o f p a per work a nd fo l l ow -
(c

up c hor es t o e ns u r e t h at ev er y th i n g work s pr op er ly . A ny m is t ak es i n th is proc e dur e

c an m ak e y o ur n ew e mp l oy ee fe e l s lo w ed do w n or g iv e th e ap p ear a nc e t ha t y o ur
op er at i o ns ar e u nor ga n is ed , an d du t ies an d i mp or ta n t in fo rm at i on c a n b e
 ov er l o ok e d . A ny th i ng t ha t d e l ay s t h is pr oc ed ure w i ll j us t pr ol o n g i t an d r ed uc e t he
pro d uc t iv i ty of y o ur H R de p a r t m en t as w e ll as th e n ew em p l oy e e.

e
A ut o ma t in g t h is pr oc e s s el i m i na tes th e c ha nc e of h um a n m is tak e an d e ns ur es t ha t
a ll of t h e i nf or m at i on y o ur c o m p any ne e ds is ac c u ra te an d in o ne p lac e. I t a ls o

lin
me a ns t ha t th e pr oc e s s c a n b e tr ac e d fr o m o ne s t a ge to t h e n ex t , e ns ur i n g th at
no t hi n g is m is s e d a lo ng t he w ay . R e lev a nt pers o n ne l , s uc h as H R a n d s up erv is ors
wh o w i l l b e ac c o u nt a b le for th e ne w e m p l oy e e, c a n b e k e p t i nf or me d as t his
oc c urs , a nd au t om at i o n c a n mak e t h e proc es s g o m uc h mor e q u ic k l y .

On
Pu r ch as ing Th ing s Y our Bu s in es s N ee ds

P urc h as e or der s c an b e i nc onv e n ie nt . R eq u es ts a re c o m m on i n a f ir m s i nc e

res o urc es m us t be r e p lac e d o n a re g ul ar b as is . Wi t ho u t a ut om a t i on , th is proc es s
en t ai ls a n um b er o f s te ps , fr o m t h e p ers on w h o i n it i at es t he or d er t o t he pers o n
wh o a p prov es i t, an d th e n o n to t h e s t af f w ho do t h e ac tu a l p urc has e a n d th os e
wh o m a in t ai n y o ur c o mp a ny 's e nt ir e i nv en t o ry .

ty
W he n t h is p r oc es s is no t a ut o ma t ed , er ro rs in th e i ni t ia l r e qu es ts c an oc c ur,
nec es s it a ti n g t h e us e of ad d it i o na l r es ourc e s t o f ix . T her e c ou l d b e a wa i t b et w ee n
per m is s i on a n d t h e a c tu a l pur c h as e o f th e pr od uc ts , a nd t hos e g oo ds c o ul d b e

si
m is h a nd l e d w he n t h ey a r r iv e . W h en a p urc h as e or der is p l ac ed , i t is c r it ic al to k ee p
ac c ur a te r ec or ds s o th at c o r p or at e m o ney c a n b e fo l l ow e d a nd no t h in g g o es wro n g.
A ny pr o bl e ms t h at de v e lo p t hr ou g ho u t t his proc e d ure c an h av e a ne g at iv e i m pac t
er
on t he p ur c has i n g t e am 's ov er a l l pro d uc t i v ity . T o k ee p th i n gs mov i n g w e l l, t hey
mus t b e a b l e t o p ut ou t a s i mp l e an d c orr ec t r e q ues t an d r ec e i v e t h e r es o urc es
th ey r e qu ir e i n a t i m el y m a nn er .
iv

In t h is c as e, b us in es s pr oc es s a ut o m at i on is a p ow erf u l ac c ou n ta b i l ity t o o l. By
c ha n g in g t he w ay r es o ur c es ar e us e d, s at is f y i ng t h e d irec t n ee ds of y o ur t ea m w i th
ef f ic i e nc y , a n d e ns ur i n g th a t wh at eac h t ea m h as is m o n it or e d a n d ac c o u nt e d for ,
y ou c an av o i d du p l ic at e or der s an d u nn ec es s ary r es ourc e us e . B ec aus e t her e w i l l
Un

be no b ac k - a nd- fo r t h b y e m ai l o r ph o ne , a l l c om m u nic a ti o n fo r th is proc es s m ay b e

k ep t s tr uc t ur ed .

Cr e atin g A P la n F or Bus in e ss Au tom ati on

A c o m pa ny c a n u t il is e a v ar i ety o f b u s i nes s p roc es s a ut o ma t io n m e th o ds
de p en d i ng o n t he ir r e qu ir e me n ts . W e' l l g o ov er s o m e o f t hes e a ppr o ac hes be l o w
be f ore m ov i n g o n t o t he m or e c o mpr e h ens iv e s or ts o f s o ft wa re th at c an b e u ti l is ed
ity

i n ad d it i o n to t h es e m et h ods .

AI Aut om at i on
Th ere 's AI A ut o ma t io n , f or s t ar ter s . Ar ti f ic ia l i nt e l li g enc e , as pr ev i ous ly s a i d, is th e
mos t d i ff ic u lt f or m o f b us i nes s pr oc es s au to m at i on ; t he re for e , we are a na ly s i ng
m

th es e tec h no l o gi es a l ph a be t ic a l ly r at her th an in or der of t h eir s i mp l ic ity . Th is is

do n e by i n te gr at i ng a ll of t h e c o mp a ny proc es s es w it h ar t if i c i al in t e ll i g enc e
i ns t a ll a ti o n. T h is s tr at egy has th e a dv an t ag e o f o ne of t h e m os t ef f ic i e nt w ay s t o
en t ire ly r e pl ac e h u ma n p er s on n el wh o are i nv o lv e d i n a s pec i f ic proc es s or s e t o f
)A

res p o ns ib i l i t i es .

AI Au to m at i o n c an b e us ed t o an a ly s e v as t v o lu m es of d at a a nd pr ov id e a r e por t
bas e d on t h at d at a, e l i mi n at i n g t h e ne e d f or a p ers o n t o f i lt er t hro ug h a nd a n a ly s e
th e d a ta , s av i n g t im e an d mak i ng th e da t a mor e ac t i on a b le . A rt i fic i a l i n te l l i ge nc e
(c

c an he l p y o u i nc r eas e y o ur m ar k et i n g an d s a les by pre d ic ti n g w h ere y ou 'l l r ec e iv e

th e gre at es t c o nv er s i ons a nd t he b es t a pp roac h to r e ac h o ut to c l ie n ts t o o b ta i n
y our s al es .
 Fi na l ly , ar t if ic ia l i nt e ll i ge nc e c a n a i d i n t h e e nh a nc e m e nt o f c o ns u me r p l eas ur e. By
us in g A I - i nt eg r a te d t e c h s u pp or t t o a ut om a t e t his proc es s , y o u c a n p ut mor e ira t e

e
c us t o mers o n hi g he r pr ior i ty w a it i n g l is ts a nd e ns u re th a t t h ey r eac h th e r e lev a nt
rep res e nt at iv e by a n al y s i ng t h e ter ms t hey u s e to des c r i b e t h e ir is s ues .

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IT S e rv ic e s E xp an s io n

IT Au to m at i o n, ac c or d i ng to m u lt i p le s ou rc es , h as b e en s te a d i ly i nc reas i n g a n d c a n
res u l t in s i g ni f ic a n t i n c r eas es i n pr o d uc t iv it y . Th is is a mor e ma nu a l ap pr oac h to

On
th e pr oc ed ur e t ha t r e qu ir es y o ur I T t ea m t o d ev is e a t ec h n i qu e t o i n te gr at e a n d
s i mp l ify a l l o f y o ur c o mp a ny 's ex is t in g s y s t ems . Fr om a t e mp or a l as p ec t , t h is m ay
be m or e r es o ur c e - in t e ns iv e . Ex is t i ng A P Is a nd s o ft war e ov er la p c an b e l ev er a ge d
to c o n nec t a l l of y our s y s te ms .

S om e ex p er ts s ay t h at wh i l e t his is on e of th e m os t ex p ens iv e t ec h n i qu es of

ty
bus i n es s pr oc es s i nt e gr a t io n bu t t ha t i t is n ot ap pr op ri a te f or a ll fir ms , i t c a n p ay
of f. If y o ur o r g a nis at i on c a n' t ru n a ny ot h er w ay bu t ne e ds t o s e iz e th e
op p ort u n it i es th at bus i nes s pr oc es s a ut o ma t i on may g iv e, t h is is t h e b es t o pt i o n.

Bus in e ss Pr oc e ss Ma nag em ent Sy st em s

si
Cor p ora t e pr oc es s ma na g em e nt s y s t e ms h a v e b ee n d oc um e nt e d a s o n e of t h e m os t
er
ef fec t iv e w ay s t o be g i n au t om at i n g bus i n es s pr oc es s es , a nd t h e y n e ed t he le as t
am o un t of f i n anc i a l a nd t im e in p ut . T her e are d ed ic at e d t oo ls fo r t h is , b ut it m ay
a ls o be d on e ma n ua l l y w i th a b as ic s p re a d s he e t or w or d d oc u m en t if it is m or e
ap pr o pri a te f or y o ur c om p any .
iv

To a do pt t h is s tr a t egy , y ou' d g o thr o ug h t h e proc es s o f s te p - by - s te p m ap p i ng o ut

a ll of y o ur w or k f l ows , mak i n g s ur e t h at ea c h p h a s e is s ep ar at e an d ac c ur at e ly
rec o rd e d. Y ou c a n u t i l is e th is b lu e pr in t t o f u l ly dev e lo p y ou r b us in es s proc es s
Un

au t om at i o n s tr at e gy a ft er y o u h av e i t. T h is r es o urc e m ay b e us ed by a ny t e am
me m b er t o o bs er v e h ow wor k f lo ws s h o u ld be f lo w in g in or der to g e t t he gr ea tes t
res u l ts , a n d i t e ns ur es t ha t ev er y o n e w ho n e eds t h e k n ow l ed g e c a n g et i t.

Th is o n e r es o ur c e wi l l s ho w y ou h ow to es t a b lis h a n ov er a ll r o a dm a p f or
i mp l e me nt i n g a f u l l - f l e dg e d bus i n es s p roc es s a ut o ma t io n s tra t egy . E ac h p h as e w i l l
l et y o u s e e wh er e o th e r s o ft wa r e t o ols c an b e us ed , as w el l as ot h er th i n gs .
ity

2. 1. 3 Int eg r at e d Bu si ne ss Modu le s - M anuf act ur ing and S e r vi ce Indu st ry

m

A bus i nes s o f a ny k in d m us t b uy fr o m, s e l l to , tr a ns ac t w it h , a n d c on d uc t b us i n es s
wi t h o th er b us i n es s e s l on g be f ore i t c a n s tar t s el l i ng , t ra ns a c ti n g, a nd d o in g
bus i n es s w it h c us t o m er s . W h en i t c o m es t o b e g in n i ng a bus i n e s s of a ny k in d,
bu i l d in g tr us t i n g b us i nes s t i es is c r i tic a l. B ut , o nc e f or m ed , t h os e bus i n es s t ies
)A

mus t b e m a na g ed ef f i c i en t ly – a n d i n t he d i g it a l er a, t h at inv o lv e s b u i ld i n g d i gi t al
l ink s b et w ee n s u pp l i er s , p ar t n ers , m an uf ac t ur ers , res e l lers , a nd a l l ot h er
org a n is a t io ns wi t h w h i c h a f ir m r e l i es an d d oes b us in es s i n t he s up p ly c ha i n. Th is
is why a s o l id b us i nes s i nt e gr a t io n s tr at egy i s s o i mp or ta nt . T h e na tur e of b us in es s
is c h a ng i n g, a n d d i g it iz at i on is dr iv i ng th is s h i ft . C us t o mers , s u pp l i ers , par t ners ,
s erv ic e prov i d er s , a n d a l l o th er s t ak eh o l der s i n t h e s u pp ly c h a i n mus t a n d m ay b e
(c

d ig i ta l ly c o nn ec t e d, c om m u nic a te d w it h, a n d c o ll a bo ra te d w it h i n t o d ay 's g lo b a l
bus i n es s ec os y s t e m. In d ee d, th e mo d er n s up p ly c h a i n h as ev o lv ed i nt o a d i gi t al
ec os y s t em i n a nd of i ts e l f, a l l ow i ng for de e per c o l la b ora t io n a n d ne w c o o per a tiv e
work me th o ds .
 B us i n es s es s t a nd t o g a in a l o t f r o m t he d i g i tiz a ti o n of s u p p ly ne t work s . Ac c or di n g
to r es e arc h, h ig h er l ev e ls of di g it iz at i o n c an i nc re as e f i l l r a te s (t h e a m ou nt of

e
c us t o mer de m an d m e t thr o ug h s t oc k av a il a b il ity ) by u p to 80 % a nd s hor t en c as h - t o-
c as h (C 2 C) c y c l e t im e s ( t he t i m e b et we e n w he n a c o m p any s e n ds c as h t o s u p pl i ers
an d r ec e iv e s c as h fr o m c us t o mer s ), wh ic h l ea ds t o inc r e as e d pr of it a b il i ty i n 75 % of

lin
c as es . Ac c or di n g to Mc K ins ey , o rg a nis a ti o ns wi t h h ig h ly - di g it iz e d s up p ly c h a ins
may ex p ec t y e ar ly E BI T ( ear n i ngs be for e in t eres t a n d tax es ) gr o wt h of 3. 2 p erc en t
– th e h i gh es t i nc r e as e o f a ny i nd us try – a nd an n ua l s a l es gr ow t h of 2 .3 perc e nt .

Th e a dv an t ag es ar e obv i o us , bu t ho w c an bus i n es s es g o a b ou t ac h i ev in g th e m?

On
B us i n es s i nt e gr a t i on i s t he ans wer .

S i mp ly p ut , b us in es s i n te gr at i on ( a ls o r ef err ed t o as B2 B in t e gra t io n o r s i mp ly
B 2 Bi) is a c o m pr e h en s iv e d i gi t al s tr at egy th at en a b les th e in t egr a ti o n, au t om a ti o n,
an d o pt i miz a ti o n of k ey b us i nes s pr oc es s e s th at c o n nec t an or g an is at i o n w i th i ts
tra d e pa rt ne r s – c u s to m er s , s u pp l i ers , l og is tic s c o m pa n i e s , a n d f i na nc i al
i ns t it u ti o ns . It is t h e ex c h a ng e a nd in te gr a ti o n of e l ec tr o nic m es s ag es , d a ta , an d

ty
tra ns ac t i ons by a n or g an is at i o n ac r os s a b u s i nes s ne tw ork of ex t e rna l p art ne rs v i a
i nt er - c om p any bus i nes s pr oc es s es .

Na tur a l ly , t ec hn o lo gy s o lu t io ns ar e n ee d ed t o s up p ort t h es e in te ra c ti o ns , t he re for e

si
bus i n es s i nt egr a t io n a ls o r ef er s t o th e tec h no l o gy arc h i tec t ure t h at f ac il i ta t es th e
c o ll a bo ra t iv e p ar tn er s h ips t h at dr iv e m od er n s u p ply c ha i ns .

Wh y Do We N e ed Bu s ine s s Int eg ra tio n?

er
B us i n es s es n e ed a m e c ha n is m t o tra ns m it i n for m at i on q u ic k ly a n d ef f ic i e nt ly , w h ic h
is wh er e t he f un d a me n ta ls o f bus i n es s i nt eg r at i on c o m e fr om . Th e bas ic f ac t is t h at
i n t od ay 's d i gi t al e nv ir on m en t, f ax es a nd e m a ils ar e no l o ng er s uf f ic ie n t. Ho wev er ,
as b us i n es s es hav e p r og r es s e d a lo n g th e ir d ig i ta l tr a ns f or ma t io n pa t hs , t hey hav e
iv

dev e l op e d t h eir o wn s tr a te g i es f or ex c h a n g in g c om m u nic a ti o ns an d i nf or ma t io n

wi t h tr ad i n g p ar t n er s . As a r es u lt , e ac h c o mp a ny in a s u p p ly c h a in has i ts o wn
un i q ue m ix of a p pl ic at i ons , c l ou d r es o urc es , an d ot h er s y s t e ms , a l l of w hic h r e ly on
d if fer e nt fo r m ats a n d p la tf or ms an d are s u bj ec t to v ar i e d s ec ur ity , c o mp l i anc e, a n d
Un

gov er n anc e c onc er ns . Th es e d iv ers e s y s t e ms do n' t n ec es s a ri ly c om m u nic a te w it h

on e a n ot her , a nd de p l oy i n g a s l ew o f s o l u ti o ns to c o p e w it h th e v as t r an g e of
c om m u nic a ti o n s t an d ar ds , d a ta for m ats , a n d s ec ur ity fra m e work s th at e ac h
c om p any d e a ls w i th i s s i m ply t oo i n ef f ic ie nt a nd c os t ly . As a res u l t, b us in es s
i nt egr a ti o n s o l ut i o ns , s tr a te g i es , an d tec h n o lo g ies ar e n ec es s a r y t o ma n ag e th e
c ha os a n d e na b l e d is ti nc t fi r ms t o s w i ft ly an d e ff ic i en t ly c o nn e c t an d ex c h an g e
bus i n es s - c r it ic al i nf or ma t io n .
ity

Th e ul t im a te g o al o f b us in es s i nt e gra t io n is to i nc r eas e t he s p e ed an d ef f ic ie nc y of
d ig i ta l tr a ns ac t io ns ac r os s th e s u p p ly c ha i n a n d v a l ue c ha i n. F urt h er mor e ,
bus i n es s in te gr at i o n e li m i na t es t he n e ed f or t i m e - c o ns u mi n g, c os t ly , a n d er ror -
pro n e m an u a l o per at i o ns .
m

Mos t b us i nes s es , for ex a m p le , n ow ac c ep t purc h as e or ders fro m ot h er b us in es s es

e lec tro n ic a lly , m os t fr eq u en t ly v i a e ma i l. Pr oc es s i n g th es e buy o r ders us e d t o be a
ma n ua l o per a ti o n, r e q u ir i n g a n em p l oy e e t o do a rev i e w a nd t he n m a nu a l ly e n ter
)A

th e in fo rm at i o n i n to s om e s or t of or de r f ul f i l me nt s y s t em . Wh e n a c orp or at i o n us es
a bus i nes s in te gr at i on s o l ut i on , h ow ev e r , a p urc has e or der is a ut o ma t ic a l ly
rev ie w ed a nd s e nt i nt o t h e or d er f u lf i l m en t s y s t e m, r e duc i n g ord er fu l fi l m en t
de l ay s .

Fur th er mor e , t h e s u b m it ti n g c o m p any n o lo ng er h as a ny do u bts ab o ut wh e th er or

(c

no t th e p ur c h as e or d er was r ec e iv e d , bec aus e th e b us in es s i n te gr at i on s y s t e m

a ll o ws t h e s u b m it t in g c om p any t o ac c es s t h i s i nf or ma t io n a nd e ns ure t ha t th e or der
is b e in g pr oc es s e d.
 The B en ef it s of Bu si ne ss I nt e gr at ion
B us i n es s es g a in gr e a t ly fr o m s uc h tr a ns p ar enc y . Bus i nes s i nt e gr at i on a l lo ws f ir ms

e
to ta l c o ntr o l ov er t he ir tr ad e p art n ers ' o per a ti o ns , fr o m b us in es s pr oc es s
ma n ag e m en t ( B P M) t o s u pp ly c h a in v is ib i l i ty an d g l ob a l c o m mu n ity m a na g em e nt .
Thr ou g h a c en tr al is e d p er s p ec t iv e o f r ev e n ue - dr iv i ng B 2 B pr oc e s s es , f ir ms may

lin
e li m i na t e s h ip m en t de l ay s , an t ic i p at e s up p ly c h a in b o tt l en ec k s , a n d g et
c om pr e he ns iv e v is i bi l i ty , e n ab l i n g i m prov e d e n d - t o- en d r es p o ns iv en es s a n d b et t er
c us t o mer s er v ic e .

Th e k ey b e ne f its o f b u s i nes s in t egr a ti o n t ec hn i q ues , as i de f ro m i mp rov e d v is i bi l i ty ,

On
l ie aro u nd t h e c o l la b or at iv e p ar t n ers h i ps a nd n ew w ork p a tt erns t h a t are en a b le d.

For ex am p l e, u p to 8 5 per c e nt o f th e p arts f o r a v e h ic l e's i n ter i or s y s te ms ar e of te n

pro d uc ed by a c om p l i c at e d ne tw ork o f v e nd ors . F urt h erm or e, as we m ov e i nt o t he
c on n ec t e d v e h ic l e er a ( w i th dr iv er l es s t ec h n o lo gy l oo m i ng o n t h e hor iz o n),
c ar mak ers ar e inc r e a s i ng ly r ely i n g o n w h o le ne w s w at hs o f s tra te g ic s u p p li er
par t ners h i ps t o pr ov id e t he m w i th th e el ec t ron ic s an d t ec h no l og i es t hey n ee d t o

ty
mak e t h e ir v e h ic les s ma r t an d c o n nec t t h e m t o t he i nt er ne t, r a th er t ha n j us t en g in e
par ts .

For ex am p l e, as Ch i n a 's c o n nec te d v e h ic l e s ec t or ev olv es , 98 c ar mak ers , c ol l e ges ,

si
an d i ns t i tu t es hav e f or m e d a s tra t eg ic p art n ers h i p to inc reas e c ros s ov er
c o ll a bo ra t io n a n d s tr e ng t he n n a ti o na l i nd us tri a l s t a nd ar ds . V eh ic l e dr iv ers s p e nd
91 h ours c o n nec te d t o t h e i n ter n et du ri n g th e ir j o ur ney s e ac h y ear , ac c or d i ng to
K urt L e hm a n n, f or m er CTO o f C on t in e n ta l , th er ef or e c o ll a b ora t io n b e tw ee n
er
c ar mak ers a n d te l ec o m mu n ic a t io n s erv ic e p rov id ers is es s e nt i a l.

B us i n es s in t egr at i o n t ec h n i qu es t h at a l lo w f or t h e f as t a nd s ec ur e s har i n g o f di g it a l
i nf or ma t io n ac r os s a l l par tn er s i n a s u p p ly c ha i n ec os y s te m are es s e nt i al t o
iv

s up p ort any n ew c ol l ab or at iv e b us in es s op er at i o ns . " By 2 02 0 , 6 0 p erc en t o f

ma n uf ac t ur er s w i l l r e ly o n d ig i t al p la tf or ms to bo os t th e ir inv es t m e nts in
ec os y s t ems a n d ex p e r i enc es a nd s u p por t as muc h as 3 0 pe rc e nt o f t h e ir en t ir e
i nc o m e," ac c or d in g t o ID C Ma n uf ac t ur i ng I ns i gh ts .
Un

Fro m E DI t o Bu si ne s s Int eg rat ion

W h il e bus i n es s i nt e g r at i on is a p o pu l ar i s s ue r i g ht no w, s o lu ti o ns h av e b e en
aro u n d f or qu i te s o m e ti m e. E DI ( e l ec tr o n ic d a t a in terc h a ng e), w h i c h d a tes b ac k t o
th e 1 97 0s , is o n e e a r ly ex a mp l e. ED I is p ri mar i ly c o nc er ne d w i th t h e e lec tr on ic
ex c h a ng e o f doc u me nts . W he n s o l ut i ons i ni t ia l ly e m erg e d, t he re wer e n o da t a
for m at s t an d ar ds ; w he n tw o c o mp a n ies a gre e d to c o m mu n ic at e i nf or ma t io n
ity

e lec tro n ic a lly , t hey w o u ld a gr e e on t h e for m a t t o us e.

In t h e 1 98 0s a n d 1 99 0 s , E DI s t a nd ar ds w ere i m p le m e nt ed , a n d E D I pr ov e d t o b e a
hu g e t im e s av er f or ma ny b us in es s es – a l be i t it w as f ar fro m i de a l. T o be g i n,
bus i n es s es ne e de d t o p ur c has e v ar i o us ge ar an d s o ft wa re , a s w e l l as t e ac h
m

pers o n ne l o n h ow to s e t u p a nd ma na g e c o nn ec ti o ns . Fur th er mor e , IT

org a n is a t io ns w er e r e qu ir e d t o i nc or por a te pa p ers in to ex is t i n g s of tw ar e s y s t ems ,
wh ic h a dd e d ti m e a nd r es o ur c es t o th e pr oc e s s .
)A

To day 's hy br i d c lo u d ED I s o ft wa r e is fa r m ore adv a nc e d , v ir tu a l l y e l i m in at i n g th e

ne e d f or h um a n da ta en tr y . F ur t h erm or e, bec a us e ev ery t h i ng i s s up p l i ed as - a-
S erv ic e , th er e is n o n e ed t o p ur c has e h ar dw a re or s o ft war e .

ED I s y s t e ms , wh ic h s ti l l f or m t h e b e droc k of bus i n es s i nt e g r at i on tec h no l o gy ,

au t om at e a n d s tr ea m l i ne t h e pr oc es s of ex c ha n g in g c ri t ic al c om pa ny d oc um e nts
(c

wi t h tra d i ng pa r t ner s , s uc h as i nv o ic es , s h ip p in g n o t ic es , a nd purc h as e or der s .

Ho wev er , as b us in es s es b eg a n to d o m o re b us i n es s e l ec tr o ni c a lly , i t b ec a m e
ev id e nt t h at a d d in g c o ll a bo r a t io n a n d c o m mu n ity m an a ge m en t t oo ls t o t h e s a me
 s o lu t io n m i g ht i m pr o v e ev en mo re b us i n es s pr oc es s es . As a r es u lt , c urr en t
bus i n es s in t egr a ti o n s o lu t io ns , s uc h as Ac ti o n B us i n es s Ex c ha n ge , no w pr ov id e
mo re c o m pl e te f ea t ur e s ets – s uc h as B P M to o ls an d s u pp ly c ha i n a na ly tic s – i n

e
ad d it i o n to b as ic E DI c ap a b il i t ies .

lin
O rg an iz at i o ns m ay ex c ha n ge e lec tr on ic pro c ure m e nt a n d s u p p ly c ha i n d oc um e nts
wi t h tr ad i ng pa r t ne r s us i n g a s o l ut i o n l i k e Ac t io n — a f u ll y - m an a ge d B2 B
In te gr at i o n as a S er v ic e s o lu t io n – in d ep e nd e nt o f fo rm a t or e nt er pr is e s y s te m.

For p urc h as er s , Ac t io n B us i nes s Ex c ha n ge s tre a m li n es a n d l ow er s t h e ex pe ns es o f

On
th e ac c ou n ts pay a b le ( AP ) pr oc es s , as w e ll as a ll o wi n g f or e as y i nf or ma t io n
s har i n g w i th s u pp l i er s v i a a c o m mu n ic at i on l ay er . D ay s s a les o u ts t an d i ng ( D SO )
rat es f or s u p p l ier s ar e dr a ma t ic a l ly dec r e a s ed wh e n t he or ders to c as h c y c l e is
s pe d up an d th e in v o ic e s en d i ng pr oc e dur e is a u to m at e d. B ot h b uy ers a n d
s up p l ie rs b en ef i t fr om a c l ou d - bas e d p ort a l t h at a l l ows f or e as y o n b o ar d in g a n d
c on n ec t i ons w i th t r a d i ng par tn er s o f a l l s iz es a nd lev e ls of I T s op h is t ic at i o n, as
we l l as p o wer f ul k ey p er f or ma nc e i n dic a tor ( K PI) das h bo ar ds t ha t trac k D SO , d ay s

ty
pay a b le o uts t an d in g ( DP O ) , a nd err ors , as we l l as v is ib i l ity i n to o rde r, i nv o ic e , a n d
re mi tt a nc e doc u me n t s ta tus .

How Bu si ne s s Int eg r at i on Wo r k s

si
To be g i n w i th b us i nes s i n te gr at i on , a c o mp a ny m us t f irs t d ec i de o n t h e
tec h no l og ic a l p la tf or m i t w i l l us e. Th e o pt i o ns are d iv i de d i nt o f o ur c at e gor i es : o n -
pre m is es , h os te d, c lo u d, a n d hy br id .
er
Th e es s e nt i a l i nt e gr at i on s o ft w are is in s ta l l ed o n - s it e at t h e org a n iz a t io n's
pre m is es w it h on - pr e m is es b us in es s in t egr at i on s o lu t io ns . H os t e d i nt e gra t io n r ef ers
to s of tw ar e t h at is d e p loy e d o ff - s i te , c l ou d i nt eg ra t io n r ef ers to s of tw ar e t h at is
iv

s up p l ie d as - a- s er v ic e thr o ug h t he i n ter n et , an d hy br id a p pr oac h e s c o mb i n e tw o or

mo re o f t he t hr ee s tr a t eg i es .

A bas ic bus i n es s in te g r at i on pr oc es s h as f o u r c o mp o ne nts , r eg ar d l es s o f w h ic h o n e

Un

a c o mp a ny ut i l is es for its ow n r e as o ns .

1. Sou r c e Ap pl ic at ion: To be g i n, d at a f ro m a n org a n iz a t io n's fr on t - en d b us i n es s

ap p l ic a t io n m us t b e e x tr ac te d . T his c o u ld be a p urc h as e ord er fro m an E R P
s y s te m or m on t hl y s al es nu m be rs fr o m a p oi nt - of - s a l e s y s te m fo r a r et a i l s t or e.
Th e da t a wi l l b e pr e p ar e d f or tr ans m is s io n to t he ex t er na l b us in e s s p art n er by
th e b us in es s i nt e gr at i on s ol u ti o n o nc e it h as b e en p u l le d .
ity

2. Dat a Fo rm at : As pr ev i ous ly i n d ic a te d , no t a l l d at a i n a bus i n es s 's ap p l ic a t io n is

s ta n dar d is ed . B ec aus e for m ats di ff er , th e d at a m us t be t ra ns l at ed in t o a
s ta n dar d is ed f or m at b ef or e b ei n g tr ans f erre d to th e ex te rn a l b us i nes s par t ner 's
tar g et a p p l ic a t io n. As a r es u lt , wh i l e ev a lu a t i ng bus i nes s i nt eg ra t i on s o lu t io ns ,
fir ms m us t c ons i de r t he ty p es of i n te gr at i o n th at a re s u p por t ed , p art ic u lar ly if
m

th ey s ou r c e a nd /o r s e ll c o m mo d it i es t hro u g h i n ter n at i on a l s up p ly c ha i n
par t ner s .
3. Tr an spo rt Pr ot o col : Na tur a l ly , a l l p art i es mus t a gr e e o n t he c om m u nic a ti o n
rou t e – or pr o t oc o l – f or in fo r m at i o n t o b e s en t. Th er e ar e a v a ri e t y of adv a nc ed
)A

pro t oc o ls for d at a s h ar in g av a i l ab l e, i nc lu d in g SFT P , A S2 , a n d HTT Ps , b ut

tra d in g par t ner s a nd per h a ps e nt ir e in d us tr i es w i ll o ft en d ic t at e th e tr a ns p or t
mec h an is m to be u ti l i s ed . As a r es u lt , b us i nes s es s ho u ld c h oos e a b us i n es s
i nt egr a ti o n s ol u ti o n t h at s u pp or ts a l l of th e pro t oc o ls th a t t he ir tr a d in g par t ners
req u ir e, as w e ll as t he a bi l i ty t o a dd n e w c o m mu n ic a t io n pro toc o ls as th ey
bec o me av a i l ab l e.
(c

4. Ta rg et App li c at i on: T he fi n a l s te p en t a ils th e tr a di n g p ar tn er's t ar g et

ap p l ic a t io n . T he t ar g e t a p pl ic a ti o n mus t be ab l e t o ac c ep t an d pro c es s t h e d a ta
s en t, as w e l l as m ak e th e d a ta r e ad a b le a nd in t egr a te it i nt o t h e r ec ip i en t's k ey
bus i n es s s y s te ms .
 In a n uts he l l , th es e f o ur c o m po n en ts c o l l ec t d a ta fr o m s o urc e a pp s , c h an g e i t i nt o
th e s u i ta b l e f or m a t, a nd th e n tr a ns m i t i t t o t h e d es t i n at i on a pp l i c at i on us in g t h e

e
ap pr o pri a te tr a ns p or t pr o t oc o l .

Le t's t ak e a l o ok a t a hy p ot h et ic a l r et a il or d er - t o- c as h s it ua t io n in wh ic h

lin
S up er ma rk e t A is l ook i ng t o p ur c has e c a t fo o d fro m Su p pl i er B.

In i ts purc h as in g s y s t em , S up er m ark e t A p rep ar e s an or d er for c at f oo d (s o urc e

ap p l ic a t io n) . Th e or d er is r etr i ev e d a n d c onv er te d i n to a P urc has e O r der ( da t a
for m at) . Th e P ur c h as e O r der is s u bs e q ue n tl y s ec ur e ly c o mm u n ic a te d t o S up p l i er B

On
thr o ug h t h e in t er n e t ( tr a ns por t pro t oc o l) a nd pr oc es s e d by Su pp l i er B. ( t arg et
ap p l ic a t io n) . S u pp l i er B t he n r ep l i es w i th a Fu nc t i o na l Ac k no w le d ge m e nt ,
c on f ir mi n g r ec e ip t of t he or d er .

S up p l ier B s e nds a n A dv a nc ed Sh i p pi n g N ot ic e to Su p er mark e t A a ft er pr oc es s i n g

th e ord er t o le t t h em k n ow th e c at f oo d i s o n i ts way . S u p er m ark e t A ge ts th e
S hi p p in g N ot ic e, r e s p on ds w it h a F unc t io n a l Ac k n ow l e dg e me nt , a n d th e n i nt e gra t es

ty
th e S hi p p in g No t ic e i nt o its b ac k - e n d ER P s y s t em , pre p ar i ng f or d e l iv ery .
S up er ma rk e t A s en ds a n ot h er F u nc t i o na l Ac k no w le d ge m e nt t o S up p l ier B a ft er
S up p l ier B s h ips t h e c at f oo d or d er, a n d S up er m ark e t A s e n ds a no t her I nv oic e t o
S up p l ier B. Su p er m ar k et A t h en s en ds a P ay m e nt O r der t o S u pp l ier B to c o n fi rm

si
pay m en t d et a i ls , a nd S up er ma r k e t A s e nds an o th er Fu nc t i o na l Ac k no w le d ge m e nt t o
S up p l ier B t o ac k n o wl ed g e r ec e ip t of t h e d o c um e nt .

A l l o f t h is is h a nd l e d a ut o ma t ic a l ly by t h e b u s i nes s i nt e gra t io n s o lu ti o n, wh ic h us es
er
th e s am e d at a b e i ng tr a ns f er r e d b e tw ee n t he tw o or ga n is at i ons to c o mm u n ic a t e
wi t h ot h er d is tr ib ut i o n, w ar eh o us in g, a nd f u lf i lm e nt ap p l ic a t io ns in ord er t o pre p are
for a n d ex pe d it e t he o r de r 's c o mp l et i o n.
iv

Comp et iti v e Ad van t a ge s

B us i n es s i nt e gr a t io n fu n da m en t al ly re f lec t s t he d i g it a l tra ns f or ma t io n o f th es e
ex t er na l t ies , as d ea l in g wi t h ex t ern a l or ga n is at i ons is c r uc i al to n ear ly ev ery
bus i n es s o p er a t in g to d ay . B us i n es s in t egr a ti o n s o l u ti o ns p rov id e a c l e ar
Un

c om p et i tiv e adv a nt a g e s i nc e t h ey m ak e i t eas i er f or a b us i nes s t o c om m u nic a te

an d rec e iv e m is s i o n - c r it ic a l d at a w it h i ts tra d i ng p ar tn ers .

Re d uc e d ex pe ns es fr o m r e mov i ng h u m an h a nd l i ng in ar e as l ik e d a ta e ntry , c l er ic a l
doc u me n t pr e par at i o n , a nd ma i lr o om s ort i ng ar e j us t a f ew of t h e b e ne f its .
Fur th er mor e , th e pos s i bi l i ty of hu m a n err o r is r e duc e d, r es u l t in g i n l es s c os t ly
bus i n es s doc u m en t a d j us t me n ts .
ity

W it h i n t h e ir tr a d i ng c om m u ni ty , o rg a nis a ti o ns c an als o ex p ec t gr ea t er op er at i o na l
ef f ic i e nc ies . Tr a d in g par t ner s c a n c o op er at e, c o l l ab or at e, a n d c o m mu n ic a t e mor e
s uc c es s f ul ly wh e n da t a is tr a ns m i tt ed s ec ur e ly , qu ic k ly , a n d e ff ec tiv e ly . I mpr ov ed
c om m u nic a ti o n a ls o i mp r ov es s p e nd i n g v is i b il i ty , as w e l l as v is i bi l ity in t o i nv e n tory
m

fl o ws an d s u p pl i er ac t i v ity .

B us i n es s i nt e gr a t io n s o lu t io ns a ls o i mpr ov e da t a qu a l ity b ec a us e s ta ff m a n ua l ly
en t eri n g d at a ar e l es s lik e ly t o m ak e m is tak es . Ma n ua l da t a e ntry h as a 1% err or
)A

rat e, wh ic h may b e ex tr e m e ly d es t r uc tiv e an d c os t ly f or e nt er pr is e s . If a n or d er is

i nc orr ec t, i t m us t be c or r ec t ed , a nd a n ew o rde r m us t b e is s u ed , s l ow i ng d o wn t h e
en t ire pr oc es s an d i n c r eas i n g th e c os ts f o r a l l p ar t ies inv o lv ed . D at a q u a li ty is
i mpr ov ed by bus i n es s i nt e gr at i on s o l ut i o n s n ot o n ly by m i ni m is i ng t h e da n ge r of
hu m an m is tak e, b ut a ls o by es t a bl is h in g a " v irt ua l q uar a nt i n e" th at v er i fi es th e
i nt egr i ty a n d ac c ur ac y o f d at a c o m i ng f ro m a n or g an iz at i on 's tra d in g p ar tn ers
(c

be f ore it r e ac h es en ter pr is e a pp l ic at i o ns . As a r es ul t, b u s in es s es c a n h av e
c om p l et e c o nf i de nc e i n d at a i nt e gr ity a n d, as a res u lt , i n t he bu s i nes s in t egr at i o n
s y s te m's ab i l ity t o s up p or t en d - to- e nd da ta in t erc h a ng e , wh ic h is es s en t ia l t o
au t om at e b us i nes s o p er a t io ns .
 Fin al Tho ught s
In te gr at i o n w i th o t her fir ms , s up p l ie rs , r es e ll ers , a n d ot he r tr a d in g p art n ers is v i ta l

e
to y o ur s uc c es s u nl es s y o u'r e A ma z o n or W a lm ar t, w ho c a n b a s ic al ly d ic ta te an d
ow n t he s u p p ly c ha n n e l fr o m m a nu f ac t ur in g to e n d s a le .

lin
Tot a l tr ad i n g p ar t n er e n ab l e me nt is pr ov i de d by bus i nes s i nt e gra t io n s o l ut i o ns .
B us i n es s i nt e gr a t io n s o lu t io ns g iv e y ou t h e ed g e y o u ne e d to s t a y c o m pe t it iv e i n
th e d ig i ta l a g e, fr o m r ed uc i ng t i me a n d c os t s as s oc ia te d w it h m an ua l pr oc es s in g to
e li m i na t in g h um a n er r or s , i m pr ov i n g da ta q ua l i ty , i nc r eas i ng pr o duc t iv ity , g a i ni n g
s up p ly c ha i n v is i bi l i ty , a nd e nh a nc in g c o l la b ora t io n w it h y ou r e n tir e tr a d in g p art n er

On
c om m u ni ty . O r g an iz a ti o ns h av e c om e a l o ng way s inc e t h e e ar ly da y s of
i nf or ma t io n ex c h a n ge th a nk s t o mo d er n b us i nes s i nt e gr at i on t oo ls a nd pr oc es s es .
Da ta c a n n ow b e s e nt i n t h e b li nk o f a n ey e th a nk s t o th es e tec h n o lo g ies , a l lo w in g
y our f ir m t o o per a te m or e ef fic i e nt ly , c om p et it iv e ly , a n d c os t - e ff ec t iv ely .

ty
In a v er t ic a l ly i n te gr at ed c o r p or at e m od e l, v ar io us s t eps in t he no rm al d is tr ib u ti o n
proc es s ar e c o ns ol i d a te d . A v er t ic a l ly in te gr at e d c or p ora t io n , ra t h er t h an o per a ti n g
ex c lus iv e ly as a ma n uf ac t ur er , d is tr i b ut or, or r et a il er , p er for ms f unc t io ns th at ar e
ty p ic a lly p er f or m ed by s up p l ier s or tra d e b u y ers . V ert ic a l in te gr at i on h as a n um b er

si
of a dv a n ta g es an d d i s adv a n t a ges w he n c o mp ar e d t o c o nc e ntr a t i ng i n a s i ng l e
bus i n es s fu nc t i o n.
er
Forw a rd Int eg r at i on
In m any c ir c um s t anc es , a f ir m g ro ws v er tic a l ly i n te gr at e d fr o m a s i ng l e tr a d e
c onc e ntr at i o n. O n e m e th o d f or th is t o h a p pe n is f or a m an u fac tur e r or d is tr i b ut or to
iv

ha n d le i ts o wn c o ns u me r d is t r i b ut i on . A c o mp a ny m ay c ho os e t o bu i l d d is tr ib ut i o n
c en tr es a nd op er at e it s o w n d is tr i b ut i on agr ee m en ts w i th r et a i lers , or s e l l d ir ec t ly
to c us t om er s . F or war d i n te gr at i on is w he n a m a nu f ac t ure r tak es c on tr ol of i ts o wn
d is tr i bu t io n .
Un

Ba c kw a rd I nt e gr at ion
W he n a pr o d uc t r es e l l er d ec i des t o b uy its s ourc e or dev e lo p its o wn m an uf ac tur i n g
or d is tr i bu t io n b us in es s , t h is is t he p o l ar op pos i te o f v er tic a l i nt e g rat i on . B ac k w ar d
i nt egr a ti o n oc c ur s w he n a d is tr i bu t or e n ga g es i n m a nu f ac t ur i ng or a r et a i ler
en g ag es i n m an uf ac t ur in g or d is tr i b ut i on ac t iv it i es . T his is a ty p e of v er t ic a l
i nt egr a ti o n us ed by r et a il s t or es th a t s e l l pr iv at e l a be l or s t or e br an ds .
ity

Ben ef its
Th ere are a f ew k ey a dv a n ta g es of v ert ic a l i nt e gra t io n . C o n tro l is on e o f t he m . Y o u
hav e m or e c o nt r o l ov er t he en t ir e fl o w o f g oo ds t i l l t hey r eac h t h e f in a l c l i e nt t h e
mo re ac t iv i ti es y ou p er f or m in th e ma n uf a c tur i ng a nd d is t ri b ut i on pr oc es s . Yo u
m ig ht a ls o be ab l e t o s av e mo n ey . W he n y o u m an u fac tu re it e ms , y ou on ly hav e t o
m

pay f or t h e c os ts of pr od uc ti o n. W h en a w ho l es a l er or r et a i ler b uy s s o me th i n g fr o m
a m an uf ac tur er , th ey a dd a ma r k u p t o th e pr i c e.

Con ce rn s
)A

V ert ic a l i nt eg r a t io n h a s t he dr a wb ac k o f r e q u iri n g y o ur c o mp a ny a nd its le a ders h i p

to b e k n ow l e dg e ab l e i n m ul t ip l e d is tri b ut i o n c ha n ne l ac t iv it i es . M a nu f ac t ure r,
wh o les a l er , a n d r e ta i l er ar e a l l un i q ue pos i ti ons . A ma n uf ac t ur er w ho w a nts t o s e l l
d irec t ly to c us t om er s mus t h av e no t o n ly pr od uc ti o n c a pa b i l it i es , bu t a ls o th e
c ap ac ity t o m ar k et a n d d is tr i b ut e pr o duc ts ef f ic ie n tly . Ex p an d i ng in t o v ert ic a l
i nt egr a ti o n c a n a ls o c om e w it h a h e fty pr ic e t ag . Ty p ic a lly , y o u m u s t e it her
(c

purc h as e ex is t i ng s u p p li er s or merc h an d is i n g b us i n es s es , or c o ns t ruc t a n d ex pa n d

th e m fro m t he gr o u nd up .
 2. 1. 4 T rad it ion al ER P S y st em

e
W ha t d is t i n gu is h es c ur r en t E R P s y s te ms fro m tr ad i t io n a l E RP s y s t ems ? I t's a
fa nt as tic q u es t i on t ha t we g et a l ot o f. Y o u m ig ht f ee l a l it t le ov er wh e lm e d by al l o f
th e a l t ern at iv es ac c es s i bl e to y o u. B ut t h at ' s ok ay ; I' l l try my b es t t o c l e ar u p any

lin
m is u n ders t an d i ngs y o u m i gh t h av e a bo ut w ha t d is ti n gu is h es a m od er n c l o ud E RP
fro m a tr a di t io n a l o ne .

ER P ( en ter pr is e r es o ur c e pl a nn i n g) s of tw a re h as lo n g h ad s tr o n g c ap a b il i t ies f or
ha n d li n g o per at i o na l da t a an d i nc r eas i n g b us in es s ef f ic ie nc y . T o day 's bus i n es s es

On
rec o g n is e t h e i m por ta nc e of E R P s o l ut i ons i n as s is t i ng t h em in s erv in g c us to m ers
thr o ug h ou t th e ir l i fec y c l es an d pr ov id i n g t h e c orr ec t , up - t o- d a te da t a t h ey r e qu ir e
to m ak e b et ter dec is i o ns m or e qu ic k ly .

Tra d it i on a l ER Ps ar e t y p ic a l ly hos te d on a c om p any 's o w n s erv ers an d ma i nt a i ne d

by y o ur IT de p ar t m e nt or a t h ir d - p arty c o ns u l ta n t. T h ey n ec es s it a te c o nt i nu o us
up d at es a n d ex p e n di t ur es i n th e n ec es s ar y h ar dw ar e. O n - pr e m i s es a nd hos te d

ty
ER P s ol u ti o ns ar e t he t wo ty p es of tr a d it i o na l ER P s o l ut i o ns . I n t he f irs t c as e, a
c om p any p ur c h as es a s o ft w ar e l ic e nc e f or its c hos e n s y s t em an d i ns t a ls i t i n its
da t a c en tr e. As a r es u lt , th e c o m pa ny c ov ers t he c os ts of r ep a ir in g a nd ma i nt a i ni n g
th e i nt er n al in fr as tr uc t ur e as we l l as t h e ac q u is i t io n o f a ny ad d it i o na l e q u ip m en t.

si
Cl o ud ER P, o n th e ot her h a nd , is hos t ed i n th e c l ou d ( w it h in a d at a c en tr e, o n a
s erv e r c o nt r o l l ed by s om e on e e ls e , ty p ic a ll y th e ER P pr ov id er) a nd ac c es s e d v i a
er
an I nt er n et c o nn ec ti o n by y ou ( t h e us er). Th ere is no n e ed t o p urc h as e h ard w are
wi t h m od er n E R P, a nd up d at es ar e us u a l ly h an d l ed au t om at ic a lly by t he ER P
v en d or. Th e S of tw ar e as a S er v ic e ( Sa a S) p ara d i gm , in w h ic h t he s up p l ie r d e l iv ers
th e a pp l ic at i on t o c o n s um er s v i a t he I nt er n e t, is us e d i n mo d er n E RP . It a ls o o ff ers
iv

s o lu t io ns t h at g iv e c ap a b il i t ies w it h inc r e as e d s i mp l ic ity of us e, en h a nc i n g t h e

c om p any 's b en ef i ts a n d r et ur n o n i nv es t me n t .
Un

Ben ef its of a C lou d E RP sy st em

Cl o ud ER P s y s t e ms c an he l p y o u av oi d a l l of t h e is s ues l is t ed be l ow . T h ey pr ov id e
a fe w b en e fi ts t ha t r e g u lar ER Ps d o n ot :

1. A l l s y s te ms r ec e iv e i n s ta nt up gr ad es .
2. Th er e is o nly on e v er s i on o f t he tr ut h .
ity

3. Pr od uc tiv i ty h as i nc r e as e d .
4. Ma i nt e n anc e h ea d ac h es ar e r e duc e d.
5. Ac c es s at a ny t i me an d fr o m a ny l oc at i on

B us i n es s es t h at ar e as s es s i n g ER P b us i n es s s of tw ar e fre q ue n tl y f oc us on t h e
pr ic i n g a n d f unc t io n a li ty of th e pr o gr a mm e . W h il e t h e c a p ac i ty o f s of tw ar e t o a da p t
m

to ex is t i n g bus i nes s pr oc es s es is c r i tic a l, c o ns i d er in g t he c os t of u p gra d i ng or

rep l ac i ng y our ER P af ter on ly t wo or t hre e y ears , t he ab i l i ty of s of tw are to ad a pt t o
fu tur e b us in es s d ev e l o pm e nt is j us t as i m por ta nt . T h e un d er ly in g p l at for m o n wh ic h
th e bus i nes s m a na g e me n t s o ft wa re is bas e d d e ter m i nes a la rg e par t of its f ut ur e
)A

ad a pt a bi l i ty .

2. 1. 5 O nl in e E R P S ys t em
(c

Cl o ud E RP is a ty p e of en ter pr is e res o urc e p l a nn i n g ( E R P) s y s t e m t ha t ru ns o n a

v en d or's c l ou d p l atf or m r at h er t h an o n - pre m is es n et w ork s , a l lo w i ng e nt er pr is es t o
ac c es s in f or m a ti o n o v er th e i nt er n et . ER P s o ft war e i nt e gr at e s a nd au to m at es
 c rit ic a l f i n anc i a l a n d op er at i o na l c o mp a ny op er at i o n s , i nc l u d in g i nv e nt ory , or d er,
an d s up p ly c h a in m a na g em e nt , as we l l as p roc ur em e nt , pr o duc ti o n, d is tr i bu t io n ,

e
an d f u lf i l me nt , a nd pr o v i des a s in g l e s ou rc e of d a ta .

G iv en th is s c a le , a ny ER P s y s t e m m us t pr ov id e a c o ns is t en t, u p - t o- da t e v i ew of

lin
da t a to a l l b us in es s u n its , r e ga r d l es s o f w h ere p ers o n ne l ar e w or k i ng . Th es e n e eds
are m et by c l ou d - b as ed E R P as a s erv ic e. B ec a us e t h e s o ft wa r e is ac c es s ed v i a
th e i nt er n et, a ll t h at is r e q ui r e d is a n i n ter n e t c on n ec t i on an d a br o ws er .

Wh at I s Clo ud E R P S of t w a r e?

On
Cl o ud ER P s o ft war e of f er s th e s a me , o r b et te r, c a pa b i l it i es as o n - p re m is es
s y s te ms w it h o ut t h e maj or ity of t h e dr aw b ac k s , s uc h as u pfr o n t l ic enc i ng fe es ,
bec a us e it is hos t ed b y t he ER P v e n do r an d g iv e n as a s e rv ic e t o e nt er pr is es .
" De m an d f or c l ou d- ba s ed E R P s y s t e ms c o nt i nu es t o gro w bec a us e of th e ir c a p ac ity
to ac c es s an d a n aly s e l ar g e v o l um es o f d at a i n ne ar re a l t i me ," ac c ord i n g to ID C's
an a ly s is .
S al es t e ams wi l l hav e r e a l - ti m e i nv en t ory i nf or ma t io n , a nd f i n an c e t ea ms w i l l b e

ty
ab l e to k e ep a c l os e ey e o n c as h ru n way an d r es po n d s w i ft ly t o au d its or o th er
req u es ts f or p er f or m a nc e da ta .

si
Comp on ent s of C lou d ER P Sof t w a re
Core financial and accounting functionality is provided by all cloud-based ERP software. The types of
modules or apps that an organisation implements after that are determined by its industry and specific
business requirements. The following are some of the cloud ERP modules that are available:
er
• Fi na nc i a ls an d ac c o un ti n g
• Hu m an c ap i ta l m a na ge m en t (H CM) an d/ o r H u ma n r es o urc e m an a ge m e n t
s of tw ar e ( HR M S)
•
iv

Cus to m er r e l at i ons h i p ma n ag e m en t ( CR M)
• Inv e nt or y m an a ge m e nt
• O rd er m an a ge m en t
• Pr oc ur e m en t
Un

• S up p ly c h a in m a n ag e me n t
• Pr oj ec t m an a ge m e nt
• Ma t er ia l r e q u ir e m en ts p la n ni n g ( M R P)

Clou d E R P Con ce pt s
It ’s i mp or ta nt t o un d er s ta n d s o m e bas ic c o n c ep ts as s oc i at e d wi t h c l ou d E RP as w e
d iv e d e ep er in to t h e s ubj ec t :
ity

1. Dep lo ym ent st r at eg y : E RP s of tw ar e c a n be i ns t a ll e d o n - pre m i s es or o n

pr iv a te ly ho s t ed s er v er s , or i t c a n be p urc h as e d as a " as a s erv ic e"
ap pr o ac h . C lo u d E RP fu nc t i o na l ity is us u al ly de l iv ere d fas ter , b ut
org a n is a t io ns m us t b u dg e t t im e f or p l an n i ng , d at a m i gra t io n , c us t om is at i o n
m

an d c o nf i g ur a t io n , an d e m pl oy e e t ra i n in g i n bo t h s c en ar i os .
2. Clou d - b as ed ER P : C l ou d - b as e d E R P r ef ers t o en te rpr is e r es ourc e p la n ni n g
s of tw ar e t h at is h os te d of fs it e on t h e ER P v en d or's s erv ers a nd ac c es s e d
v i a a we b br o ws er .
)A

3. O n- pr e mi se s E RP : E RP s o ft war e t h at is i ns t a l le d loc a l ly o n a c om p any 's

c om p ut er s an d s er v er s an d c o n tro l l ed by in t ern a l or h ir ed IT em p l oy e es . Th e
s of tw ar e, as we l l as t he i n fras tr uc t ur e t h at s up p orts i t, is m a na g ed , s tor e d,
an d m a i nt a in e d i n - h o u s e.
4. Hos t ed ER P: T he de p l oy m e nt o f E R P s o ft war e a n d ac c om p any i n g
i nfr as tr uc tur e is ma n ag e d by a c or p ora t io n or a h os t i n g pro v i der . W h en
(c

c om p an i es w a nt to ou t s our c e t h e ir IT op er at i ons , t h ey fr eq u en t ly u s e h os t e d
de p l oy m e nt m o de ls . W h il e t his s o l u ti o n ha s c er ta i n c l ou d b en e f i ts , i t is n ot
tru ly " as a s er v ic e ."
 5. End - t o - end se cu r it y: A l i nk b e tw ee n a c lo ud - b as ed E R P c o m pa ny a n d its
c us t o mer s t h at is s ec u r e a nd e nc ry pt e d.

e
6. Sub s c ript ion li c en sin g: T he C om p any p ay s a f ix ed s u bs c r ip t io n c os t to us e
th e pr o gr am m e a t pr e de t erm i n ed per i o ds (a nn u a lly or m o nt h ly ). Th is pr ic e
us u a l ly c ov er s al l s of tw ar e u pg ra d es a n d m a in t en a nc e , a n d it c an b e

lin
c har g e d per per s o n or p er or g an is at i on ..

Clou d E R P vs . O n - P r em is e s E R P
Th e f ol l ow i n g br e ak d o wn pr o b ab ly r a is es th e q u es t i on : w hy us e t h e c l o ud wh e n o n -
pre m is es E R P s y s te m s pr ov id e e q u iv a l en t f unc t io n a li ty ?

On
A c o m pa ny 's IT s t af f o r a m a na g e d s erv i c e pr ov id er ins t als a nd m an a ges on -
pr em is e s E R P s o ft w ar e . T he c om p any b uy s or r en ts e nt er pr i s e - g ra d e s erv ers ,
ne tw ork i ng , a n d s t or a ge to p hy s ic a l ly ru n a nd h ous e t h e s o ft war e a n d i ts re l at e d
da t a af ter i n it i a l ly l ic en c i n g t h e ba s ic s of tw ar e p la tf or m. M a i nt en a nc e ,
tro u bl es h oo t in g, s up p l em e nt ar y s o ft war e , up da t es , a n d c us t o miz a ti ons a re a l l ex tra
c os ts fo r on- p r em i se s ER P us er s . A d di t io na l c os ts i nc l ud e an t i v ir us a n d s ec ur i ty
s of tw ar e, as w e l l as s t or a g e a nd s erv er bac k u p s ol u ti o ns .

ty
Clou d - b as ed ER P , on t he o th er h a nd , is h o s te d a nd c o nt ro l l ed by th e v e n dor , wh o
d is tr i bu t es t he s o ft war e v ia th e c l ou d as a " as a s erv ic e" m o d el . Th e a p p lic a ti o n,
da t a s t or ag e , un d er ly in g o per a ti n g s y s t em , s erv ers , p hy s ic a l d a ta c e nt re

si
arc h i te c t ur e , an d s ec ur ity up d at es an d f e a tur e up gr ad es are a l l ha n dl e d by t he
v en d or.
er
W h il e t he l oc a t io n o f t he pr o gr a mm e a n d wh o c o ntr o ls i t ar e t he mos t o bv io us
d if fer e nc es be tw e en on - pr e m is es a n d c l o ud ER P , th er e ar e ot h er s i gn i f ic a nt
d if fer e nc es .

Typ e s of C lou d ER P Sof t w a r e

iv

To b eg i n w it h , no t a l l c l ou ds ar e c r e at e d e q ua l . S o me le g ac y E RP s u p pl i ers h av e
up gr a de d t he ir s o ft w ar e to r un fr o m i nt er ne t - c on n ec t e d da t a c en tr e s . B us i n es s e s
wh o us e tra d i ti o na l ER P s y s t ems may mis s o ut o n a l l o f th e a dv a n t ag es o f c l ou d -
Un

bas e d E R P, s uc h a s e as ier u p gr ad es a n d th e p ow er of t h e c l o ud d at a c e ntr e

par a d ig m , wh ic h us es a l ar g e p o o l of res o urc es to s up p ort a p p lic a ti ons r at he r th a n
de d ic at i ng in fr as tr uc t u r e to in d iv i du a l s of tw a re c o mp o ne n ts .

The r e a re a l so mul t ip le t y pe s of c loud ER P sof tw a r e:

• Mul t i- t en ant S a aS : Mu l t ip l e f ir ms c a n s har e a s i ng l e v e rs i o n o f ER P
s of tw ar e an d its ac c om p any i n g i nfr as t ruc t ure . D es p i te t h e fac t t ha t e ac h
c orp or at i o n ut i l is es th e s a me s of tw ar e a nd is h os t e d o n t he s am e s erv ers ,
ity

th e d a ta of o ne c o mp a ny is i n ac c es s i b le to t he d at a o f t h e o th ers . Ty p ic a l ly ,
a r e al c l ou d E R P s o lu t i on is a m u lt i - t e na n t S aa S .
• Si ngl e- t en ant Sa a S: O n ly o ne or ga n is a t io n c a n us e a s i ng l e v ers i on of ER P
s of tw ar e an d i ts r e l at e d in fr as tr uc t ur e. I n ot h er wor ds , priv a te s erv ers
run n i ng a s i ng l e s o ft wa r e i ns ta nc e h os t a n or ga n iz at i on 's d at a. C us t o mers
m

c an c h o os e b e tw ee n hos t in g a pr iv at e or s har e d i ns t anc e w it h s om e c l o ud

ER P v en d or s .
• Pub li c clou d: M u lt i pl e or g an is at i o ns s h are c lo u d c o m pu t in g s e r v ic es th a t
are o wn e d by th e s er v ic e pr ov id er . H ow ev er, th e da ta a nd a pp l ic at i ons of
)A

eac h or g a n is a t io n ar e i nac c es s ib l e t o ot h ers . A maz o n We b S erv ic e s , G o o g le

Cl o ud , M ic r os o ft Az ur e, a n d O r ac l e C lo u d ar e ex am p l es of p u b lic c l ou ds .
• P ri v at e c lou d: A s er v i c e th a t y ou do n' t h av e t o s h are w i th a ny o ne e ls e .
• Hyb r id E RP : A hy b r i d E RP a p pro ac h in t egr at es on - pr e m is es s o ft war e wi t h
proc es s i ng , s t or a g e, a nd s erv ic es pr ov i de d b y a pr iv at e or pu b l ic c l ou d .
(c

8 B en efit s of Cl oud ER P Sof t w a re

 In fras tr uc t ur e an d o per a ti o n al c os ts u p fr on t. O ne o f th e m os t s ig n if ic a nt
adv a nt a ges of a c l o ud - bas e d ER P s o l ut i o n i s t h e ov er al l c os t s av i ngs , w h ic h b eg i n

e
wi t h im p l em e nt at i o n. A c o mp a ny 's up fr on t c os ts f or o n - pre m i s es ER P i nc lu d e
s erv e r pu r c h as es , d at a bas e c o ns tr uc ti o n , firs t d e pl oy m en t, c o ns ul t an ts , I T
ma n po w er, s ec ur i ty , a nd bac k u p.

lin
As a f ir m gr ows , it w i l l i nc ur hi g he r c os ts f or m ai n te n anc e , s pec i a lis t i n - ho us e or
on- c a l l res o ur c es , u p gr a d es a n d u pd at es , as w el l as n ew s erv e rs . C lo u d E R P is
ty p ic a lly 30 % l es s ex p ens iv e t ha n o n - pr em is es E R P. Bus i n es s es e l im i n at e u pfr o nt
i nfr as tr uc tur e ex pe n d it ur es as w el l as ad d it i o na l c os ts for IT e m p loy e es ,

On
ma i nt e n anc e, s ec ur i ty , an d u p gr ad es b ec a us e t h e c l o ud ER P v en d or h os ts an d
ad m i n is t ers th e s of tw a r e on its o wn s erv ers . IT s u pp or t is prov i d e d by t h e pr ov i d er
on an o n go i n g b as is .

Imp le me nt a t io n sp e e d . Th e im p l em e nt at i o n t im e of a ny ne w E R P s o l ut i o n is o n e
of t he m os t s ig n if ic an t r oa d bl oc k s , w h ic h c an h av e a dir ec t im p ac t o n bus i n es s

ty
do w nt i me a n d t im e t o v a l ue — i n on e res e ar c h, a b ou t h a lf o f or g an is at i o ns s ta te d
th e ir i mp l em e nt a ti o ns wer e c o mp l et e d o n ti m e. A c l o ud - b as e d ER P s y s t em c a n
us u a l ly ge t a c o mp a n y u p an d o per a ti n g fa s ter t ha n a n on - pr e m i s es ER P s y s t e m
bec a us e it d o es no t n ee d s e l ec t i ng a n d s et t i ng u p h ard w are o r hi ri ng a n d tra i n in g

si
IT pr of es s io n a ls .

Ac c es si bi lit y. Us er s of c l ou d- b as e d ER P s y s te ms c an ac c es s r e a l - t i me b us in es s
da t a fro m a ny loc at i o n a nd on any dev ic e. Th is m e ans t h at e m p l oy e es ac r os s t h e
er
fir m , r eg ar d les s o f bu s i nes s u n it or l oc at i o n, ar e work i n g w i th t h e s am e d at a an d
c an mak e c h o ic es mor e q uic k ly a n d r e l ia b ly .
iv

S ca la bi lit y. C l o ud- b a s ed ER P s o l ut i o ns en ab l e s c a l in g a f ir m e a s i er by e l im i n at i ng
th e c h al l e ng es of ins t a ll i n g ne w s erv ers f or m or e us ers , r e gi o ns , or s u bs id i ar ies .
As a c o m pa ny ex p an d s , s o d oes its c l o ud E RP .
Un

W it h ou t a dd i n g mo r e h ar dw ar e, a n or ga n i s at i on c a n s t art w i th t he m os t bas ic ,
fu n da m en t al fu nc t io ns an d ex p a nd as ne e d ed . A c lo u d E R P s ol u ti o n a ls o al l ows
us ers a l l ov er t he wor l d t o ac c es s b us in es s da t a by j us t c o nn ec t in g t o th e in t ern e t.
B ec a us e no l oc a l s er v er s ar e r eq u ire d , ne w u n its c a n b e bro u g ht u p fas t w h e n a
fir m gro ws t hr ou g h m er g er s an d ac q u is it i o ns . Cl o ud v e nd ors of t en p os s es s da t a
c en tr es al l ov er t he wor l d a nd s t ore e ac h c us t o m er's d at a i n v ar io us l oc at i ons ,
a ll o wi n g t he m t o pr ov i de be tt er a n d m or e r e li a b le s erv ic e t h an mos t e nt er pr is e s
ity

c ou l d h a n dl e on th e i r ow n. C lo u d s o ft war e pr ov i ders ty p ic a l ly ai m for 9 9. 99 9

perc e nt av a i l a bi l i ty , w h ic h c or r es p o nds to l es s t ha n e i g ht mi n ut e s o f u n ex p ec te d
do w nt i me per y e ar f or c l ie n ts .

Cus tom iz at ion s and ad apt abi lit y ar e t w o t h in gs th at c o m e t o m i nd w h il e th i nk i ng

m

ab o ut c us t o miz a ti o ns . J us t as c l ou d - bas e d ER P c an s c a le w it h a n or g an is at i on , it
c an a ls o b e mor e eas i ly c us t om is ed t o m e e t s p ec if ic bus i n es s g o a ls , ei t her fr om
th e s tar t or as a c om p any gr o ws a n d ev o lv e s . Wh i l e on - pr e mi s es ER P s o ft wa re c a n
be c us t o m is e d, th os e adj us t m e nts a re bo u n d t o t he c urr en t v ers i o n o f t he s of tw ar e
)A

an d m ay b e di ff ic u lt t o r e im p l em e nt i n f ut u re v ers io ns , es p ec i al l y i f i nt eg ra t io ns
wer e dev e l op e d i n - h o us e . T h is is o ne o f t h e pr i m ary r eas o ns w h y s om e c o mp a ni es
ref us e to u p gr a d e th e ir o n - p r e m is es ER P s y s te ms a nd c o n t in u e to us e o ut d at ed
tec h no l og i es . In a dd i t i on , c l o ud E R P s o l ut i ons te n d t o c o n nec t ef fec t iv e ly wi t h
ot h er c lo u d - b as ed pr o duc ts , a nd n ew m o du l es c a n be a d de d t o a c l ou d ER P s y s t em
wi t ho ut r e qu ir i ng a ny do w nt i me o r a d di t io n a l h ar dw ar e. T h is ty pe o f a gi l i ty a l lo ws a
(c

c om p any t o be pr o ac tiv e r at h er th a n r eac t iv e, a da pt i n g mor e s wi ft ly t o in d us try

c ha n ges , c us to m er tr e nds , u nf or es e e n ev en t s , an d o th er f ac t ors .
 Upg ra de s . C l o ud ER P c o mp a n ies o ft e n ha nd l e a l l s y s t e m u pgr a des a n d c ha n g es
on a c o nt i nu o us bas is , k e ep i ng u p wi t h c h a n g in g bus i n es s n e e ds a nd e ns uri n g t h at

e
c us t o mers ar e us i ng th e m os t c urr e nt t e c hn o l ogy . Up d at i ng o r u pgr a d in g o n -
pre m is es ER P s of tw a r e t ak es l o ng er an d may n ec es s i ta te th e ap p oi n tm e nt of
c on tr ac t ors to ov er s ee th e pr oc es s . Up d at es to c l o ud ER P c an t ak e as li tt l e as 30

lin
m in ut es a n d ar e fr e q ue n tly per f orm e d d ur i ng of f - p e ak h ours t o av o id bus i nes s
d is ru pt i o ns .

On
S ec ur i ty , c o m p li a nc e , an d d is as t er r ec ov ery are a l l i m po rt an t c o ns i der a ti o ns . M a ny
fir ms ar e u nd er s t a n d ab ly c o nc er n e d ab o ut e ntr us t i n g t h e ir bus i nes s d at a t o an
ex t er na l s o ur c e. C lo u d - b as e d ER P v e nd ors , o n t h e ot h er ha n d, m ay prov i d e be tt er
s ec ur i ty a n d c o m pl i a n c e t ha n b us i nes s es c ou l d o t her w is e af fo rd . F urt h erm or e, a
c om p any m ay r es t as s ur e d t h at its da ta is a lw ay s b ac k e d up , a n d t ha t t he v en d or
has dis as ter r ec ov er y p la ns i n p l ac e .

ty
O n- pre m is es ER P s o l ut i ons c ar r y t h e d a ng e r of c a t as tr op h ic d at a l os s in t he ev e nt
of har d war e or s o ft war e f a i lur e , n at ur a l dis as ter , f ir e, or bre ak - i n u n l es s
en t erpr is es h av e a d is as t er rec ov ery a n d bus i n es s c o nt i nu i ty p la n i n
p lac e. E nt er pr is e - gr a d e s ec ur i ty an d e n d - t o- e n d e nc ry p t io n of da t a be tw e en t he

si
v en d or an d th e or ga n is at i on ar e c om m o n f ea t ures o f c lo u d prov i ders . Co m pa n i es
are r es p o ns i b l e for m an a g in g c l o ud ER P u s ers ' i d en t it i es an d a c c es s , as w e l l as
s af e gu ar d in g d ev ic es s uc h as PCs an d c e l l p ho n es .
er
St or a ge ac c es s an d r e s i l ie nc y I f o n - pre m is e s h ar dw ar e d i es , mov i ng da t a t o a n e w
s tor a ge s y s t e m c o u ld tak e a lo n g t im e a n d c os t a l ot o f m o ney . Da ta is s t ore d in
th e c l ou d- b as e d E R P pr ov i d er 's d at a c e ntr e s , w h ic h are fr e qu e nt l y re du n d an t an d
ge o gr ap h ic a l ly d is tr ib ut e d. T his is a ls o a dv an t ag e ous in ter ms o f prov i d i ng in t ern et
iv

ac c es s t o c or p or a t e i nf or ma t io n a n d da t a, wh ic h is b ec om i n g i n c reas i n g ly c r uc ia l
as m ore e m p loy m e nt a nd o p er at i ons s h i ft o n l i ne a n d bus i n es s es s tr iv e t o a ut o m at e
an d s tr ea m l i ne p r oc e d ur es .
Un

Clou d E R P Ch all en ge s

W h il e t he r e is a c l e ar tr en d t ow ar d gr ea ter c lo u d a do pt i o n, t her e ar e s o m e
po t en t ia l pr o b le ms t ha t c om p an i es m ay f ac e :

Sy s t e ms t h at ar e no l on g er in us e. If a l a rge r c o m pa ny h as b e en us i ng a n on -
pre m is es E R P s y s t e m for a lo n g ti m e a nd w a nts t o s w itc h to c lo u d - bas e d E R P, t he
ity

tra ns it i o n c an be d i ff ic u lt a n d ti m e - c ons u m in g.

Ch a ng e is m et w i th r es is t anc e . K ey s t ak e ho l d ers may pus h b a c k a ga i ns t lar g er

en t erpr is es w it h ex t e n s iv e I T an d a d mi n is tr at iv e te a ms . A d m in is t rat ors l os e s om e
c on tr ol ov er o p er a t io ns t ha t b ec om e au to ma t ed wh e n E R P s o ftw ar e is m ov e d
m

ou ts id e , a n d IT t ea m s l os e c o ntr o l ov er s om e o per at i o na l ac t iv it i es w h en t he
v en d or m an a ges a ll m a i n te n anc e a n d i nfr as t ruc t ur e.

Reg ul ato r y adh e ren c e . C om p an i es w it h p ar tic u l arly s tr i n ge nt c y b er s ec u ri ty r u les ,

)A

pro h i b it i ons o n p ut t in g c us t o me r da ta in t he c lo u d, a n d r e gu l a tory c o m p l ia nc e

d if fic u lt i es may n ot b e ab l e to r e a p t h e f u l l b en e fi ts of a c l ou d- bas ed E R P s o lu t io n.
No n et he l es s , l ar g e s o f tw ar e - as - a- s erv ic e pro v i ders hav e m a de s i gn if ic a nt pr o gr es s
i n c o m p ly i n g wi t h r e g u l at i ons s uc h as H I P AA an d G D PR , an d c a n u s ua l ly m ee t da ta
s ov er e i gn ty an d l oc a l iz at i on d em a nds , s o do n' t as s u m e y o u'r e s t uc k w i th o n-
pre m is es E R P.
(c

Net Su it e E R P
Ne t Su i te w as d es i gn e d fo r th e c l o ud an d s u pp or ts s m a ll t o m i ds iz ed en te rpr is es i n
a v ar ie ty o f i nd us tr i es , pr ov id i n g r e a l - t i me in s i gh ts , im pr ov e d c us to me r ex p er i enc e ,
 an d l o wer s up p ly c h a in c os ts by i n te gr at i ng a n d a ut o ma t in g k ey f in a nc i a l a n d
op er at i o na l o p er a t io ns .

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Che c k Yo ur U nd er st a nding

Fil l in the b la nk s:

1) ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . was des i g ne d f or th e c l o ud a n d s up p orts s ma l l t o m i ds iz e d

en t erpr is es i n a v ar i et y o f i nd us tri es

On
2) ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. is a l i nk b et we e n a c l o ud - b as e d ER P c om p any an d i ts c us t o mers
th at is s ec ur e a n d e nc r y pt e d.
3) ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . s y s t e ms h av e be e n d oc u m en t e d as o ne of t he mos t e ff ec t iv e way s
to b e g in a u to m at i ng b us in es s pr oc es s es .
4) .................... is a broad term that includes broadcasting, telephone communication, and internet
communication, among other things.
5) ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. is t h e pr oc es s of em p l oy i n g t e c hn o l ogy an d o t her m et h ods t o h e l p

ty
bus i n es s es r un m or e s mo o th ly .

Tru e/ Fa l se

1) Th ere ar e o n ly t wo ty p es of c lo u d E R P s of tw are .
si
2) B us i n es s es t h at ar e a s s es s in g E R P b us i n es s s o ft war e fr e qu e nt ly f oc us on t h e
er
pr ic i n g a nd f u nc t i on a l i ty of t he pro gr a mm e .
3) Core financial and accounting functionality is provided by rare cloud-based ERP software
4) Healthcare pr ov i d es s tr i ng e nt r e q u ire m e nts o n w ha t m et h ods s ho u ld be us e d a nd
ho w pr oc es s es s h o u ld be c ar r ie d o ut
5) Th ere ar e f o ur d if fe r e n t f or ms o f B P A
iv

Su mm ar y
Un

• Ma n go h as a c or e o f des i gn ers a nd pr od uc t i on fac i l i ti es c ap a b le of r a p id ly

pro d uc in g ne w f as h io n des i g ns . Ma n go , on t he ot h er ha n d, wo u ld no t b e ab l e t o
s toc k it s s t or es w it h t r en dy fas h i on tre n ds as ra p i dl y w it h ou t its s op h is t ic at e d
i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms . T o pr om o te i nv en t ory re p le n is h m e nt , t h es e in f orm a t io n
s y s te ms as s is t f in e l y c a l i br a t ed bus i n es s pr oc es s es th at or ga n is e i te ms
de p en d i ng o n s ty l e a n d c us t o me r tas tes .
ity

• Y ou 'l l w a nt t o d is c ov e r h ow in f orm a ti o n s y s t ems c an a i d y o ur or ga n is a t io n as a

ma n ag er . Y o u ' l l n e ed to k no w w ha t k in ds o f in fo rm at i o n s y s t ems are av ai l a bl e
an d w ha t t hey c a n d o f or f ir ms .
• By d e l iv er i ng ac c ur a t e a nd u p - to- d at e d at a a n d pe rf or mi n g a na l y tic ac t iv it i es ,
ma n ag e m en t in f or m a ti on s y s t ems c a n as s is t y o u i n m ak i ng s o un d d ec is i ons .
m

Y ou m us t ens ur e th at t he ma n ag e me n t i nf or ma t io n s y s t em y ou s e l ec t is
c om p at i b le w i th t h e i nf or ma t io n f or ma ts u s ed in y our f ir m a n d i nc l ud es t he
c ap a b il i t ies y o u r e q u ir e. Th e b as ic da t a ac c es s ib l e fro m y o ur c o mp a ny 's
ac t iv it i es an d r ec or ds c a n b e s truc t ure d i n to r e po rts by s u it ab l e m an a ge m en t
)A

i nf or ma t io n s y s t e ms , pr ov i d i ng y ou w it h d ir ec t i on fo r y o ur d ec is i ons . Bus i n es s
Pr ac t ic e A ut o ma t io n ( B P A) is t he pr oc es s of e m pl oy i ng t ec hn o l o gy an d o th er
me t ho ds t o he l p b us in es s es r un mor e s m o ot h ly , a n d it is th e s u bj ec t o f to d ay 's
gu i d e. We ' ll l ook at t h e v ar i ous as p ec ts o f B P A, as w el l as t he i n fl u enc e it has
on b us in es s es , as w e l l as h o w it m ay be ap p l ie d a nd t he us u a l to o ls of t he
tra d e.
•
(c

W he n y ou lo ok at t h e t hr ee es s en t ia l " b u i l d in g b l oc k s " o f a bus i nes s proc es s

au t om at i o n s y s t e m t ha t y o u j us t r ea d ab o ut , th er e ar e s om e is s ues t h at th ey ar e
des i g ne d t o a ddr es s , j us t l ik e a ny ot he r s y s te m t h at is i ntr o d uc e d to h e lp
 i nc re as e or ga n is at i on a l ef f ic i e nc y . T hes e is s ues t h at BP A ans wers w i l l b e
ref err ed t o as as p ec ts of t h e p la n t h a t f irms mus t d ev e l o p i n or der to s uc c e ed .

e
Act iv it y

lin
1) Pr e pa re a c o mp ar a tiv e c h ar t of d if fer e nc e b et we e n Tra d it i o na l a n d O n l i ne E PR
Sy s t e m

On
Q ue sti on s & E xe r ci s e

1) De f in e th e Ro l e of s y s te m / in f orm a ti o n s y s te m i n v al u e ge n era t io n w it h in
org a n iz a t io n a l l ev e l .
2) Dis c us s t he A ut om a ti o n Sy s te m S tr uc t ur e i n bus i n es s pr oc es s .
3) Ex pl a i n th e I nt e gr a te d b us in es s m o du l es - ma nu f ac t ur in g a n d s erv ic e i nd us try .
4) Dis c us s t he Tr a di t io n a l E R P Sy s te m .

ty
5) Dis c us s O n l i ne ER P S y s te m .

si
G lo ss a ry

• AI Aut om at i on F ir s t ly , t her e is AI Au t om a ti o n . As y ou r ea d e ar l ier , ar t if ic ia l

i nt e ll i g enc e is t h e m os t c om p l ex m et ho d o f b us in es s pr oc es s au t o ma t io n ;
er
ho w ev er , w e ar e dis c u s s i ng t h es e me th o ds i n a lp h ab e tic a l or d er r a th er t ha n
ac c or d i ng t o t he ir o r d e r o f s i m pl ic i ty . Th e w a y t ha t th is is d on e is b y i n te gr at i ng
a ll of y o ur b us in es s s y s te ms t hro u gh t h e i m p l em e nt at i o n of ar t if ic i a l
i nt e ll i g enc e. T h e be n e fi t of t h is m et h od is th at it is on e o f th e m os t e ff ec t iv e
iv

way s t o c o mp l e te ly r e p lac e t he h u m an e m p l oy e es t h a t ar e i nv olv e d i n a

par t ic u l ar pr oc es s or s et o f tas k s .
• IT S e rv ic e s E xp an sio n M u l ti p l e s ou rc es s t a te t h at IT Au to m at i o n has be e n
c ons is te n tly on t h e r is e a nd c a n pr ec i pi t at e s i gn i fic a nt j u m ps i n pr od uc tiv i ty .
Un

Th is is a mor e m a nu a l a p pr o ac h to t h e pr oc e s s t ha t r e qu ir es y o ur I T t e am t o
c rea t e a way f or a l l o f th e ex is t i n g s y s te ms w it h i n y ou r bus i n es s to be mor e
i nt egr a te d a n d s tr e a m l i ne d. T h is m ay be mor e r es ourc e - i nt e ns iv e fr om a ti m e
s ta n dp o in t. Ex is t i ng A PIs an d s o ft war e ov er l ap c an b e us e d to mak e a l l of y o ur
s y s te ms m or e i nt er c on nec t ed .
• Bus in e ss p ro c es s m an ag em ent sy st em s are d oc u m e nt ed as o ne of t he m os t
ef fec t iv e m et ho ds t o ge t s t ar t e d w it h bus i nes s pr oc es s a ut om a t i on , a n d t hey
ity

req u ir e t h e l eas t am o un t of i nv es t m en t in t er ms o f bo t h mo n ey a nd t i me . T h e re
are to o ls t ha t ar e d e d ic a te d t o d o in g t h is bu t, it c an als o b e d on e m a nu a l ly
us in g a s t a nd ar d s pr e ads h ee t or w or d doc u me n t if th a t is a b et t er f i t f or y o ur
bus i n es s .
• Sou r c e Ap pl ic at ion: To be g i n, d at a m us t be ex tra c t ed fr o m a n org a n iz a t io n ’s
fro nt - e n d bus i n es s a p p lic a ti o n. T h is m ig h t be a pu rc h as e or der fro m a n E R P
m

s y s te m, or s o me th i n g l ik e a r et a i l s tor e ’s m on t hly s al es f i gur es fr om a po i nt - o f-

s a le s y s t e m. O nc e t h is d at a is p u ll e d, t h e b us in es s i nt e gr at i on s o l ut i on w i l l
pre p ar e it t o b e tr ans m it te d t o t h e ex ter n a l bus i n es s pa rt ner .
• Dat a Fo rm at : As me n t i on e d ab ov e, no t a l l d at a is s t a nd ar d iz e d w he n i t res i des
)A

i n a b us i nes s ’s ap p l ic at i on . F orm a ts v ary , an d s o th e da ta m us t b e c onv er te d

i nt o a s t an d ar d iz e d for ma t f or tra ns fer in t o th e tar g et a p p l ic a t io n o f t he ex t ern a l
bus i n es s p ar t n er . As s uc h , w he n org a niz at i ons as s es b us in es s in t egr at i o n
s o lu t io ns , t h ey mus t p ay at te nt i o n t o th e ty p es of i nt e gr at i on t ha t are s u p po rt ed ,
es p ec i al ly i f t hey s o u r c e a n d/ or s el l m at er i a ls w it h in t ern a ti o na l s up p ly c h a i n
par t ner s .
(c

• Tr an spo rt P ro t oc ol: Na tur a l ly , t h e c o m mu n ic at i on c ha n ne l – or pr ot oc ol – m us t

be agr e ed up o n by b o t h p ar t i es t o ex c ha n ge i nf or ma t io n. T h ere are a nu m ber of
 adv a nc e d pr o toc o ls a v a il a b le – s uc h as SF TP , A S 2, a n d HTT Ps – to f ac i l it at e
da t a ex c ha n g e, t h ou g h tr a di n g p ar tn ers an d s o m et i mes e nt ir e i nd us tri es wi l l

e
of te n d ic t at e t he tr an s por t m ec h a n is m t o b e us e d. As s uc h , c om pa n i es s ho u ld
ens ur e t h at th ey s el e c t a bus i n es s i n te gr a ti o n s o l ut i o n t ha t s up por ts al l th e
pro t oc o ls th at th e ir t r a d in g p a r tn ers r e qu ir e, wi t h t he fl ex i b il i ty t o i nt e gra te n ew

lin
c om m u nic a ti o n pr ot oc o ls as th ey a p pe ar .

• Ta rg et App li c at i on: T he fi n a l s t ep i nv o lv es th e t ar ge t a pp l ic at i o n of t h e tr ad i n g
par t ner . Th e t ar g e t a pp l ic at i on mus t b e ab l e t o rec e iv e an d pr o c es s th e d at a

On
th at w as s e nt , m ak e i t r ea d a bl e , an d i nt e gra te t h e i nf or m a ti o n i nt o t he
rec ip i e nt ’s c or e b us in e s s s y s t ems .

Furt he r R ea din gs

• Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , Sc ot t T il l ey

ty
• B un d l e, Sy s t ems An a l y s is a nd D es i gn , L oos e - le af V ers io n, 12 th + M in dT a p,
1 ter m Pr in te d Ac c es s Car d, Sc ot t T i l le y

Ans w e r s t o Che c k Y o ur Und e r st a ndi ng

Fil l Up s si
er
1) Ne t Su i te
2) E nd- t o- e n d s ec ur i ty
3) Cor p ora t e pr oc es s m a na g em e nt
4) Telecommunications
iv

5) B us i n es s Pr ac tic e A u t om a ti o n ( B P A )

Tru e/ Fa l se
Un

1) Fa ls e
2) Tru e
3) Fa ls e
4) Tru e
5) Tru e
ity

Unit - 3 .1 Sy st em A na l ys i s and D e sig n

m

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

)A

• De f in e t he Sy s t e m A n a ly s is an d D es i g n C on c ep ts .
• Dis c us s t he P has es o f S D LC .
• Ex pl a i n th e v ar i ou s r e as o ns f or c o nd uc ti n g s y s te m a na ly s is .
• Dis c us s Ma n ag e m en t r ol e i n s y s t em a na ly s is t o c a te r c o m pe ti t io n an d
i nc or p or a t in g l a tes t te c hn o l ogy .
•
(c

Dis c us s R o le o f Sy s t e m A n aly s t .
• Ex pl a i n th e S of tw ar e d ev e l o pm e nt f ir ms r o le i n E R P/ B us in es s I nt e ll i g en t
Sy s t e m
 • Des c r i b e t h e S A P, O R AC L E, B A A N, P E O P L E SO FT , MI CRO S O FT an d
G O O G L E r o l e i n E R P /B us i nes s I nt e l l ig e nt S y s te m

e
Int rodu ct ion

lin
Sy s t e m an a ly s is is a m et ho d of o bs erv in g a s y s t e m i n o rd er t o inv es ti g at e or
en h anc e it. It is us e d i n th e f i el d o f i nf or m at i on t ec hn o l ogy , wh er e c o m pu t er - b as ed
s y s te ms m us t b e d es c r i be d i n or de r t o b e ex a m i ne d b as e d o n th e ir s t ruc tu re a n d
des i g n.

On
Sy s t e ms an a ly s is in t he I nf or ma t io n T ec hn o lo gy do m a in m i gh t i nc lu d e l o ok in g at
en d- us er us a ge o f a p r od uc t b u n dl e or it e m, as we l l as lo ok i ng a t s ourc e c o de fr o m
to p t o bo tt o m to c har a c ter is e th e s y s t e ms us ed in pro gr a mm i n g.

Ex per ts in s y s te m an a ly s is ar e fr e q ue nt ly c a l le d up o n t o ex a m in e s y s te ms c r it ic a lly
an d rec o m me n d n ec es s ar y a dj us t me nts . . Sy s te ms a n a ly s is is us e d b o th ins i d e a nd
ou ts id e t h e b us in es s wor l d t o d et er m in e w h et h er a s y s t e m is p os s i bl e o r ef f ec t iv e

ty
wi t hi n th e c on t ex t of its ov er al l d es ig n an d to s h ow th e o pt i ons av a i l ab l e to th e
em p l oy in g i n dus tr y or an o th er p ar ty .

As a r es u l t, s y s t em a n a ly s is is u n iq u e t o s y s te m of f ic i a ls , w h o m a i nt a in s y s t ems o n

si
a da i ly b as is , a n d t h e i r j o bs ty p ic a lly e n ta i l a h ig h- l ev e l v i e w on a s y s t em in or d er
to d e ter m i ne its g e ner a l v i ab i l ity in ac c or d an c e w it h i ts p la n.
er
S yst em s An a ly si s

It is th e pr oc es s o f g at h er i n g an d i nt er pr et i ng d at a, f i nd i n g f a u lt s , a n d bre ak i ng
iv

do w n a s y s te m in to its c o ns t i tu e nt p ar ts .

A s y s t e m a na l y s is is c ar r ie d o u t to i nv es t ig a te a s y s te m or i ts c o m po n en ts i n o rd er
Un

to d e ter m i ne its g o a ls . It is a pr ob l e m - s o lv i ng s tr a te gy t ha t e nh a nc es t h e s y s te m
an d g uar a nt e es t h at a l l of th e s y s te m's c o m po n en ts work t og e th er to ac h iev e th e ir
go a ls .

S yst em s D e sig n
ity

It is t he pr oc es s o f s pec i fy in g t h e c o m po ne n ts or m od u les of a n ew b us in es s
s y s te m or r e pl ac i ng a n ex is t i n g s y s t em i n o rde r to m ee t c er ta i n n ee ds . B ef or e y o u
be g i n p l an n in g , y o u mus t f ir s t c o m pl e te ly gras p t h e o l d s y s t e m an d id e nt i fy h ow
c om p ut ers m ay b e e m p loy e d m os t e ff ec t iv e l y i n or d er to r un eff ic i en t ly .

Th e go a l o f s y s te m d e s i gn is to f i gu re o u t ho w t o ac h i ev e t h e s y s te m's g o al .
m

Th e m ai n f oc us of Sy s te m A n a ly s is an d D es i gn ( S AD) is o n−
)A

• Sy s t e ms
• Pr oc es s es
• Tec hn o l ogy

W ha t is a Sy s t e m?
(c
 Th e w or d " s y s t e m" c om es fr o m th e G r e e k wor d " s y s t e m a," w h ic h i m pl i es " an
s truc tu re d r e l at i ons h i p b et we e n an y c o ll ec ti o n of c om p on e nts f o r t he pur p os e of

e
ac h i ev in g a c o m m on g oa l ."

lin
" A s y s t e m is a n or ga n is ed gr ou p i ng o f i n ter de p en d en t c om p o ne nt s l ink e d t o ge t her
ac c or d i ng t o a p l a n to ac h i ev e a c er ta i n o bj e c tiv e ," ac c or d i ng t o t h e d ef i ni t io n .

Con st ra int s o f a S ys t em
Thr ee f u nd a m en ta l li m it a ti o ns m us t b e pr es e nt in e ac h s y s te m .

On
• A s y s t em mus t h av e s om e s tr uc t ur e a nd be h av io ur t ha t is in te n de d t o
ac c o m p l is h a s pec i fic go a l.
• Th e s y s te m's c o m p on e nts m us t be in t erc o n n ec t e d an d i n ter d ep e nd en t.
• Th e or ga n iz a t io n's ai m s t ak e prec e de nc e a bo v e th e o bj ec t iv es of i ts
s ubs y s t ems .

ty
For i ns ta nc e, a tr af f ic ma n ag e m en t s y s te m , a p ay ro l l s y s t em , a n a ut o ma te d l i br ary
s y s te m, an d a h u ma n r es o ur c e i nf or m at i on s y s te m.

3. 1. 1 S y st em An al y si s and D e sig n Con c ep ts

si
Th e ter m " s y s t e m" is c om m o nly us e d . W h en re f err in g t o i te ms or proc es s es , it has
er
bec o me p op u la r to u s e t he w or d s y s t em to ad d a c on te m p ora ry f l a ir. Ex e rc is e
s y s te ms , i nv es t m en t s y s te ms , d e liv ery s y s te ms , i nf or m at i on s y s te ms , e duc a ti o n
s y s te ms , c o mp u ter s y s te ms , a nd s o o n a re a l l m e nt i on e d. A ny gr o u p o f c o m po n en ts
th at w ork t og e th er t o a c h iev e a s h ar ed go a l o r re as on is r ef err e d to as a s y s t em .
iv

Def in itio n:
Th e wor d s y s t em c o mes f r o m t he G r eek wor d s y s t em a , wh ic h re fe rs t o a w e l l -
org a n iz e d i nt er ac t i o n b et we e n wor k i n g p arts or c o m p on e nts . A s y s t e m ex is ts
bec a us e i t is i nt en d e d t o ac c o mp l is h o ne o r m or e g oa ls . We i nt erac t w i th th e
Un

tra ns por t at i on s y s t e m, t h e p ho n e s y s te m, t h e ac c ou n ti n g s y s te m , th e
ma n uf ac t ur i ng s y s t e m, a n d, f or m or e th a n t wo d ec ad es , th e c o m p ut er s y s t em on a
da i ly b as is .

S i mi l ar ly , we r e fer to th e b us i nes s s y s te m a nd th e or ga n is a t io n as a s y s t em m ad e
up of in t er c o n nec t e d d e par t me n ts (s u bs y s te ms ) lik e pr o d uc t i o n, s al es , h um a n
res o urc es , a nd an i nf or ma t io n s y s t e m. As a s ta n da l o ne un i t, n o ne of th es e
ity

s ubs y s t ems ar e v er y us e f ul . T h e f ir m, o n t he o th er ha n d, m ay work s uc c es s f u l ly

an d pr of i t ab ly w he n t h ey ar e pr op er ly c o or di na t ed .

Th ere are ov er a hu n d r ed de f in i t io ns o f th e wor d s y s t em , b ut t h ey a l l s e e m to p o i nt

to t h e s a me t h i ng : a s y s t e m is a n o rga n is ed gro u p in g o f i nt er de p en d en t
m

c om p on e nts l i nk ed to g et h er ac c or d in g to a p l an to ac h iev e a c ert a i n g o a l. P hy s ic a l

e le m en ts ( e ng i n es , a ir c r af t w in gs , c ars ), ad m in is tra t iv e s t e ps ( p l a nn i n g, or g an is i ng ,
an d re g u la t in g) , or a s y s te m i n a mu l ti l ay er s tr uc tur e ar e a ll ex a m p les o f
c om p on e nts . T h e c o m po n en t c o ul d b e b as i c or a dv anc e d, s i m p l e or c o mp l ex . A
)A

s i ng l e c o mp u ter w i th a k ey bo ar d, m e m ory , a n d pr in te r, or a s er i es of in te l l i ge nt
ter m i na ls l ink e d t o a ma i nf r a m e, ar e ex a mp l es . I n any i ns t a nc e , e ac h c o mp o ne n t is
a p art o f t he ov er a l l s y s te m a n d mu s t c o ntr i bu t e to t h e s y s te m's a b il i ty to f u lf i l its
i nt en d ed a i m. F or t h e d es i g n of a s uc c e s s f u l s y s t e m, t his or i e nt a ti o n nec es s it a tes
an ord er ly ar r a ng e me n t of t he c om p on e nts .
1. As a r es u lt , s t udy i ng s y s te ms c o nc e p ts h as t hre e m aj or i mp l ic at i o n s :
(c

2. A s y s t em mus t b e dev e lo p ed t o ac c o mp l is h a c ert a i n g oa l .

3. In ter d ep e n de nc e a n d in t erre l at i o ns h i ps be tw e en th e c o mp o ne n ts ar e
req u ir ed .
 Th e ov er a l l a ims o f t he or g a nis a ti o n tak e prec e d enc e ov er t h e obj ec t iv es of its
s ubs y s t ems . Co m p ut e r iz in g p er s on n e l ap p l i c at i ons , fo r ex a m p le , m us t a d he re t o

e
th e or ga n iz at i on 's pr i v ac y , c o n fi d en t ia l i ty , an d s ec ur ity po l ic ies , as m us t m ak i n g
c hos e n d at a ( s uc h as pay r o l l) av a il a b le t o t h e ac c ou nt i n g d iv is i o n on de m an d .

lin
Cha r a cte r ist i cs of a S yst em

O ur d e fi n it i o n of a s y s t e m i m p li es t h at al l s y s t e ms h av e t he f o l l ow i ng
c har ac ter is t ic s : or ga n i s at i on ( or d er), i nt er ac ti o n, i nt er de p e n d e nc e , i nt eg ra t io n, a n d
a c or e go a l .

On
1. O rg aniz at ion
S tr uc t ur e a n d or d er a r e i mp l i ed by or g an is at i on . T h e arra n ge m e nt o f c o m p on e nts
a ids i n t he ac h i ev e me n t of g o als . T h e or ga n is at i on s tr uc t u re i l lus tr at es th e
h ier arc h ic a l li nk s in t h e d es i g n o f a c o m pa ny s y s t e m, f or ex a mp l e, s tar t in g w it h t he
pres i d en t a t t he to p a n d l e ad i n g d ow n t o t he b lu e - c o ll ar w or k ers . A s y s t e m -
s ubs y s t em r el a ti o ns h i p is d ep ic te d , th e a ut hor i ty s truc t ure is d ef i ne d, t h e for m a l
fl o w of c o m mu n ic a t i o n is s p ec i f ie d , an d t h e c ha i n of c o m m an d is for m a l is e d. A

ty
c om p ut er s y s t em is b u il t ar ou n d an in p ut dev ic e, a c e n tra l pr o c es s in g u ni t, a n
ou t pu t d ev ic e , a n d o n e or m or e s tor a ge u ni ts , as w el l as o th er c om p on e nts . Wh e n
l ink e d to g et h er , t h ey c om pr is e a c o m pl e te in f or ma t io n - pro d uc t i o n s y s te m.

si
2. Int e r act ion
Th e way eac h c o m po ne n t i nt er ac ts w it h t h e ot h er c o m po n en ts of t h e s y s te m i s
ref err ed to as i nt er ac ti o n. Pu r c h as in g , fo r ex a m p le , m us t work wi t h pr od uc ti o n,
adv er tis i n g w it h s a l es , a n d p ay r o l l w i th s t af f i n a c o m pa ny . T o s o lv e a pr o b le m i n a
er
c om p ut er s y s te m , t h e c e ntr a l pr oc es s i ng u n it m us t c o m mu n ic at e w i th t h e in p ut
dev ic e. T h e ma i n m e mo r y , i n t ur n, s t or es p rog ra m mes an d d at a t ha t t he a ri t hm et ic
un i t u t i lis es to d o c a lc ul a ti o ns . T h e c om p ut er's p erf or ma nc e is en a b le d by t he
i nt erp l ay b et w ee n t hes e c o mp o ne n ts .
iv

3. Int e rd ep end en c e
I nt er de p en d enc e r ef e r s t o th e f ac t t ha t d i f fer e nt s ec t i ons o f a n org a n is a t io n or
c om p ut er s y s t em ar e r e l ia n t on o n e a n ot h er. Ac c or d in g t o a s t rat e gy , t hey ar e
Un

c oor d i na t ed a n d l ink e d t o g et her . For o pt i m a l f u nc t i on i n g, o ne s u bs y s t e m r eq u ir es

th e i np ut o f an ot h er s ubs y s t em : t h at is , o ne s u bs y s t e m's o ut pu t is t he re q u ire d
i np ut f or a n ot h er s ubs y s te m. I n s y s t e ms wor k , t h is i n terc o nn ec te d nes s is c r i tic a l .
A n i n te gr at e d i n for m a ti o n s y s t e m is d es ig n ed t o m e et th e ne e d s of au t hor is e d
us ers (d e par t me n t h e a ds , m an a gers , an d s o on) f or r em ot e ac c es s an d r etr i ev a l. It
is c l e ar th at t h e p eo p l e s u bs y s t em an d t he o rga n iz at i on 's us e rs ar e i nt er de p en d en t.
ity

To s u m m ar is e , n o s u bs y s t e m c a n f unc t io n in is o l at i o n b ec a us e it r el i es o n d a ta
(i np uts ) fro m o th er s u bs y s t e ms to c a rry ou t its f u nc t i ons .
Th e e ff orts a nd as s i s ta nc e o f s y s t ems a na ly s ts , pr ogr a mm ers , a nd o per a ti o na l
em p l oy e es i n a c o mp ut er c e nt r e f ur th er d e mo ns tra t e i nt e r de p en de nc e. T he us e r
i ni t ia t es th e c h o ic e to c o m p ut er is e an a pp l ic at i on , t he an a ly s t an a ly s es a nd
des i g ns it , t he pr o gr a m mer pr o gr a m mes a n d t es ts i t, a nd t he c o mp u ter o p era to r
m

runs it . N o ne o f th es e pe o p le c a n do t h ei r j obs w i th o ut t he h e lp of o t hers i n t he

c om p ut er c e nt r e s u bs y s te m.

O rg an iz at i o n St r uc tur e – An Ex a m p le
)A
(c
 e
lin
On
ty
Int eg rat ion
Th e t er m " i nt e gr at i on " r ef er s t o t h e h o l is tic n at ur e o f s y s t e m s . To fu l f i l t he
org a n iz a t io n's f un d a m en t al g o a l, s y nt h es is c om es a ft er an a ly s is . T he w ay a s y s t e m

si
is c on n ec t e d is r ef er r ed t o as in te gr at i o n. It's m or e t h an j us t s h ar in g a phy s ic a l
s pac e or po r t i on . I t me a ns t h at ev en i f e ac h p ort i o n o f th e s y s te m pe rf or ms a
d is t i nc t f unc t io n, t h e p i ec es o f th e s y s t em w ork t og e th er w i th i n th e s y s t em .
S uc c es s fu l in t egr a ti o n us u al ly r es u l ts i n a s y ner g is t ic ef fec t a nd a s tr on g er ov er al l
er
i mp ac t t h an if e ac h c o mp o ne n t fu nc t i o ns a lo ne .

Cen tr al ob j ect i ve
Th e f in a l as p ec t o f a s y s te m is its pr i mary go a l. Re a l or dec l ar e d g oa ls are bo t h
iv

ac c e p ta b le . A lt ho u gh a d ec lar e d g o a l m ay be th e tr u e g o al , it is f a ir ly u nc om m o n
for a n or g an is at i o n t o dec l ar e o ne g o a l an d w ork to w ard a n o th er. T he c r uc i a l
as p ec t is t ha t us er s mus t be aw ar e of a c om p ut er ap p l ic a t io n's pr im ary go a l f ro m
th e s ta rt o f th e ir for m a l or ga n is at i on a l p os i t i ons . V ic e Pr es id e nt o f S a l es , Pr es i de n t
Un

Pr od uc ti o n V ic e - P r es i de n t Vic e Pr es i de nt , Ac c ou nt i n g D e pa rt me n t H e ad , As s em b ly
De p art i ng H e ad , P a i nt i ng Au t hor i ty L in es

Wo r ke r s
For a s uc c es s fu l d es ig n a nd c o nv ers io n , wor k ers m us t b e a n aly s e d . P ol i t ic a l a n d
org a n is a t io n a l c ons i d e r at i on s c an obs c ur e th e tru e g o a l. Th is me a n s t ha t th e
an a ly s t w i l l h av e t o w o r k t hr ou g h th es e r o ad b l oc k s i n or der t o d et er m in e t he tr u e
ity

go a l o f th e pr o pos e d mo d if ic at i o n.

3. 1. 2 P ha s es of SDL C
m

Th e So ft w ar e D ev e l o pm e nt L if e Cy c le (S D LC) is a fra m ew ork t ha t l ay s o u t t he

s te ps i nv o lv ed i n s o ftw ar e dev e l op m e nt at e ac h s t ag e . I t c o nt a ins a pr ec is e
b lu e pr in t for dev e l op i n g, d e p loy i ng , a nd s us t a in i ng s of tw ar e.
)A

Th e So ft wa r e D ev e l o pm e nt L if e Cy c le ( S D LC) d es c r ib es th e en tir e d ev e l op m e nt
proc es s , inc l ud i n g a l l pr oc es s es i nv o lv ed i n d es i gn i n g, dev e l op i ng , t es ti n g, a nd
de p l oy i n g a s o ft war e p r od uc t .

Softw a r e De v elo pm e nt L if e C y cl e P ro c es s
(c

Th e S oft w ar e D ev e lo p me n t Li f e Cy c l e ( S DL C) is a me t ho d th a t s pec i f ies t he m a ny

s te ps r e qu ir e d in s o ft war e d ev e l o pm e nt i n ord er t o c r ea t e a h i g h - q u a l ity r es u lt .
 SD L C s t a ges e nc o m pas s t he e nt ir e l if e cycle of a s o ft w ar e p ro d uc t , fr o m
c onc e pt i on t hr o ug h r e t ir em e nt .

e
Fo l lo w in g th e S DL C p r oc es s e ns ur es t h at s of tw ar e is dev e l op e d i n a m e th o d ic a l
an d d is c i pl i n ed ma n ne r .

lin
Pu rpo s e:

Th e go a l of t h e SD L C is t o c r e at e a h ig h- q ua l i ty pro d uc t t ha t m e ets t he n e eds of

th e c us to m er .

On
Re q ui re m en t c o l l ec t i n g, d es i gn , c o d in g , tes t i ng , a nd ma i nt e n anc e are th e p h as es of
th e S DL C. T o s u pp ly th e Pr o duc t i n a m et h od ic a l m an n er, it is c r it ic a l to s t ic k t o
th e p has es .

As a n ex a m p le , A s of tw ar e m us t b e pr o duc e d, an d a t ea m i s s ep ar at e d i nt o

ty
s ec t i ons t o wor k o n d if f er e nt as p ec ts o f t h e pro d uc t , eac h of w h ic h is fr e e t o d o
any t hi n g t hey wa n t. O ne d ev e l op er c ho os es to des i g n f irs t , w h il e t he ot h er c h o os es
to c o d e f irs t a n d th e n wor k o n d oc um e nt at i o n.

si
Th is w i l l r es u l t in pr o j ec t fa i l ur e , t h us t e a m me m bers m us t h av e a h i gh l ev el o f
k no w le d ge an d c o m pr eh e ns io n i n or d er to d e liv er t h e des ir e d pr od uc t .
er
SD LC C y cl e
Th e S DL C Cy c le d e p ic ts t h e s o ft war e d ev el o pm e nt p roc es s .

B el o w is t he di a gr am m at ic r e pr es e n ta t io n o f th e S DL C c y c l e :
iv
Un
ity
m
)A
(c
 SD LC Ph as e s

e
G iv en be l ow a r e t h e v ar io us p h as es o f a n S DL C :
• Re q ui r e m en t g at h er i n g a n d an a ly s is
• Des i gn

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• Im p le m e nt at i on or c o d i ng
• Tes t i n g
• De p loy m e nt
• Ma i nt e n anc e

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#1) R eq ui r em ent G at he rin g and A na ly s is

Dur i n g th is p h as e , a l l per t in e nt in f orm a ti o n f ro m th e c o ns um er is g at h ere d i n or d er

to b ui l d a pr o d uc t t h at m ee ts t h e ir ne e ds . A ny d is c r e pa nc i es mus t be c l ar if i e d
s o le ly d ur i ng t h is s te p .

A m ee t in g w it h t h e c u s to m er is s et u p by t h e bus i nes s a n a ly s t a n d proj ec t m a na g er

ty
to o bt a in a l l of t h e n ec es s ar y i nf or m at i on , s uc h as w h at t he c u s to m er w a nts t o
c ons tr uc t , wh o w il l b e t he e n d- us er , an d w ha t th e pr o duc t's p ur pos e is . Pr i or to
c ons tr uc t i ng a pr o duc t, i t is c r it ic a l to h a v e a s o li d gr as p o r ex p er tis e o f t h e
pro d uc t .

si
For Ex a m pl e , A c us to me r r eq u es ts a fi n an c i al tr a ns ac t i on - r e l at e d a pp l ic at i on . I n
th is s c e n ar i o , th e r e qu ir em e nts m us t be s pec if ic , s uc h as wh at k in d o f tra ns ac t i ons
er
wi l l be c o n duc te d , h o w t hey w i l l b e c on d uc te d, a nd i n wh at c urr enc y t hey w i ll b e
c on d uc t e d.

Af t er g at h er in g r e q u ir em e nts , a n a n a ly s is is c o n d uc t ed to de t erm i ne th e v ia b i l ity o f

iv

dev e l op i ng a pr o duc t. In th e ev en t of a ny a m b ig u ity , a c o nf er e nc e c a ll is s c h ed u l ed

for a d d it i on a l d is c us s i on .
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Th e SR S ( S of tw ar e Re q ui r e m en t S pec i fic at i on) d oc um e nt is p rep ar e d o nc e t h e

req u ir e me nt h as b e en we l l un d er s t o od . T he dev e l op ers s ho u l d pr o per ly u nd ers ta n d
th is d oc um e nt , a nd t h e c us t o me r s ho u l d ex a m in e i t fo r fu tur e re f er enc e .

#2) D e si gn
The requirements acquired in the SRS document are used as input in this phase, and the software
architecture required to implement system development is derived.
ity

#3) I mp le me nt at ion o r Cod ing

W he n t h e d ev e lo p er r ec e iv es t h e D es ig n doc u me n t, th e im p l e me n ta t io n/c o d in g
proc es s be g ins . So ur c e c o de is c re a te d f ro m th e s o ft w are des i gn . D ur in g t h is
m

ph as e, a l l o f th e s o ft w ar e 's c o mp o ne n ts are i mp l e me nt e d.

#4) T e stin g
)A

Tes t i n g be g i ns onc e th e c o di n g is c o mp l e te a n d t h e m od u les are r ea dy to b e

tes te d . Dur i n g th is p h as e , t he r es u l ti n g s o ft war e is r i gor o us ly tes t ed , a nd any f a u lts
de t ec t ed ar e as s i g ne d t o d ev e l op ers t o b e f i x ed .
Re tes t in g , als o k n ow n as r e gr es s i o n tes t in g , is d o ne u nt i l t he pr o g ra mm e fu l f i ls t h e
req u ir e me nts of t he c u s to m er . T h e SR S doc u me n t is us ed by t es ter s t o c on f ir m t ha t
th e pr og ra m me me e ts th e n ee ds o f th e c us to me r.
(c
 #5) D ep lo ym ent
De p en d in g o n th e c us t o mer 's ex p ec ta t io n s , t h e pr od uc t is ei th er p ut i n t he

e
pro d uc t i o n env ir o nm e n t or i n it i al ly s ubj ec t e d to U AT (Us er Ac c e pt a nc e T es t i ng ).
In U AT, a r e p l ic a o f t he pr od uc ti o n e nv ir on me n t is c o ns tr uc t e d, a nd th e c us t o mer ,
i n c o l l ab or at i on w it h t h e d ev e lo p ers , pe r for ms t h e t es t i n g. I f t h e c us t om er is

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s at is fi e d w it h th e a p pl i c at i on , t he c us t om er mus t s i g n of f fo r it t o go l iv e .

#6) Ma int en an ce
Af t er a pr od uc t is d ep l oy ed i n a pr od uc t i on env ir o n me nt , t h e dev e lo p ers are

On
res p o ns ib l e for pr o du c t m a i nt e na nc e, w hic h inc l u des f ix in g a ny is s ues t ha t ar is e
an d a ny e nh a nc em e nt s t ha t n ee d t o b e m ad e.

3. 1. 3 V a ri ou s re a son s f or c ondu ct ing s y st em a na ly s is

Re as ons f or I n it i at i ng Sy s t e m A n aly s is :

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1. It is re q u ir e d to s pec i fy t he s y s te m bo u nd a ri es , wh ic h w i l l d e fi n e t h e s y s t e m's
s c op e an d c ov er a ge . Th is a i ds in th e id e nt if ic at i o n a nd c o mp re h ens i o n o f t he
s y s te m's f u nc t i o na l bo un d ar ies , d e par t me n ta l b o un d ar ies , a n d p ers ons i nv o lv e d

si
i n t h e s y s t em . It a ls o a i ds i n th e i d en t if ic a ti o n of t h e nu m er ous s ub - s y s t ems '
i np uts an d o ut p uts , as w e ll as th e ov er al l s y s te m.
2. Th e s y s te m's a n a ly s i s a i ds th e s y s t em de s i gn er i n d et er m in i n g w he t her t h e
s y s te m is c l os e d or op e n, d et er m in is t ic or pro b a bi l is tic . T o ac h i ev e t h e
er
ap pr o pr i a te des i gn a r c h it ec t ur e, s uc h a n u n ders t an d in g o f t he s y s t e m is
req u ir ed pr ior t o d es ig n in g t he p roc es s .
3. It is v it a l t o s p ec ify t h e s y s te m's go a l (s ). Ma ny t i m es , i t is s ee n t ha t s y s t ems
hav e be e n i n us e f or a l o ng t im e a n d h av e los t s i g ht of th e ir pr i ma ry g oa l of
iv

ac h i ev in g obj ec t iv es . Th e us er s o f t he s y s te m, as w e ll as t he s ta ff e n g ag e d, a re
un a b le to i d en t ify th e g o a l( s ). S i nc e we are d ev e l o p in g a c om p ut er - b as e d
s y s te m, w e m us t r ed ef i ne or r es et t he o bj ec t iv es as a re fer e nc e p oi n t i n t h e
c on t ex t o f th e pr es en t bus i n es s de m a nd .
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4. Th e s tr a t eg ic g o a l of t he s y s t e m a na ly s is is to g e t th e p eo p l e's ac c ep t anc e o f a
ne w dev e lo p m en t. T h e pr oc es s o f s y s t e m an a ly s is g iv es pe o p l e a s e ns e o f
i nv o lv e me nt . T h is ai ds i n br e ak i ng d ow n r es i s ta nc e t o th e ne w dev e lo p me n t a n d
gu ar a nt ees t h at t h e ne w s y s te m is a d h ere d t o.
5. Th e im p or t a nc e of t h e s y s t e m in th e or ga n is a t io n mus t be u nd ers t o od . T h is
c l ari f ies i ts u ti l i ty a nd as s is ts t he d es i g ne r i n d et er m in i ng th e s y s te m's des i g n
e le m en ts . T hey w ou l d b e ab l e to p l ac e th e s y s te m i n r e la t io n t o ot h er s y s t e ms
ity

i n ord er t o d et er m in e des i g n s tra t egy a n d d ev e l o pm e nt .

6. Ma ny ti m es , th e s y s te m s er v es as a n i nt erf ac e to o th er s y s te ms . As a res u lt , it
tri g ge rs or s u pp or ts c ha n ges in t h e ot h er s y s te m t hro u gh s uc h a n i nt erf ac e. I t is
v it a l to c o m pr e h en d th e s y s t e ms ' c urr en t r o l e as a n i nt er fac e to t h e in t eres ts of
ot h er s y s te ms . A ny m od i f ic a t io ns or a dj us t me n ts per f or me d s h ou l d no t h av e a n
i mp ac t on t h e ot h er s y s te ms ' f u nc t i on a l ity or go a ls .
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7. Th e s y s t e m's an a ly s is a ids i n de t erm i n i ng t he s y s t em 's f e as ib i l ity fro m s ev era l

pers p ec t iv es . Th e s y s te m mus t b e tec h nic a l ly , ec on o m ic a l ly , a nd op er at i o na l ly
fe as ib l e.
8. Th e s y s t em an a ly s is a s s is ts i n d et er m in i n g t he ha rd wa re an d s o ft war e res o urc e
)A

ne e ds . As a r es u lt , i f ex tr a r es ourc es ar e nec es s ary , t h is w i l l n ec es s i ta t e a

fi n anc i a l c o m m it m en t. T h e m a na g em e nt p ref ers t o ev al u at e in v es t m en ts in
ter ms of th e ir r et ur n on i nv es t me n t. If t h e proj ec t 's re t urn o n i n v es t m en t is n' t
ap p ea l i ng , m a na g em e nt m ay d ec id e t o a ba n do n i t.
(c

3. 1. 4 M an ag em ent rol e in s ys t e m an al y s i s to cat e r co mpe tit ion and

inc or po rat ing l at e st t ec hno log y
 Sy s t e ms an a ly s ts m us t m an a g e p e op l e i n ad d it i o n t o ti m e an d r es ourc es .
Ma n ag e m en t is ge n e r a lly p er f or me d t hr ou gh pr ec is e c o m m un ic at i on wi t h te a m

e
me m b ers w h o hav e b ee n c h os e n fo r t h e ir c om p et e nc e a n d c om pa t ib i l ity . Pr oj ec t
pro d uc t iv i ty go a ls m u s t be es t ab l is he d , an d m em b ers of s y s t e m s a na ly s is t e ams
mus t b e e nc o ur ag e d t o m ee t th e m.

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As s emb lin g a Te am
P ut ti n g t o ge t her a te a m is a g o od i d ea . Wh o s ho u l d a pr oj ec t ma n ag er c h oos e if h e
or s h e has t h e o pp or t un i ty to as s e m bl e a d r ea m t ea m o f h i gh ly t a l en t ed in d iv id u a ls
to d es i gn a s y s te m ? I n g en er a l, p roj ec t ma n ag ers s h o u ld s eek ou t t hos e w h o s h are

On
th e ir i d ea ls o f t ea m w or k a nd ar e mo t iv at ed by t h e g oa l t o pr o du c e a h i gh - q u al i ty
s y s te m o n t i me an d wi t hi n b u dg e t. O t h er ex c e l l en t t ea m me m b er tr a its i nc l ud e a
s tro n g w or k e th ic , h on es ty , a nd c o m pe t e nc y ; a w i ll i n gn es s to l ea d b as e d o n
ex p er tis e ; m ot iv at i on , ex c it em e nt f or t he proj ec t , a nd t e am m at es ' tr us t .

A lt h ou g h t he pr oj ec t ma n ag er mus t b e f am i l i ar w it h bus i n es s pri nc i p les , i t is

ty
be n ef ic i al t o hav e at l eas t on e a dd i ti o n al m em b er of t he t ea m wh o is . Th is p ers o n
s ho u l d i de a l ly b e an e x per t i n t he s am e f i el d as t h e s y s te m b e in g dev e l op e d. Wh e n
c rea t in g an ec o m m er c e s i te , t e ams c an s eek th e s u p po rt o f a m ark et er ; w he n
c rea t in g a n i nv en t or y s y s te m, t ea ms c an e n l is t t he h el p of s o me o n e k n o wl e dg e a bl e
i n pro d uc t i o n an d o p er at i ons .

si
A t e am s h ou l d id e al ly hav e t wo s y s t ems a na ly s ts . T h ey c a n as s is t o ne an o th er ,
do u b le- c h ec k e ac h ot her 's w or k , an d a dj us t th e ir w ork l oa ds as ne e de d . Th er e is
er
un d ou b te d ly a r e qu ir e me n t f or pr o gra m m ers to j o i n t h e t ea m . P e op l e w ho k n ow ho w
to do wa lk thr o ug hs , r ev ie ws , t es ti n g, an d d oc u m en t i ng s y s t e ms a re j us t as c ruc i a l
as t hos e w h o k n ow h ow t o c od e. S o me pe op l e ex c e l a t v i e wi n g t h e b i g p ic t ur e,
wh i l e o t her s t hr iv e w h en t as k s ar e br ok en d ow n i nt o s ma l l er c hu n k s . Bo th ty p es o f
pe o p le s h o u ld be pr es en t o n ev er y te a m.
iv

A pr oj ec t m a na g er s ho u l d s ea r c h f or p er s on n e l wh o h av e bo t h ex per i e nc e a n d
en t hus i as m i n a dd i ti o n t o t h e es s e nt i a ls . W he n es t i m at i n g th e ti m e r eq u ir ed to
Un

ac c o m p l is h a j o b, ex per i e nc e is v ery s i gn if ic a nt . W he n c o mp ar ed t o a te a m of
nov ic e pr og r a m me r s , ex pe r i e nc e in pro g ra mm i n g c an r es u l t i n c o de be i ng
dev e l op e d fiv e t i mes f as t er . A us ab i l ity s pec i al is t is a g o od ad d it i o n to t h e te a m as
we l l.

Th e gr ou p m us t b e e ner g is ed . S e lec t in g g oo d e m p loy e es fro m th e s t art is on e

ity

ap pr o ac h t o k e ep t h e te a m pos i t iv e t hr ou gh o ut t he proc es s . L ook f or p as s io n,

c rea t iv ity , a n d t h e ab i l ity t o c o m m un ic a te w it h a v ar i ety o f pe o p le . T hes e
fu n da m en t al c h ar ac t e r is t ic s h av e t he p ot en t ia l to l e ad t o s u c c es s . It's a ls o
be n ef ic i al t o h ir e ex c e ll e nt wr i ter s a n d pr e s en t ers wh o c a n pr es en t pr op os a ls an d
i nt erac t d ir ec t ly w it h c us t o mer s .
m

A t ea m's fo u nd a ti o n i s b u i lt on t r us t. A ll pr oj ec t p art ic i pa n ts m us t ac t r es p o ns ib l y
an d pr o m is e to do t h e i r b es t a nd f i n is h th e ir as s ig n ed t as k s . P e op l e m ay o p era te i n
a v ar ie ty o f way s , b ut th ey m us t a l l a gr ee t o work t o ge th er t ow ar d a s i m il ar g o a l.
)A

Com mun ic at ion S t r at egi e s f or Ma nag ing T ea ms

Te ams d ev e l o p t he ir ow n p er s o na l it i es as a res u lt of m ix i ng eac h i n d iv id u al te a m

me m b er w i th e ac h o t her i n s uc h a w ay th at a wh o l e ne w ne tw o rk of i n ter ac ti o ns
(c

em er g es . V is ua l iz e t e ams as a l way s f in d i ng a ba l a nc e b et we e n c o mp l et i n g t h e t as k
at h a nd a n d ma i nt a i n i ng r e l a ti o ns h i ps a mo n g te a m me m b ers a s a w ay t o or g an is e
y our t h i nk in g a bo u t th em .
 In f ac t , te a ms fr e q ue nt ly h av e t w o l ea d er s ra th er t ha n j us t on e. Ty pic a l ly , o n e
i nd iv i du a l wi l l e me r g e wh o w i ll le a d o t hers i n c o m p le t in g w ork , w h il e a no t her w i l l

e
em er g e w h o w i l l b e c onc er n ed w it h gro u p me m b ers ' s oc ia l r e la t i ons h i ps . B ot h are
es s e n ti a l t o t h e te a m' s s uc c es s . O t h er r es e arc h es h av e c l as s i f ie d t hes e i n div i d ua ls
as t as k l ea d er an d s oc i oe m ot i on a l l ea d er, r e s pec t iv e ly . Ev ery t e am h as c o n fl ic ts as

lin
a r es u l t o f at te m pt i ng to s tr ik e a b al a nc e b et we e n c o m p le t in g du t i e s an d pr es erv i n g
re la t io ns h ips a m o ng m em b er s .

Te ns i o ns m us t b e r es o lv e d o n a re g u lar b as is for t h e te a m t o re ma i n ef f ec t iv e.
In ef f ec t iv en es s a nd ev e n tu a l te a m bre a k up w i l l r es u l t fro m m in i m is in g or

On
d is re g ard i n g t ens i o ns . T he s k i l lf u l u t il is at i o n o f f e ed b ac k by a ll te am m em b ers c a n
prov i d e a s ig n if ic a nt a m o un t o f t he es s en t ia l t e ns io n r el i e f. H ow ev er, a ll
par t ic ip a nts mus t a gr ee th a t t he me t ho d t hey i nt er ac t ( i. e ., pro c es s ) is es s en t ia l
en o ug h t o w ar r a n t t im e. I n a s u bs eq u e nt p a rt, w e' l l t alk ab o ut pr o c es s pr od uc tiv i ty
tar g ets .

ty
Cre at i n g ex p l ic it a n d i m pl ic i t t e am n or ms (c o l lec t iv e ex p ec t at i ons , be l i efs , an d
way s o f b eh av in g) t ha t gu i de me m be rs in t h e ir r e la t io ns h ips is on e way t o s ec ure
c ons e ns us on p r o p er me m b er en g a ge m en t. Th e no rms o f a t ea m a re un i q ue t o th a t
te a m a nd wi l l n o t nec es s ar i ly tra ns fer to an ot h er. T h es e s ta n dar ds ev o lv e

si
thr o ug h ou t t im e a n d ar e be tt er v i ew e d as a c o l l ab or at iv e ef f or t r at h er th a n a
fi n is he d res u lt .

Nor ms c an b e us e fu l or in e ff ec t iv e. J us t bec a us e a c ert a i n c o nd uc t is c o m mo n

er
am o ng m e m ber s o f a t e a m d o es no t i n d ic a te i t is b en e fic i a l t o th e te a m's
ac h i ev em e nt of i ts o bj ec t iv es . A te a m s t a nd ard , f or ex am p l e, m ig ht b e t ha t j u n i or
te a m m em b er s s h ou l d h a nd l e a l l proj ec t s c h ed u l in g . T h e te a m is p ut t in g e nor m o us
pres s ur e o n n e w me m ber s a n d no t tak i ng f u ll b e ne f it o f t h e t e a m's ex per i e nc e by
iv

ad h er in g t o t h is nor m . I t's a c us to m t h at , if f o ll o we d, c o u ld c aus e t ea m me m b ers t o

was te v al u ab l e r es o ur c es .

Te am m e mb er s m us t mak e n or ms ex p l ic i t a nd ev a lu a te w he th er t hey ar e ef fec t iv e

Un

or dy s f unc t io n al i n as s is t i n g t he te a m in ac hi ev in g its obj ec t iv es on a re g ul ar b as is .

Y our t e am 's ov er ar c h i ng ex p ec t a ti o n m us t be t h at c h a ng e is t h e n or m. C o ns i d er
wh et h er te a m n or ms a r e as s is t i n g or o bs tr uc ti n g th e t ea m's s uc c es s .

S etti ng P ro j e ct Pr od uct iv it y G o a ls
ity

Af t er wo rk i n g o n a v ar i ety o f pr oj ec ts w it h y our te a m, y o u or y our t ea m le a der w i l l

dev e l op an un d er s t a n d in g o f w ha t t he t e a m c a n d o in a g iv e n le ng t h of ti m e. T h e
te a m w i l l be a b le t o s et w or t hw h i le pr o d uc t iv ity t arg e ts by us i ng t he p o in ters
pres e nt e d in t he e ar li er s ec t i on o f t h is c h a pt er on s tr at e gi es for es t i m at i ng t im e
nec es s ary a nd c ou p l in g th e m w it h ex per i e nc e.
m

E mp l oy ees w ho pr o du c e c onc r e te o ut p uts , s uc h as t he n u mb er o f b lu e j ea ns s ew e d

per ho ur , th e n u mb er o f e ntr i es e nt er ed in p er m i n ut e, or th e n um b er o f th i n gs
s c an n ed per s ec o nd , ar e us e d to t h i nk i n g ab o ut pr o duc t iv ity t ar ge ts fo r s y s t e ms
)A

an a ly s ts . H ow ev er , a s i n d us tr i al pr od uc t iv i ty r is es , it is ev id e nt t ha t m a na g er ia l
pro d uc t iv i ty mus t a ls o r is e . T h e pr od uc tiv i ty t arg e ts for t h e s y s te ms a na ly s is t ea m
are de f in e d w it h th is g oa l in m i n d.

Th e t e am m us t c r e a t e an d ag r e e on g o a ls , w h ic h s h ou l d b e bas e d on t ea m
me m b ers ' s k i l ls , pr ev i ous p er for m a nc e , a n d th e n a tur e o f th e proj ec t . B ec a us e
(c

s om e ti m es a w h ol e s y s te m wi l l b e i ns ta l l ed , an d ot h er t i m es o n ly a s ec t i on o f a n
ex is t i ng s y s t e m w il l b e m o di f ie d , th e g o als f o r e ac h pr oj ec t wi l l d i ff er s l i gh t ly .
 Mot iv at ing P ro j ect T e am M em be r s

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A lt h ou g h mo t iv a t io n is a c om p l ex s u bj ec t , it is on e wo rt h c ons i de r i ng , ev e n if o n ly
br ie f ly , a t t h is t i me . T o pu t i t an o th er w ay , p eo p l e j oi n gr o ups t o m ee t s o me o f t he ir
mos t bas ic ne e ds , s uc h as f o od , c lo th i ng , a n d s h e lt er . A ff i l ia t io n, c o ntr o l,

lin
i nd e pe n de nc e, an d c r ea t iv ity ar e j us t a f e w o f t he h ig h er - lev e l des ir es t h at al l
i nd iv i du a ls h av e . O n v ar io us l ev e ls , p e op l e a re m ot iv at e d to m e et u nm e t wa nts .

P art ic i pa t io n in go a l s et t in g, as o u tl i n ed i n t he pr ev i o us s ec t io n, c an e nc o ur ag e
te a m me m b er s to s o m e ex t e nt . S et ti n g a d if fic u lt b u t at ta i n ab l e o bj ec t iv e a n d th e n

On
c om p ar in g pe r f or ma nc e a g a ins t it on a r e g u lar b as is a p pe ars to be e ff ec t iv e in
mo t iv a t in g pe o p le . G o a ls dr iv e p e op l e t o at t a in th e m i n a s im i l ar way th at m ag n ets
do . G o a l s et t in g dr iv es e mp l oy e es i n p ar t b ec aus e te a m m e mb ers k n ow ex ac t ly
wh at is ex p ec te d o f t he m pr ior to a ny p er for m anc e as s e s s m en t . It c a n a ls o b e
c red i te d w it h th e s uc c es s of g oa l - s et t in g f or mo t iv a t io n , as it g iv es e ac h t e a m
me m b er s o me au to n o my i n ac c om p l is hi n g t he go a ls . T he me a ns t o at t ai n a go a l
may or m ay no t b e pr e de t er m i n ed . I n th is c a s e, t ea m m em b ers are a l lo we d to a p pl y

ty
th e ir ow n k n o wl e dg e a nd ex p er i enc e t o ac h i e v e th e ir o bj ec t iv es .

S et ti n g g o a ls c a n h e l p e nc our a ge te a m m em b ers by d ef i n in g w ha t n e eds to b e

do n e t o ac h iev e s uc c e s s f or t h e m a nd ot h er s . G o a ls dr iv e t ea m m em b ers b ec aus e

si
th ey de f in e th e l ev e l of ac hi ev e me n t t ha t i s ex p ec te d of th e m. Th is go a l - s et ti n g
ap pr o ac h s i m p l if i es t he w or k i ng e nv ir on m en t wh i l e s i mu l ta n eo us ly en er g is i n g it
wi t h th e p ot e nt i al of a c c om p l is hi n g wh a t is e x pec t ed .
er
Ma na gin g E com me r c e P ro je ct s

Ma ny of th e pr ev i o us i de as an d t ec h ni q ue s c an b e us e d t o ec om m erc e pr oj ec t
iv

ma n ag e m en t. H ow ev e r , y o u s h ou l d be a war e t h at , w h i le t he re ar e ma ny pa ra l l els ,
th er e ar e a ls o s i gn i f i c an t v ar i a nc es . O n e d is t i nc t i on is th at ec o m merc e s y s t e ms '
da t a is d is pe r s e d t hr o ug h ou t t he f ir m . As a res u l t, y ou' re no t j us t m a n ag i n g d at a i n
a s in g l e de p ar t m en t o r ev en a s i n g le u n it . S inc e a r es u lt , v a ri o u s or ga n is at i on a l
Un

po l i tic s c an em er g e, as u ni ts fr e qu e nt ly f e e l pr ot ec t iv e o f th e d at a t hey ge n era t e

an d ar e u n aw ar e of t h e i mp or ta nc e of s har i n g i nf or ma t io n ac r os s t he org a n is a t io n.

A no th er s i g n if ic an t d is t i nc t i o n is t h at ec o m merc e pr oj ec t t e am s of t en re q ui re
ad d it i o na l p er s o n ne l fr o m v ar io us d ep art m en ts , i nc lu d i ng as d ev e lo p er s ,
c ons u lt a nts , da ta b as e ex per ts , a nd s y s t e m i nt e gra to rs . W i th i n a c oh er e nt I S gr o up
or s y s te ms d ev e lo p m en t t ea m, ne a tly de f i ne d , s ta b le proj ec t gr ou ps w i l l b e th e
ity

ex c e p ti o n r at h er t ha n th e r u l e. Fu rt her m or e, b ec a us e s o m uc h as s is t a nc e may b e
req u ir ed at f ir s t, ec om m er c e pr oj ec t m a na g ers m us t f or m p art n ers h i ps b ot h
ex t er na l ly an d in te r n a l ly w e ll i n a dv anc e of t h e i m p le m e nt at i on , pos s i b ly s h ar i ng
ta l en t ac r os s pr oj ec ts to r e d uc e ec o m merc e i mp l e me nt a ti o n c os t s a nd g at h er th e
req u ir ed n um b er s of pe o p le w it h t h e n ec e s s ary ex p ert is e. O rg a n iz a t io n al p o li t ic s
has t h e c a pac i ty to d e v e lo p a r ift be tw e en t e am me m be rs .
m

O n e s tr a te gy t o av o i d po l i tic s r ui n i ng a proj ec t is for t h e ec om m erc e proj ec t

ma n ag er to s tr es s t h e ec o m mer c e's c o nn e c ti o n w i th th e org a n i z at i on 's i n ter n a l
s y s te ms , t hus e mp h a s is in g t h e o rg a nis a ti on a l s id e of th e ec o m merc e proj ec t .
)A

" Des i gn i n g th e fr o nt e nd [ w ha t t he c us t om er s e es ] is t he s im p l e p art of a l l o f th is ,"

on e ec om m er c e pr oj ec t m an a ge r t o ld us . T he ac tu a l pro b l e m is s tr a te g ic al ly
i nt egr a ti n g ec om m er c e i n to a l l o f th e or g an iz at i on 's op er at i o ns ."
(c
 A f our t h d is t i nc t i on be tw ee n tr a di t io n a l pr oj e c t m an a ge m en t a nd ec om m erc e pr oj ec t
ma n ag e m en t is t h at , bec a us e th e s y s t e m w i l l c o nn ec t to t h e o uts i de w or l d v i a t he

e
In ter n et , s ec u r i ty is p ar a m o un t. B e for e th e ne w s y s te m is i ns t a l l e d, d ev e l o p in g a nd
i mp l e me nt i n g a s ec ur i ty pl a n is a pr oj ec t i n a nd o f i ts e l f an d m us t be m a na g ed as
s uc h .

lin
Int eg rat ing T ec hno lo gie s f o r S ys te ms
As us ers a do p t n ew t ec h n o lo g ies , s om e of th e j o b of th e s y s te m s an a ly s t w i ll b e
dev o te d to i nt e gr a t in g tr a d it i on a l s y s t e ms wi t h n e w o n es in o rde r t o ens ur e a

On
re lev a nt c o nt ex t, as i nd ic at e d i n th e d ia gr a m be l o w. As p e op l e work t o i nt e gra t e
th e ir ec o m mer c e a p p l i c at i ons i nt o t h ei r o l d f ir ms or s tar t t ot a l ly n e w e bus i nes s es ,
th is s ec ti o n d es c r i b es s o m e of t he n e w in f o rm at i on t ec h n o lo g i es s y s te ms a na ly s ts
wi l l b e a do p ti n g.

E com me r c e App li cat i ons a nd W eb Sy st em s

Ma ny of t he s y s te ms c ov er e d her e c an b e en h anc e d if th ey are t rans f erre d to t he
W or ld Wi d e W eb or i f t h ey w er e des i g ne d a nd b u i lt as W e b - b a s ed t ec h n o lo g i es

ty
fro m t he s t ar t.
Th ere ar e n u m er o us a dv a n ta g es o f ins ta l l i n g o r d ev e l o p in g an a p p lic a ti o n v ia th e
In ter n et :

si
1. Inc r e as i n g us er a wa r en es s of a s erv ic e, pr od uc t , i nd us t ry , pers o n, or
gro u p's av a i la b i l ity .
2. Us er s h av e t he o p ti o n of h av i ng ac c es s 2 4 h ours a day , s ev e n day s a w e ek .
3. Im pr ov in g t he in te r f ac e d es i g n's u t il i ty a n d u s ab i l ity .
er
4. Dev e lo p i ng a s y s te m th at c a n b e ex t e n de d i nt er na t io n al ly r at h er t ha n
re ma i n in g loc a l, a ll o wi ng pe o p le i n r e m ot e r eg i o ns t o b e r e ac h e d reg ar d les s
of t h eir t i m e z o ne .
iv
Un
ity
m
)A

In te gr at i n g t ec h no l og i es ef f ec t a l l ty pes o f us ers an d s y s t ems , w h ic h s y s t e m s

an a ly s ts mus t b e aw ar e of .

Ent e rp ri s e S yst e ms
Ma ny or ga n is at i ons s ee p ot e nt i a l b e n ef its fro m i nt e gra t i ng m u l ti p l e in fo rm at i o n
(c

s y s te ms t ha t ex is t at v ar io us l ev e ls o f m an ag e me n t a nd wi t hi n v ar io us ac t iv it i es .
S om e p ub l ic at i ons r ef er to i nt e gr at i on as a lay er - b as e d s erv ic e - or i e nt ed
arc h i tec t ur e ( SO A) . T he t op lay er wo u l d be m ad e u p of e nt er pr is e s y s t e ms . T his
 i nt egr a ti o n is h a nd l e d v i a en t er pr is e s y s t ems , c o m mo n ly k n ow n as e nt er pris e
res o urc e p l a nn i ng ( E RP ) s y s te ms . E R P i m p le m en t at i on nec es s it at es a s i gn i fic a nt

e
am o un t o f de d ic at i on a nd or g a n is a t io n a l t rans f orm a ti o n. Sy s t e ms a na ly s ts are
fre q ue nt ly h ir ed as c o ns u l ta n ts f or ER P pr oj ec ts th a t us e pro pr i et a ry s of tw ar e. S A P
an d O r ac l e ER P s o ft war e ar e t wo ex a m p l es of po p u lar ER P s of tw ar e. So m e of

lin
th es e to o ls ar e d es i g ne d t o h el p b us i nes s es m ig ra te t o t he I n t ern e t. I n or de r t o
ef fec t iv e ly d es i gn , i ns ta l l, ma n ag e , u pd at e , an d us e a n E R P pr o g ra mm e, an a ly s ts
an d s o m e us er s ty p ic a l ly r e qu ir e v e nd or tr a i n in g, s up p ort , a nd m a i nt e na nc e.

S yst em s f o r W ir e le s s an d Mob il e D ev i ce s

On
A na ly s ts ar e be i n g tas k ed w i th dev e lo p i ng a s l e w of n e w s y s te ms an d a p pl ic at i o ns
for adv e nt ur ous us er s , i nc lu d i ng m any f or w ir e les s a nd m ob i l e d ev ic es l ik e t h e
A pp l e i Ph o ne , i P od , an d B l ac k Berry . A na l y s ts m ay a ls o b e c a l l ed u p on t o b u i ld
c onv e nt i on a l or w ir e l es s c om m u nic a ti o ns ne tw ork s f or c us t o me rs w ho w an t to
i nc or p ora t e ph o ne , v i de o , t ex t mes s a gi n g, a nd e m a il in to c o rp ora t e in tr an e ts or
i nd us tr i a l ex tr a n ets . M - c o m merc e re fe r s t o w ire l es s ec o m merc e (m o b il e

ty
c om m erc e) .

W ir el es s l oc a l ar e a ne tw or k s ( W L A Ns ), w ir el es s f id e l ity n et wo rk s (W i - Fi) , an d
pers o n al w ir e les s n e t wor k s ( P WNs ) t ha t c on n ec t a v ar i ety o f d ev ic es us i ng t h e

si
B lu e to ot h s ta n d ar d a r e al l s y s t ems y o u m ig ht b e as k e d to d ev e l o p. In m or e
adv a nc e d s it ua t io ns , an a ly s ts may be r e li ed up o n to c r e at e i n te l l ig e nt ag e nts ,
s of tw ar e th a t c an as s is t us er s w i th ac t iv it i es by l e arn i n g th e ir pre f ere nc es ov er
ti m e a n d ac ti n g o n t h em . F or ex a mp l e, a n i nt e ll i g en t a g en t us i n g p u l l t ec hn o lo gy
er
wo u ld s e ar c h t h e W eb for s t or ies o f in t eres t to t he u s er af te r o bs erv in g th e us er's
be h av io ur p at ter ns w it h in f or m a ti o n ov e r t i m e, a nd w o ul d c o nd uc t s earc h es on t he
W eb w i th o ut t h e us e r ' s c o ns t a nt pr o d di n g.

O pen Sou r ce Sof t w a r e

iv

O p en s o urc e s o ft w ar e is an a l ter n at iv e t o tra d it i on a l s of tw ar e d ev e l op m en t i n w h ic h

pro pr i et ary c o d e is h i dd e n fr o m us ers (O S S). M any us ers a nd pro gr a mm ers c an
Un

s tu dy , ex c h an g e, a n d m od i fy th e c o de , or c om p ut er i ns t ruc t io ns , w it h O S S . T h e
i de a th a t any s o ft w a r e m od i fi c a ti o ns m us t b e d is c los e d w i th e v ery o n e o n t h e
proj ec t is o ne of t he c om m u ni ty 's ru l es .

O S S d ev e lo p me n t h a s a ls o b e en des c ri b e d as a p hi l os op hy ra th er t ha n j us t a
me t ho d f or g en er at i ng ne w s of tw are . Ma ny pe o p le wh o pa rt ic ip a t e in o pe n s ourc e
c om m u ni t ies s e e it a s a m e th o d t o as s is t c iv i liz a ti o ns c h a ng e . A pac h e, a We b
ity

s erv e r proj ec t , M oz i ll a F ir ef ox , a br ows er, a n d Li n ux , a U n ix - l i k e o pe n s o urc e

op er at i n g s y s te m, ar e a ll w e l l - k no wn op e n s o urc e in i t ia t iv es .

Ho wev er , th i nk i ng of O S S as a m on o l it h ic mov e m en t i s an ov ers i mp l if ic a ti o n t ha t

rev e a ls l i tt l e a bo ut t he k in d o f us ers or us er an a ly s ts t h at ar e pr od uc i ng O S S
proj ec ts a n d on w h at b as is . Res e arc he rs rec en t ly c las s i f ie d op e n s o urc e
m

c om m u ni t ies in to f ou r ty p es —a d h oc , s t an d ard is e d, or g an is ed , a nd c o m me rc i a l —
a lo n g s ix d i ff er en t d i me ns i ons — ge n er al s t ruc t ur e, e nv ir on m e nt , a i ms , me t ho ds ,
us er c o m mu n ity , an d l ic e ns i ng —t o h el p u s be tt er c o mpr e he n d th e op e n s o urc e
mov e m en t. So m e s c h o lar s s ay t h at O S S i s a t a fo rk in t h e r o ad , a nd t h at b ot h
)A

c om m erc i al a n d c o mm un i ty O S S gr o ups n e e d to i d en t ify w h ere t h ey i nt ers ec t a nd

wh er e c o nf l ic t c a n ar is e.

Ma ny pr ogr a m mes t h at r u n o n m any t ec h no l o gi es , s uc h as mo b il e dev ic es an d

c om m u nic a ti o n eq u i p me n t, b en ef i t fr o m o pe n s o urc e d ev e l o pm en t. Its us e may
(c

dr iv e t he d ev e l o pm e nt of s t an d ards t ha t a ll o w d ev ic es t o c om m u nic a te m or e
s i mp ly . W id es pr e a d us e o f O S S c ou l d he l p a ll ev i at e s om e of t he s ev ere
pro gr a mm i n g s h or ta g e s by p ut t in g pr ogr a m m in g t o o ls i n th e ha n ds o f s t u de nts i n
dev e l op i ng c o un tr ies s oo n er t ha n if t h ey w er e l i m it e d to pr opr i et ar y p ac k ag es , a nd
 it c o ul d l ea d t o la r ge - s c a l e pr o b le m s ol v i ng thr o ug h i nt ens e an d ex t ens iv e
c o ll a bo ra t io n.

e
lin
3. 1. 5 Ro le of Sy st em Ana l yst

By s tu dy i ng t he i n p u tt i ng a nd p roc es s in g of d at a as we l l as t he o ut p ut t in g of
i nf or ma t io n w it h t he go a l o f en h anc i n g or ga n is at i on a l pr oc es s e s , t h e s y s te ms
an a ly s t c ar ef u l ly ex am i n es h o w p e o pl e i nt er ac t w it h t ec h no l o gy a n d ho w

On
bus i n es s es fu nc ti o n. Ma ny of t h e a dv an c es i nv o lv e th e us e of c om p ut er is ed
i nf or ma t io n s y s te ms t o be tt er as s is t us ers ' w ork du t ies a n d b us i nes s pr oc es s es .
Th is c onc e pt e m ph a s is es a r ig or ous , s y s te m at ic a ppr o ac h t o a na ly z i ng — an d
po t en t ia l ly i m pr ov i n g —w h at is h a pp e ni n g i n t h e un i q ue c o nt e x t ex per i e nc e d by
us ers an d g e ner at e d b y a c o m pa ny .

As a r es ul t, o ur d ef i n i ti o n of a s y s t ems a n al y s t mus t be w i de . T h e a na ly s t mus t be

ty
ab l e t o wo r k w i th p eo p le of v ar i o us ty p es a nd h av e pr ev i ous c o m pu t er s k il ls . T he
an a ly s t f i l ls a v ar ie ty of f unc t io ns , s o m et i m es j ug g l in g s ev era l a t onc e . C o ns u l ta n t,
s up p ort i n g ex p er t , a n d c ha n ge a ge n t ar e th e thr e e pr i m ary f u nc t i on s of th e s y s te ms
an a ly s t .

S yst em s An a ly st a s Con sul t an t

si
As a s y s t e ms c o ns u l t an t t o i nd iv i du a ls a n d t he ir en ter pr is es , t h e s y s t ems an a ly s t
may be rec r u i te d p ar t ic ul ar ly t o ad dr es s i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems d i ff i c u lt i es wi t hi n a
er
c om p any . Suc h h ir i n g m ig ht b e a dv a nt a g eo u s s inc e o u ts i d e c o ns ul ta nts c an br in g a
fres h v i ew po i nt t o a n or ga n is a t io n th a t o t her e m p loy e es d o no t h av e. O u ts i d e
an a ly s t s ar e a ls o a t a d is adv a nt a ge b ec a us e th ey w i l l n ev er be aw ar e o f t h e
ge n u in e or g a n is a t io n a l c ul t ur e . Y ou w i ll re ly l arg e ly on t he s y s t e ma t ic ap pr oac h es
me n ti o n ed t hr o ug h ou t t h is c o ur s e as a n ou ts i d e c o ns ul t an t t o a n a ly s e an d c r ea te
iv

ap pr o pri a te in for m at i o n s y s te ms f or us ers o per a ti n g i n a s p ec i f ic f ir m. Fu rt her m or e,

y ou wi l l r e ly o n i nf or m at i on s y s te ms us ers to as s is t y o u i n c om pr eh en d i ng c om p a ny
c u lt ure f ro m t he p er s p ec t iv e of ot hers .
Un

S yst em s An a ly st a s Sup po rt in g E xp er t

A no th er fu nc t i o n y o u may b e c a l l ed up o n t o f i l l is th at of a s up por t in g s pec i a l is t

wi t hi n a c o m pa ny w he r e y o u ar e fr e qu e nt ly work i n g in a s y s t e ms c ap ac ity . In t h is
fu nc t i o n, t he a n aly s t dr a ws o n pr o f es s i o n al k n ow l ed g e of c o m pu t er ha rd wa re a n d
s of tw ar e, as w e ll as t h e ir ap p l ic a t io ns i n t he w ork p l ac e . T h is work i s fr eq u en t ly no t
a fu l l- fl e dg e d s y s te ms pr oj ec t, b u t r at h er a ti ny c h an g e or d ec is i o n th at a ff ec ts a
ity

par t ic u l ar d e par t me n t.

Y ou are no t m an a g in g th e pr oj ec t as a s up p ort i n g s pec i a l is t ; i ns t e ad , y o u ar e

ac t i ng as a r es o ur c e f or t h os e w h o ar e. M a n y of y o ur ev ery d ay re s po ns i bi l i ti es m ay
be c ov ere d by t h is f un c ti o n i f y ou work as a s y s te ms an a ly s t for a ma n uf ac t ur i ng or
m

s erv ic e c o m p any .

S yst em s An a ly st a s Age nt of Ch ang e

Th e s y s t e ms a na ly s t's m os t ex te ns iv e an d r es p o ns ib l e fu nc t i o n, w he t he r i n ter n a l or
)A

ex t er na l t o t h e or ga n i s at i on , is th a t of a c h an g e a g en t. W he n y o u ex ec u t e a ny o f
th e ac t iv it i es i n t h e s y s te ms d ev e l op m e nt l if e c y c l e ( d es c r ib e d i n t h e fo l l ow i ng
s ec t i on) a n d ar e pr e s en t an d i nt erac t i ng wi t h us ers an d th e c om p any f or an
ex t e nd e d p er i od o f t i m e as a n a na ly s t, y o u a re an a ge n t o f c h an g e (fro m tw o we ek s
to m ore th a n a y e ar ) . A n a g en t o f c h a n ge i s s om e on e wh o ac ts as a c at a ly s t f or
c ha n ge , c r e a tes a s tr at e gy fo r c h an g e, an d c o l l ab or at es w it h o th ers t o m ak e i t
(c

ha p pe n .
 Y our pr es e nc e in th e c om p any h as a n i mp a c t. As a s y s te ms an a l y s t, y ou m us t be
aw ar e of t h is a n d us e i t as a be g i nn i ng po i nt f or y o ur i nv es t i g at i on . As a r es ul t,

e
fro m th e s t ar t of y o ur pr oj ec t , y ou m us t i nt er ac t wi t h us ers an d m an a ge m en t
(as s u m i ng th ey ar e n o t o ne a nd t h e s a m e). Y ou wo n' t b e a b l e t o c om pr e he n d w ha t
pe o p le n ee d to s u pp o r t t he ir w or k in th e c o mp a ny w i th o ut th e ir h e lp , a n d g e n ui n e

lin
c ha n ge w o n' t ha p pe n .

If c h a ng e a p pe ar s t o b e n ec es s ary af ter a na ly s is , th e n ex t s ta g e is t o c re at e a
c ha n ge p l a n w i th t h e pe o p le w ho w i l l be re s po ns i bl e f or pu tt i n g i t in to ac t io n . Y ou
mus t c o ns t a nt ly i nt er a c t w i th t h os e w h o ar e c h an g i ng o nc e a c o n s ens us h as b ee n

On
ac h i ev ed o n t h e c h a n ge t ha t h as to b e m a de . . Y o u pr o m ot e a c ert a in av e nu e of
c ha n ge v ia t he u t il is at i on o f in f or m a ti o n s y s te ms as a s y s te ms a n a ly s t fu nc ti o n in g
as a c h an g e a ge n t. Y o u s h ou l d a ls o tra i n us ers a bo u t th e c h an g e proc es s , b ec a us e
c ha n ges in th e i nf or m at i on s y s t e m d o n ot h ap p en in a v ac uu m ; r a th er, t h ey tr ig g er
c ha n ges t hr o ug h ou t th e b us i n es s .

Q ua lit ie s of t he S y st em s An al y st

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It is c le ar fr om th e a b ov e d ef i n it i ons o f t he t as k s p l ay ed by s y s te m s an a ly s ts t ha t a
go o d s y s t ems an a ly s t m us t p os s es s a d iv e rs e s e t o f at tr i bu tes . B ec a us e s y s t ems
an a ly s ts c o m e in m a n y s h ap es an d s iz es , a ny des c r i pt i o n is b o un d t o fa l l s h o rt i n

si
s om e w ay . Ho wev er , th er e ar e s o me c ha ra c ter is tic s th at mos t s y s te ms a n aly s ts
ap p ea r t o p os s es s .

Th e a n aly s t is , ab ov e al l , a pr ob l e m s o lv er . H e or s h e is a p ro b le m - s o lv er wh o
er
ap pr ec ia t es th e c ha l l en g e o f a n aly s i n g d if fic u lt i es a n d c o m in g up w it h pr ac t ic a l
ans w ers . W he n ap pr o pr ia te , t h e a n aly s t mu s t b e a b le t o a pp ly to o ls , t ec hn i q ues ,
an d ex p er i enc e to s y s te m at ic al ly a ddr es s th e s it ua t io n at h an d . T he a na ly s t mus t
a ls o be a c o m m un ic a tor wh o c a n ma i nt a i n me a ni n gf u l re l at i o ns h ips wi t h o th ers
iv

ov er l o ng p e r i o ds o f t i me . Sy s t e ms a n aly s ts mus t b e ab l e t o c o m pre h e nd hu m a ns '

ne e ds wh i l e e ng a g in g w it h tec h no l o gy , as we l l as h av e s u ff ic ie n t c om p ut er
k no w le d ge t o pr o gr a m me , c o mpr e he n d c o mp u ter c a p a bi l i ti es , e lic i t i nf or ma t io n
req u ir e me nts fr om us er s , a nd c o mm u n ic a te w h at is r eq u ir ed to pro gr a mm ers . T o
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as s is t t he m s h a pe t h e ir c l ie n t c on n ec t i ons , t h ey m us t a ls o hav e s tro n g pe rs o n al

an d pr of es s i on a l e th ic s .

Th e s y s te ms an a ly s t mus t b e s e l f - d is c i p li n e d a nd s e lf - m ot iv at ed , wi t h th e a b i l ity t o
ma n ag e an d c oor d i na t e a l ar g e nu m b er o f p eo p l e a n d pr oj ec t r es ourc es . Sy s t ems
an a ly s is is a t ou g h p r of es s io n , b ut it is a l s o o ne th at is a l way s d ev e lo p in g an d
c ha l l en g i ng .
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3. 1. 6 Att ri but es of Sy st e m An al y st

A s y s t e m a na ly s t is s om e on e w h o u nd er ta k es a s y s t e ma t ic s tu dy a nd r ev ie w o f
m

nu m er ous p ar ts of c o mp a ny i n or der t o es ta b l is h d es ir ed o bj ec t iv es an d d ev is e
proc e d ures t o ac h iev e t he m .
Th e s y s te m a n a ly s t p os s es s es a un i q ue s e t o f t al e nts , i nc lu d i ng c om m o n s e ns e , a
s y s te m at ic fr a me w or k , a n d a d is c i p l in e d a p p roac h t o p ro b le m s o lv i ng . As a res u lt ,
)A

th e a n aly s t m us t pos s es s a u n i qu e b l en d o f a b i l it i es , ex p er ie nc e, p ers on a l ity , a n d

c om m o n s ens e . B ec a us e a s y s t e m is t a il or ed t o a s p ec if ic us er, t he a n a ly s t m us t
be a b l e t o c o mm u n ic at e ef fec t iv e ly . T h e f o ll o wi n g are t h e v ari ous i n ter p ers on a l
s k i l ls th at a s y s te m a n a ly s t s h o ul d p os s es s :

1. Com mun ic at ion S ki ll s - A s y s t e m a n a ly s t s ho u l d b e ab l e t o art i c u la te a nd

(c

s pe ak c l e ar ly , as w e l l as h av e t h e a bi l i ty to work w i th pe o pl e a t a l l l ev els of
th e or ga n iz at i on 's m an ag e me n t.
2. Und er st and ing - A s y s te m an a ly s t s h o ul d be a b le t o rec o gn is e pr ob l ems
an d an a ly s e th e ir s ol ut i ons , h av e a fi rm gr as p of th e c om p any 's ai ms an d
 obj ec t iv es , be s e ns i tiv e t o th e s y s t em ' s i m pac t o n e mp l o y ees a n d
c om pr e he n d th e ir is s u es .
3. Te ac hin g and s e ll ing id e as — A s y s t e m a na ly s t s h ou l d b e a b le t o te ac h

e
ot h er s h o w t o us e c om pu t ers , as w e l l as s e l l i de as an d pro m ot e ad v anc es i n
c om p ut er - as s is t e d pr o b le m res o lu t io n .

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Th e v ar io us T EC HN IC A L S KI L L S th a t a s y s t em an a ly s t s ho u ld hav e ar e :

Cr e ati vit y – T h e a n al y s t s h ou l d b e c r ea t iv e t o h e l p t he us ers t o mo d e l i d eas i nt o

rea l p l a ns a nd d ev e lo p i ng c a n d id at e s y s t e ms t o m atc h us er r e qu ir e me n ts .

On
1. P rob le m sol vi ng and pro j ect m ana ge m en t - A s y s t em a n aly s t s ho u l d b e
c ap a b le o f s o lv i n g pr o b le ms , c o m i ng u p w it h a lt er na t e s ol u ti o ns , s c he d u li n g,
ov er c o m in g l i m its , or ga n is in g t ea m work , a nd k e e p in g tr ac k of c os ts a n d
ac c o u nts .
2. S yst em an al y st — In fu nc t i o na l s pec i fic a ti o ns a n d g en er a l d es ig n , a s y s t e m
an a ly s t s h ou l d h av e a g r e at c o mb i n at i on of bo t h t ec h n ic a l an d no n - t ec hn ic a l
s k i l ls . H e s h ou l d a ls o hav e a c ur i o us m in d a nd a qu es ti o n in g m e nt a li ty .

ty
3. Comp ut e r e xp ert i se - A s y s te m a na ly s t s h o ul d b e f a m il i ar wi t h t h e
fu n da m en t als of c o m p ut er s as w e l l as b us i n es s ac t iv i ti es .

A gr a ph d ep ic ti n g t he i mp or ta nc e of i nt er per s on a l a n d t ec h n ic a l ab i l i t i es fo r a g o od

si
s y s te m an a ly s t d ur i ng t he s y s te m d ev e lo p me n t p h as e is s ho w n b e lo w —
er
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Un
ity

In a d d it i on t o t hes e p e r s on a l s k i l ls , th e s y s t e m a na ly s t s h ou l d p os s es s a ppr o pr ia te
ac a d em ic qu a l if ic at i on s i n s y s t em an a ly s is a nd des i gn or ot h er c o mp u ter - re l at e d
m

de gr e es .

3. 1. 7 S oftw ar e d ev el o pme nt f i rm’ s r ol e in ER P /B us in es s Int e ll i gent Sy st em

)A

Ma ny f ir ms c ol l ec t h u ge a mo u nts of d a ta a nd i nf or ma t io n ev ery day as a r es u l t o f

th e ir b us i n es s o per a ti ons , w hic h c a n b e d if f ic ul t t o k ee p tr ac k of an d ev a lu a te . T o
s tor e t h e d a ta , t h ey us e d an d s ti l l us e a v ar ie ty o f le g ac y s o ft war e an d ma n ua l
s pre a ds he et s s uc h as M ic r os of t Ex c e l. T h e is s u e is th at th e pr oc e d ur e is t i me -
c ons u m in g , la b or - in te ns iv e , an d err or - p ro n e, a nd t he d at a is s tor e d in v ar i ous
(c

s of tw ar e.
 Co m pa n i es us e En t er p r is e R es o urc e P l an n i ng ( ER P) s o ft wa re to c e n tra l is e
i nf or ma t io n an d g a i n be tt er v is ib i l ity i nt o da ta . ER P s of tw ar e is a c e ntr a l is e d

e
bus i n es s m a na g em e n t s y s t em th a t i nt e gr at es a n d s tr e am l i nes al l ar eas of a
c om p any 's o pe r a t io ns , s uc h as p la n ni n g, pro c ure m e nt , s a les an d m ark e t in g , a nd s o
on . B ut w ha t go o d is hav i n g al l o f y our d a ta i n o n e p l ac e i f y o u c a n't us e i t t o g a in

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de e pe r i ns i g hts a n d m ak e bus i nes s dec is i on s ?

Th is is w h er e B us in e s s I nt e l li g e nc e ( BI) c om es in to p lay in an ER P. It e n ab l es
us ers to ac c es s a mas s iv e am o un t o f da t a a nd ef f ec t iv e ly an a ly s e b us in es s
proc es s i n for m at i o n i n or d er to mak e b et t er dec is i ons .

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Wh at i s Bu sin e ss I nt el lig en c e ( BI) ?

Forr es t er Res e ar c h c l ai ms th a t " B us i nes s i nt e ll i g enc e ( B I) is a c o l l ec t i o n o f

ap pr o ac h es , pr oc es s es , a r c h i tec tu res , and tec h no l o gy f or tr ans f orm i n g
uns tr uc t ur ed da t a i nt o ac t i on a bl e in f or ma t io n. I t e n a bl es bus i ne s s us ers to m ak e

ty
i nf or me d d ec is io ns b a s ed on r ea l - t i me da ta , w h ic h c an he l p a c om pa ny s t ay a h ea d
of t h e c om p et i ti o n."

It prov i d es a de t a il e d an d c om pr eh e ns iv e p ic t ure o f t he c o mp a n y 's h is t or ic al a nd

si
c urr en t d at a i n pr ac t is e. It ai ds i n t he r e duc ti o n o f i n ef f ic ie nc ies , th e id e nt if ic at i o n
of m ark et tr e nds , a n d th e s m oo t her r un n i ng of o p era t i ons .

Wh y Bu si ne s s Int el li gen c e in E R P?
er
In E R P s y s te ms , bus i nes s i n te l l ig e nc e en ab l es a n org a n is a t io n t o ex a m in e a n d
ex p l o it h u ge da t a c a pt ur ed by th e E R P s of tw ar e. T he BI s o f tw are t ak es t he
i nf or ma t io n, an a ly s es i t, a n d pr es e nts it i n a us a b l e an d u n ders t an d ab l e s ty le .
Th e fo l l ow i ng ar e s om e of t h e m os t i m p ort a n t as p ec ts of BI :
iv

Dat a An al y si s: Da t a c o ll ec te d fr om v ar i o us o per a t io ns o f a c om p any is us e d t o

ev a l u at e a n d dr iv e m an a ge m e nt c h o ic es , a nd it is o n e o f t he ba s ic as p ec ts of
BI .
Un

Leg a cy Dat a: W it h t h e h e lp of a r el i a bl e BI s ol u ti o n, l eg ac y da ta ga t her e d fr o m

ma ny o t her pr oc es s es or ap p l ic a t io ns c a n b e pr op er ly ex a m in e d. I t's d if f ic u l t t o
ex p l a in ol d d at a w i th o ut a dec e nt B I t oo l .
Tr end s & P at t e rn s: W i th t he a p pr opr i at e t o o ls i n pl ac e, b u s i nes s es c a n
unc ov er tr en ds a nd pa tt er ns in t h e ir d at a a n d m ak e f as t er d ec is io n s .

Bus in e ss In t e ll ig en c e F e at u r es
ity

To day 's m ar k et of f er s a v as t s el ec ti o n of bus i nes s i nt e l l ig e nc e s of t war e wi t h a w id e

ran g e of a pp l ic at i ons . Al l o f t h es e s o ft w are s o l ut i o ns c o m e wi t h a s l e w o f
c ap a b il i t ies th at h el p or g an is at i ons m ak e b et te r, f as t er , a n d m or e i nf or m ed
dec is i ons at a l l l ev e ls .
m

Ac c ord i n g to S el ec t Hu b' s s t u di es , th e gr ap h b e l ow d e p ic ts t h e to p Bus i n es s

In te l l i ge nc e e le m en ts t ha t b uy er s des ir e.
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On
ty
si
er
Sou r c e: S e lec tH u b
iv

Da shb oa rd s:
Th e i nt era c t iv e das h b oar ds ar e i n c h ar ge o f pr ov id i n g bus i n es s es wi t h ins i g hts t ha t
th ey h av e n ev er ha d b ef or e. T h es e das h bo ar ds g iv e d ec is i o n - m ak ers a m ore
Un

ho l is tic v ie w of t h e f ir m by a l lo w in g t he m to as s es s d a ta fr o m ma n y v i ew p o in ts w it h
j us t a f ew c l ic k s .
To n a me a f e w adv a nt ag es :
• Da ta is e as i ly ac c es s i b le a n d us ef u l.
• Pr ov id es c o m pl e te f l ex i bi l i ty for b us i nes s ex p ans i o n.
ity

Dat a V i sua liz at ion s:

Th e tec h n iq u e of pr es e n ti n g d at a i n a gra p h ic a l f or ma t is k no w n as d at a
v is ua l is at i on . B ec aus e v is ua l in fo rm a ti o n i s pr oc es s e d 6 0, 0 00 t i mes f as t er t h an
tex t, p e op l e a t a ll lev e ls o f t h e or ga n is at i on are mor e l ik e ly t o abs orb it .
A to o l th at c a n t ur n da ta f r o m nu m be r s o n a s pre a ds h e et to m e an i n gf u l
m

v is ua l is at i ons is a p op u lar mo t iv a to r f or a be g in n in g i n Bus i nes s I n te l l ig e nc e .

Th e fo l l ow i ng ar e s om e of t h e a dv a nt a ges of d at a v is u a lis a ti o n:

•
)A

Q u ic k d at a a bs or p ti o n i nc r e as es i ns ig hts an d s p e eds u p d ec is io n - m ak in g.
• Da ta is s i mp l e t o g et a nd c om pr eh e nd .
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 Rep or tin g:
Re p ort i ng is a s ubs e t o f B us i n es s In te l l i ge nc e t h at v is u a lis es d a ta i n t he f or m of

e
ta b les , gr ap hs , an d c har ts . BI r e p ort i ng a n a ly s es d at a m or e pre c is ely f or e as ier
c om pr e he ns io n .
Sc orec ar ds , das h bo ar ds , K PI me tr ic s , O L A P, ad hoc qu er i es , an d ot h er b us in es s

lin
rep or t in g t o o ls t ha t pr ov i d e v a l u e t o s u m mar is e t h e p as t i n c l ud e s c orec ar ds ,
das h bo ar ds , K PI m e tr i c s , O L A P, a d h oc q uer i es , a n d s o o n.
B us i n es s In t e ll i g enc e Re p or t i ng 's A dv a n ta g e s :
• Da ta qu a l ity is i mpr ov ed .
• Th e pu r c h as e pr oc e d u r e is m a de eas i er.

On
P re di cti v e An al yt i c s:

Da ta , s t at is t ic a l a lg or it h ms , a nd m ac h i ne l ear n i ng a ppr o ac h es are c o mb i n ed i n

pre d ic t iv e a n a ly s is t o pr ov i de im pr ov ed ins i gh ts i nt o t he fu tur e ou tc om e o f d at a
bas e d on p r i or d at a. I t's no t s o m uc h a b ou t w ha t ha p pe n ed as it is a b ou t why i t

ty
ha p pe n ed an d w ha t m i gh t h ap p en in t h e fu t u re.

Pr ed ic t iv e a n a ly t ic s h a s t he f o l lo w in g a dv an t ag es :

•
•
si
Im pr ov es pa tt er n r ec o gn i t io n a nd de te rs c r i m in a l ac t iv i ty .
As s is ts b us i nes s es i n at trac t in g , r et a in i n g, a n d gro w in g t he ir c o ns u m er
bas e .
er
Bus in e ss In t e ll ig en c e T ool s an d P latf or m s
Th e s y s t ems , s o ft wa r e, an d a p ps t ha t s tr iv e t o l oc at e, r etr i ev e, an d a n a ly s e d at a
are k n ow n as bus i nes s i nt e l l ig e nc e t o o ls . T h er e ar e n u me ro us bus i n es s
iv

i nt e ll i g enc e s ol u ti o ns av a i l ab l e t o as s is t y ou d is c ov er pa tt er ns an d ge t i ns i gh ts
fro m y o ur d at a i n or d e r t o m ak e s tr a te g ic a n d tac t ic a l d ec is io ns .
Th e G art ne r M a g ic Q u adr a nt is th e p in n ac le of res e arc h i n a c e rt a in m ark e t,
prov i d i ng y o u w i th a b r oa d v ie w of t h e m ark et's r iv als . Th e a n a ly t i c s a n d b us i n es s
Un

i nt e ll i g enc e p l at for ms ar e r epr es e nt ed in t h is 2 0 20 M a g ic Q u adr a nt .

Her e ar e a f ew B us i nes s I nt e l l ig e nc e t o o l s t o he l p y o u i mpr o v e y ou r dec is i on -

mak i n g a nd s oc i a l c o l l ab or at i o n ab i l it i es :

Mi c ro soft P ow er B I :
ity

M ic ros o ft P ow er B I is a pr e m i er bus i nes s i n t e ll i g enc e p la tf or m th at c o mb i n es d a ta

pre p ar at i on , v is u a l d at a dis c ov er y , i n ter ac t iv e das h bo ar ds , a nd e n ha nc ed a n aly t ic s
i nt o a s i ng l e of f er i n g. Th is t oo l c o m b in e s d at a fro m a v ar i et y o f s ourc es t o
ge n er at e in t er ac t iv e , i m mer s iv e das h bo ar ds an d r e por ts th at d e l iv e r c o mpr e h ens iv e
m

i nf or ma t io n w hi l e a ls o dr iv i n g b us in es s o utc o mes .

M ic ros o ft BI is av a i l a b le as a c l ou d - b as e d Sa a S s o lu t i o n o r as an on - pr e m is e
s o lu t io n i n P o wer BI R ep or t S er v e r.
)A

Ac c ord i n g t o t he G ar tn er r es e ar c h, d ec o m pos i t io n tr e e gr a ph ic s , L i nk e dI n da t a
c on n ec t iv ity , a n d g eo gr a ph ic m a pp i n g en h anc e m en ts ar e am o ng th e n ew
c ap a b il i t ies a d d ed t o M ic r os o ft B I rec e nt ly .
(c
 Tab le au :
Ta bl e a u's g oa l is t o pr ov id e a s im p l e , dy n a m ic , v is u a l - ba s ed ex p l or at i on

e
ex p er i enc e t ha t a ll o w s b us in es s us ers to ac c es s , pr ep ar e, a n a l y s e, a n d pres e nt
da t a r es u l ts w it ho u t r eq u ir i ng a ny t ec h n ic a l k no w le d ge or s c r i pt i ng . Ta b le a u's
s of tw ar e is m os t ly us ed o n- pr e m is es . I t c a n b e us e d as a s t an d - a l o ne d es k t op

lin
ap p l ic a t io n or as pa r t of a c on te n t s har i n g s erv e r.
• Des k to p v er s i o n of T a b le a u ( for any o ne)
• Ta bl e a u S er v er ( an a ly tic s f or b us in es s es ), w h ic h is i ns t a ll e d l oc al l y .
• O n l in e Ta b l ea u ( h os t e d a na ly tic s f or or g an iz at i ons ) .

On
Ta bl e a u O n l in e is a c l ou d - b as e d s o ft war e a s a s erv ic e ( S aa S) pr od uc t. Ac c or d i ng
to T a bl e au 's c us to m e r r ep or t, t h e c o mp a n y 's ov er a l l rev e nu e i nc re as e d by 1 4
perc e nt fro m th e f ir s t s ix m o nt hs of 20 1 8 t o th e f irs t s ix m on t hs o f 2 0 1 9, br in g i ng i t
to s li g ht ly ov er $ 9 00 m il l i o n.

Q li k Vi ew :

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In t h e Ma g ic Q u a dr an t 20 2 0, Q l ik is t he c le ar l ea d er. V is u a l iz a t io ns , d as hb o ar ds ,
an d ap ps ar e a l l pos s i b le w it h t h is t ec hn o l o gy . Q l ik V i ew a ls o h as s om e i nt er es t i ng
fe at ur es , s uc h as :

fl ex i bl e .
si
S i mp l e dr a g - an d- dr op in t er f ac es f or c r ea t in g dy n am ic d at a v is u a l is at i ons th a t ar e

• Na tur a l s e ar c h m ak es it eas i er to nav i g at e c om p l ex d at a.

er
• It res p on ds t o a l l c ha n ges in a ti m e ly m an n er .
• Mu l t ip l e d at a s o ur c es an d f i le k in ds ar e re i nf orc e d by Q l ik Vi e w.
• Th e t ec h n o l ogy a ls o ens ur es t h at d at a a n d c on te n t a re s ec ur e ac r os s a l l
dev ic es .
iv

Cus to m ers g en er a lly us e d i t f or d ec e n tra l i s ed a n a ly t ic s ( 7 0 p er c en t) a nd a g i le

c en tr al is e d BI pr ov is i o n in g ( 6 6 perc e nt) , ac c ord i n g t o t he G a rt ner rep or t. Q lik a ls o
bo u gh t P od i u m Da ta i n J uly 2 0 18 t o ex pa n d its d at a m an a g em e nt c a pa b i l it i es . I n
Un

J an u ary 20 1 9, Q l ik pur c h as ed Cr unc h D at a, a c o mp a ny t h at s pec i a l is es i n

c onv ers at i o na l a n aly t i c s .

SA S:

In t he Ma g ic Q u adr a n t 20 2 0, S A S is a f or e run n er. I t is a s e lf - s e rv ic e ap p l ic a t io n

ity

th at a ll o ws us er s t o m an i p ul a te da t a a nd a n a ly t ic s i n ord er t o mak e b et te r b us in es s
dec is i ons . S A S' s o p h is t ic at ed pr e d ic t iv e an a ly s is is o ne o f i ts mos t po p u lar
fe at ur es . S A S V iy a a l s o h as V is ua l An a ly t i c s . S A S V is ua l An a ly tic s is g en er a lly
us e d on - pr e m is es , b u t i t is a ls o av a i l ab l e i n t h e c l o ud a n d t hro u gh o th er hos t in g
c ho ic es .
m

Ac c ord i n g to G ar tn er 's 20 2 0 f orec as t , SA S i m pr ov e d its a u g me n te d a n a ly t ic s

c ap a b il i t ies i n 2 0 19 . I t n ow fe at ur es AI - dr iv en d at a pr e par a ti o n a dv ic e as w e ll as
au t om at ic fo r ec as ts w i th " w h at i f?" S A S has a ls o i mp rov e d t he l oc at i on i nt e l l ig e nc e
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c ap a b il i t ies o f V is u al A na ly tic s an d re l e as e d a n e w SD K .

Ben ef its of B us in es s Int ell ig en ce i n E R P S yst e ms

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 B us i n es s i nt e l li g enc e' s u lt i m at e pu rp os e is to a n aly s e , c om pr eh e nd , a nd m ak e k ey
dec is i ons b as e d on d at a. E n d - us ers c an c l os e ly ex am i n e d at a a nd c o nv er t it i nt o

e
me a n in g fu l k n ow l e dg e us i ng BI in te gr at e d E RP s of tw ar e.
To b et te r gr as p t h e be ne f its , l et's lo ok a t In 4 S ui t e® , a B I i nt e gr at e d E R P s of tw ar e.
(a) C us to m iz ab l e Re p or t G en er at i on

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Th e c r e at i o n of r ep or ts is t he f irs t s t e p i n t he da ta pr oc e s s i ng proc es s . It
rep res e nts da ta i n m u lt i p le l ev e ls of i nt erac t iv ity , i nc l ud i ng dr i l l - d o wn , s or t in g, a nd
fi l ter i n g c h o ic es . T h e r e a r e a ls o s o m e ex t ra o p t io ns t h at a l lo w th e en d - us e r t o
ta i l or th e d at a f or d e e per ins i g hts .

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(b) I nt er ac t iv e D as h b oar d Cr e at i on
W ha t's t he s t at us o f y our le a ds th is m o nt h ? Hav e y o u no t ic e d a d e c reas e i n s a l es ?
If t h at's t he c as e, w h y di d it fa l l ? A ll of t h es e q ues t io ns s ho u l d be a ns w er ed by
y ou .
In 4 Su i te ® c a n d ev e lo p i nt er ac t iv e d as hb o ard s th at c a n be c us t o m i s ed ac c or di n g t o
th e n e eds of t h e us er . T he s of tw ar e of f ers a dr a g - an d- dro p f e at ur e t ha t i nc r eas es
y our c om p any 's o per at i on a l a nd c os t e ff ic ie n c i es .

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(c ) R e al- T im e L o ok At Th e Da ta
Th e n ic es t p ar t a b o ut B I s o ft war e t ha t's in te g r at ed wi t h an ER P s y s t em is th a t

dec is i ons .
si
ma n ag ers c an s e e d at a i n r e a l t i me , wh i c h m ak es it eas i er f or t he m t o m ak e

Co ns id er t he c as e o f a p iec e o f s of tw ar e l ik e In 4 S ui t e® . If t he C E O w an ts t o k no w
ho w m any le a ds wer e c r e at e d th is m o nt h, he c a n g o s tra i g ht t o t he d as hb o ar d ,
er
wh ic h d is pl ay s t h e m on t hly c us t o mer c ou nt , ex p l a na t io n p o i nts , l ea d a g e in g, le a d
i nt eres t i n pr oj ec t - w is e a na ly s is , an d ov er a l l l e ad c onv ers io n . T h i s i n for m at i on wi l l
a id in th e id e nt if ic at i on of pa tt er ns a n d p ot e nt i al for pr oc es s i mp rov e me n t i n a
l on g- t er m r es e ar c h .
iv

(d) M ov in g B ey on d El e me n tar y R e po rt i ng
A no th er ar ea w her e BI s of tw ar e c a n hav e a t rans f orm a tiv e ef f ec t o n t h e b us in es s is
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rep or t in g f unc t io ns . I n4 S u it e ® s e ek s t o prov i d e us e rs w i t h a m ore dy n a mic

env ir o nm e nt in w h ic h t hey c an c h a ng e d at a a s n e ed e d.
Us ers c a n a ls o ex po r t da ta fr o m be h i nd th e c har ts t o M ic r os of t E x c e l i n r ea l t i m e
us in g t he BI s o ft w ar e . I n4 S u it e ® c a n a ls o b e us ed t o c o py gr ap hs a n d c har ts t o a
P ow er po i nt p r es e nt at i on in r ea l t i me an d k e ep it u p da t ed .
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( e) C os t R ed uc ti o n
Th ere ar e c os ts c o nn ec t e d w it h th e o per a ti on a n d i ns ta l l at i on o f BI , bu t t h e r et ur n
on i nv es t m en t is s u ff ic ie n t t o j us t ify th e i nv es t me nt . D a ta c o ll ec ti n g, r e po rt
ge n er at i ng , pr ogr a m mi ng , a nd I T tra i n in g ex p en d it ur es ar e a l l r e duc ed .
m

(f) M in i m iz es T h e R is k
Na tur a l ly , any or g a n i s at i on en t ai ls s om e r is k , bu t B I re p ort i n g to o ls c a n as s is t
m it i ga te t h os e r is k s . Th e B I tec h n ol o g ies ac c o mp l is h th is by g iv i n g r e al - t i me ,
hy p er - ac c ur a t e r ep or t s a nd as s is t in g e nt er pr is es in f u lly c om pr e he n d in g t he d at a .
)A

In t h e en d , it ai ds i n t he el i m i na t io n o f th e n ee d f or g ues s w ork .

Futu re of Bu si ne s s I nt e lli ge nc e
W h il e w e s p ec u l at e o n t he f ut ur e o f B I, i t is c rit ic a l to r em e m ber t h a t t h e s c o pe of
B us i n es s In t e ll i g enc e s of tw ar e is c o nt i n ua l ly ex p an d in g . In t h e ne a r f ut ur e, BI t oo ls
(c

wi l l b ec om e m or e c o l l ab or at iv e, mak i ng c o ll ab or at i n g eas i er.

 Th ir d- p ar ty s y s te ms w i l l i nc r e as i ng ly b e c o n n ec t e d wi t h BI , m ak in g da t a proc es s i ng
an d res p on d i ng t o ac ti on a b le ins i g hts e as ier . Th e t ec h n o lo gy i n fras truc tu re w i l l b e

e
ab l e t o ha n d le a b ig v o lu m e of d a ta an d w i ll be ab l e to s up p ort b us i nes s
i nt e ll i g enc e s y s t ems b et ter .

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3. 1. 8 S A P, O RA CL E, BA AN , P EO PL E SO F T, M IC RO SO FT and G O O G LE rol e in
ER P /B us in es s Int e ll i gent Sy st em

SA P

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W ha t d oes t h e ac r ony m S A P s t an d f or?
W he n tr ans l at e d, t he or i gi n a l na m e f or S A P is Sy s te m A n aly s is an d Pr o gr am
Dev e lo p m en t, a nd i t i s i n it i at ed as S A P . Be c aus e S A P is an i n it i a l ra t her t ha n a n
ac ro ny m, it is pr on o u nc e d as in d iv id u a l l et t ers r a th er t ha n as t h e w or d " s ap ." Th e
" S E" i n S A P SE r e f er s t o S oc ie t as E ur op a ea , w hic h is an a l og o us to I nc . i n th e
Un i te d S ta t es .

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S A P S E is a m ul t in a ti on a l s o ft war e c o m pa n y t ha t is a mark e t l ea der in t h e f ie l d of
en t erpr is e r es our c e p l an n i ng ( ER P) . T he c o mp a ny no w h as c us t o me rs in ov er 1 80
c ou n tri es , w it h t he m aj or i ty of th e m b ei n g s m a l l a nd me d i um - s iz ed bus i nes s es
(S M B). S A P d at a c e ntr es pr ov i de o n - pr e m is es , c l o ud , a n d h y br id de p l oy m e nt

si
mo d e ls , w it h c lo u d c o mp u ti n g p os s ib i l it i es b e in g a f oc us f or t h e c o mp a ny 's f ut ur e.

W ha t ex ac t ly is S A P E RP ( en t er pr is e res o urc e p la n n in g) ?
er
S A P S E is a le a d in g pr ov i d er o f e nt er pr is e res o urc e p la n n in g ( E RP ) s of tw ar e a n d
re la te d b us in es s s o lu ti o ns . C us t o mers c a n us e t h e c om p any 's ER P s y s t e m t o
ha n d le a l l o f t he ir bu s i nes s pr oc es s es in o ne p lac e , i nc l ud i ng a c c ou n ti n g, s a les ,
pro d uc t i o n, h u m an r es our c es , a nd f in a nc e . I t's a ls o re g ard e d as t he fo u nd a ti o n o f
iv

S A P's s o ft war e s o l ut i o ns .
Th e i nt erf ac e h e lps i mp os e f in a nc ia l , pr oc ed ur a l, a n d l e ga l c o n tro ls by ens ur i ng
th at i n for m at i o n f l ows fr o m o n e S A P c o m p on e nt t o an ot h er wi t h ou t th e n ee d for
red u n da nt d a ta e ntr y . It a ls o m ak es i t e as i er to m ak e th e m os t us e o f r es ourc es
Un

l ik e la b ou r , m ac hi n es , an d pr o duc t io n c a p ac i t y .

S A P E R P s o ft war e i s m a de up of s ev er a l k ey m o du l es t ha t ar e d iv i de d in to
fu nc t i o n a l a nd t ec h n i c a l c a te g or ies . T h e f o ll o wi n g are s o m e o f S A P's fu nc ti o na l
mo d u les :

•
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Hu m an C a p it a l M an a g em e nt ( S A P HC M)
• Pr od uc ti o n P l an n i ng ( S A P P P)
• Ma t er ia ls M a na g e me nt ( S A P MM)
• Pr oj ec t Sy s te m ( SA P P S)
m

• S al es a n d D is tr i bu t io n ( S A P SD)
• P la n t M ai n te n anc e ( S A P P M)
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• Fi na nc e a nd c on tr o l l i n g ( S A P FI CO )
• Q u al i ty M an a ge m e nt ( S A P Q M)
Th e S A P E R P s of tw ar e s y s te m , a ls o k n o wn as S A P E R P Ce n tra l C om p on e nt ( S A P
EC C) , is t he u m br el l a ter m f or S A P's f u nc t i o na l a n d tec h no l o g ic a l c om p on e nts t h at
(c

a ll o w bus i n es s es t o m an a ge t h e ir b us i n es s p roc es s es t hr ou g h a s i n g le s y s t e m.
EC C is S A P's o n - p r e m is es v er s io n , wh ic h is ty p ic a lly us e d i n m e di um - an d l ar g e -
s iz ed b us i nes s es . S A P 's Bus i n es s O n e E RP pro d uc t is d es i g ne d f o r s m a l l
bus i n es s es .
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ty
si
Th is d ia gr a m d ep ic ts S A P's f unc t io n a l an d t ec h n o lo g ic a l mo d ul es .

Cros s - a pp l ic at i o n c o m po n en ts , s uc h as c or por a te doc u m en t m a n ag e me n t s y s t ems

an d pro d uc t l if ec y c le ma n ag e m en t ( PL M) , a re av a i la b l e i n S A P a nd c a n b e us e d
er
wi t h any of t he c or e m od u l es .

Wh at i s th e SA P E R P sy st em a nd how do e s it w or k?
iv

A t hr ee- t ie r , c l ie nt - s er v e r d es ig n is c o m mo n f or S A P E R P s y s t e ms . T h is
c on f ig ur at i o n i s pr e fer r ed s i nc e it a l lo ws f or gr ea ter f l ex i b i l ity a nd s c a la b i l ity . T he
pres e nt at i o n t i er , a pp l ic at i on t ier , an d da t a bas e ti er ar e t h e t hr e e lev e ls us e d by
S A P E R P s of tw ar e.
Un

Th e pres e nt at i o n ti er de l iv er s th e S A P gr a p h ic a l us er i nt er fac e t o th e us er ( S A P
G UI) . Th e S A P G U I c an be ins t al l e d on e it her a M ic r os o ft W i nd o ws or a M ac
c om p ut er . T he S A P G UI s er v es as a p o in t of c o nt ac t b et w ee n us ers an d th e S A P
ER P s y s t e m.
ity

Th e S AP E R P s y s t e m' s ap p l ic at i on t ier is i ts he ar t. Pr oc es s i n g c l i en t tr a ns ac t i ons ,

i mp l e me nt i n g b us i n es s l o g ic , r un n in g r ep ort s , m on i tor i n g d at ab as e ac c es s , p ri n ti n g
j obs , a nd c o n nec t i ng wi t h ot h er a pp l ic at i ons ar e a l l h an d l ed by t h i s l ay er.

B ot h bus i n es s - g e ne r a te d d at a an d S A P a p p lic a ti o n pr ogr a mm e s ar e k ep t i n th e

da t ab as e ti er .
m

W he n t h e a p pl ic at i o n a n d pr es e n ta t io n ti ers c ol l a bor a te , t he a p p l ic a t io n t i er
rec e iv es t h e d at a a n d s en ds it t o t h e pr es en t at i on t ier . Th e ou t pu t wi l l be d is p l ay e d
i n t he S A P G UI d ur i ng t he pr es e n ta t io n. Af t er t h at, t he d at a is s av e d in t he
)A

da t ab as e ti er .

S A P i ns ta nc es r e fer t o a l l pr oc es s es th at are s tar t ed or s t op p e d w it h in th e S A P

ER P s y s t e m.
(c

A d is pa tc her an d n u m er o us w or k pr oc ed ur e s ar e pr es en t i n e ac h i ns ta nc e. T as k s
are as s i gn e d t o o ne of t h e w ork pr oc es s es by th e d is p atc he r. D if fe re nt work
 proc es s es ar e av a i la b l e i n th e S A P E RP s y s te m to c orr es po n d t o v a ri o us t as k s .
Th e fo l l ow i ng ar e ex a mp l es o f work proc es s es :

e
• W or k f l ows f or m a na g i n g us er r e qu es ts f or o n l i ne tr a ns ac t io ns v i a d i a lo g ue ;
• W or k pr oc es s es t ha t c on d uc t d a ta b a s e u p d at es ar e up d at e d;

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• s po o l w or k pr oc es s es , w h ic h a l l ow t h e S A P s y s te m t o pr in t;
• ba tc h wor k pr oc es s es , wh ic h h an d l e any b ac k gr o u nd j o bs t ha t hav e b e en
s c he d u le d i n t he s y s t e m; a n d
• W or k pr oc e du r es t ha t a l lo w ap p l ic a t io ns to c o mm u n ic a te w it h o n e an ot h er,
s uc h as S A P R/ 3 a n d S A P R/ 2.

On
W h il e t h e S A P ER P s y s te m c a n h av e m u lt i p l e a pp l ic at i o n i ns t a nc e s , o ne par t ic u l ar,
c ore i ns t a nc e m us t al way s be pr es e nt ( CI) . Th e m es s ag e pr oc es s an d t h e e n qu e uer
s erv e r ar e th e tw o p ar ts of t he C I. Th e mes s a gi n g proc es s es t ab l i s hes
c om m u nic a ti o n b et w e en th e S AP s y s te m's a p p lic a t io n i ns ta nc e s . T h e e n qu e uer
s erv e r is i n c h ar ge o f da t ab as e ta b le loc k s .

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Th e S A P E R P s y s te m is m ad e u p o f v ar io us ap p l ic a t io n m o du l es i n a d di t io n t o th is
bre ak d ow n. E ac h mo d u le is m e an t to h o us e S A P ap p l i c a t io n a pp l ic at i ons as w e ll as
s pec i a l is e d b us in es s d at a f or a c er ta i n i nd us try .

O r ac le B us in es s Int e l lig en c e S er v e r
si
er
iv
Un

Th e O rac l e Bus i n es s I nt e l l ig e nc e S u it e E nt er pr is e E d it i on P lus p l a tf or m is bu i l t

aro u n d a g en u i ne B I s er v er th a t is m e an t t o b e ex tr em e ly s c a la b l e, w it h
c onc urr e nc y an d p ar a ll e l is m op t im is e d t o m ak e t h e v al u e of B I ap p l ic a t io ns
av a i l ab l e t o t he wi d es t p os s i bl e au d ie nc e. It a ll o ws fo r c e ntr a l is e d da t a ac c es s a nd
c a lc u l at i on , t h er e by p r ov id i ng a b i g p i p e v i a wh ic h ev ery on e in th e org a n is a t io n c an
c ons u me a ny i nf or m at i on i n a ny f or m. A l l i nf or ma t io n - c on s um i n g bus i nes s
ac t iv it i es , inc l u di n g as d as h b oar ds , ad h o c q uer i es , i nt e ll i ge nt in t erac t io n
ity

c ap a b il i t ies , e nt er pr i s e a nd p r o d uc t i on rep or t in g, f i n anc i a l rep or t in g, O L A P

an a ly s is , d a ta m i n in g , a nd ot her W eb Serv i c e - b as e d ap p l ic a t io ns , r e ly on t h e BI
s erv e r (J 2 E E a nd .N E T) . T o of fer v a l ue , al l of t hes e ap ps r e qu ir e d e e p ac c es s to
l arg e c o l lec t io ns of d a ta ac r os s t h e c om p a ny , as w e ll as a s o ph is t i c at e d c a lc u la t io n
an d a g gre g at i on ar c h i t ec t ur e pr ov i d ed by th e p l at for m .
In o n e c om p l et e ly i nt e gr a te d We b e nv i r on m en t, t h e p la tf or m e na b l es a fu l l
m

c om p l em e nt of ac c es s , a na ly s is , a nd i nf or ma t io n dis s e m in a ti o n c ho ic es . E ac h of
th es e c o mp o ne nts c at er s t o d if fer e nt au d ie n c es i ns id e t he c o mp a n y , eac h o f w ho m
has a v ar ie d ap p et it e f or th e s am e un d er l y i ng d at a b ut r e q uir e s dis t inc t ac c es s
me t ho ds .
)A

Un l ik e ot her BI t oo ls , ho w ev er , a ll o f th e c o mp o ne n ts are i n te gr at ed i n to a s i n g le
arc h i tec t ur e , r es u lt i ng i n a s e am l es s a nd s tr a i gh tf orw ar d us er ex pe r i enc e.

O r ac le B us in es s Int e l lig en c e Da shb oa rd s

(c
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On
O rac le BI I nt er ac t iv e Das h bo ar ds g iv es ev e ry k n ow l e dg e work er c l ear , i nt er ac t iv e
ac c es s t o ac t io n ab l e, dy n a m ic a l ly t a il or e d i nf or ma t io n b as ed on t he ir f u nc t i on an d
i de nt i ty . Th e en d us er wor k s w it h l iv e re p orts , pr o m pts , c h ar ts , ta b l es , p iv ot ta b l es ,
gra p h ic s , a nd t ic k er s i n t h e O r ac l e B I I nt e l l i ge nc e D as hb o ar ds e n v ir on m en t, w h ic h

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is b as e d o n a p ur e W eb ar c h i tec t ure . Dr i ll i ng , ex p lor i n g, a l ter i n g , an d i n ter ac ti n g
wi t h t h es e f i nd i n gs a r e al l av a i la b l e t o th e us er . O r ac l e BI I nt e l li ge nc e Das h bo ar ds
c an a ls o pu l l d at a fr o m th e I nt er n et , s h ar ed fi l e s erv er s , an d d oc u me nt
rep os it or i es .

O r ac le B us in es s Int e l lig en c e Ans w e r s

si
er
iv
Un

In a p ur e W eb ar c h it ec tur e, O rac l e BI A ns w ers giv es fu l l e nd us er a d ho c

c ap a b il i t ies . Us er s m ay e as i ly c r e at e c h ar ts , p iv ot ta b l es , r ep o rts , an d v is u a l ly
ap p ea l i ng das h bo ar ds , a ll of w h ic h ar e fu l l y i n ter ac tiv e a n d d r i l l ab l e a n d c a n be
s av e d , s h ar e d, m od i fi ed , f or m a tt e d, or em b ed d ed i n th e us er's pe rs on a l is ed O r ac le
BI I nt e l li g enc e Das h b oar ds . T he e nd res u lt is un pr ec ed e nt ed d e gre es of b us in es s
ity

us er s el f - s uf f ic i e nc y i n a c o m p le te ly s af e a nd c o ntr o l l ed IT env ir o n me n t.

O r ac le B us in es s Int e l lig en c e De li v er s
m
)A
(c

O rac le BI D e l iv e r s is a pr o ac t iv e i nt e l l ig e nc e s ol u ti o n th a t m o n it ors a nd al er ts
us ers o n b us i nes s ac t iv it i es ac ros s a v ar ie ty o f c ha n ne ls , inc l u d in g em a i l,
das h bo ar ds , a n d mo b i l e d ev ic es . O rac l e B I De l iv ers fe a tur e s a s e lf - s erv ic e a l ert
 c rea t io n a n d s u bs c r ip ti o n i nt er fac e t ha t is ac c es s ib l e v i a t he W eb . Th is n ex t -
ge n er at i on s o l u ti o n m ay s ta r t a mu l tis t ep , mu l t ip ers on , m u lt i a pp l ic at i on an a ly t ic a l

e
work f lo w a n d f e ed c o nt ex t u a l i nf or m at i on t o o th er a ler ts . It c a n a ls o d y n a m ic a l ly
c ho os e r ec i pi e nts a n d c us to m is ed c o n te nt t o e ns ur e t ha t th e c orr ec t us ers rec e iv e
th e r i g ht i n for m at i o n a t t h e r i g ht t i me .

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O r ac le B us in es s Int e l lig en c e Pub li sh e r

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O rac le B I P u bl is h er ( p r ev io us ly k n ow n as X ML P ub l is h er) is a s c a l ab l e a n d ef f ic i e nt
rep or t in g s o l ut i on f or c om p l ex a nd dis tr i bu t ed s y s t e ms . I t es ta b l i s hes a c e ntr a l is e d

si
i nfr as tr uc tur e f or s ec ur e ly c r ea t in g a n d tr ans m it t in g in f orm a ti o n t o e mp l oy ees ,
c us t o mers , a n d b us in es s p ar t n er s . M ic ros o ft Wo rd or A d ob e Ac r ob a t c a n b e us e d
to c r ea t e O r ac l e BI P u b lis h er r e p ort for m ats , w h ic h m os t us ers ar e alr e a dy f am i l i ar
wi t h. Yo u m ay a ls o us e O r ac l e B I P u bl is h er to c o m b in e d at a fr o m s ev er a l s o urc es
er
i nt o a s i n g le o ut p ut d oc u m en t. R ep or ts c a n be pr i nt e d, e ma i l ed , fax e d, s en t ov er
W eb D av , or p ub l is he d to a p or ta l . O r ac le BI P u bl is h er c an b e us e d in d e pe n de nt ly
or i n c o nj unc t io n w i th O r ac l e Bu s i n es s I nt e l l ig e nc e S ui t e E nt er pr is e E d it i on P l us .
O rac le B I P u b lis h er mak es us e of c o mm o n d as h b oar d i ng , m e ta d at a, s ec ur i ty ,
iv

c om p ut at i o n, c ac h i n g, an d in te l l i ge n t re q ue s t g en er at i o n s erv ic es w h en ut i l is ed as
par t o f th e s u it e .
Un

G O O G L E:
B us i n es s i nt e l li g enc e ( BI ) is th e ac t o f c o l l ec t i ng a n d an a ly s in g da t a f or us e by
org a n is a t io ns i n t h e ir s tr at e gi c a nd ev ery d ay d ec is io n - m ak in g p roc es s es ,
l ev er a g in g t he c o m b in ed po w e r of p e op l e a n d tec h no l o gy .

Lo ok er, a bus i n es s in t e ll i g enc e pr o d uc t fr om G o og l e C l o ud , p rov i d es a s i n g le v i ew

ity

of y o ur c o m pa ny 's da t a.

Bus in e ss in t e ll ig en c e o v e rv ie w

Ty p ic a l ly , th e b us i ne s s i n te l l i ge nc e pr oc e s s is c o ll ec ti n g f ir m da t a i nt o a d a ta
m

war e ho us e or eq u iv a l en t r ep os i tory , t h e n a na ly s i ng t he d a ta w it h a pr op er ly bu i l t
to o l. A c or p or a t io n m i gh t, f or ex a m pl e , ex am i n e c l i en t o n l in e b uy in g b e hav i o ur,
op er at i o na l ex p en d it ur es , or r eg i on a l s a l es d at a. An o th er c o m pa ny c an c o m p are its
bus i n es s op e r at i o ns to i n dus tr y b e nc h m ark s .
)A

Th ere are t hr ee ty p es of t o ols t h at m ak e u p a b us i n es s i nt e l l ig e nc e s o lu t io n :

(c

O n- pre m is es : T h es e r un o n y our c o m pa ny 's i nfr as tr uc tur e a nd ar e fr e qu e nt ly us ed

i n c o nj u nc ti o n w i th t r ad i t io n a l d at a w ar e ho us es . Ho w ev er , t h ey m a y be l es s
s c a la b le t h an c lo u d - ba s ed al t er n a tiv es .
 O p en s ou rc e : T hes e s o lu t io ns a r e i nex p ens i v e, an d if th ey 'r e c lo u d - b as e d, t h ey c a n
a ls o h e l p y ou s av e m o ney on in fr as tr uc t ur e. O p en s o urc e to o ls , on t he o t her ha n d,

e
s ti l l n ec es s i t at e a c er t a in lev e l of un d e rs t a n d in g a nd ma n ua l c o d i n g to be e ff ec tiv e .

Cl o ud - b as ed : C l ou d - bas e d b us i nes s i nt e l l ig e nc e s o lu t io ns e x c e l a t h a nd l i ng

lin
s tre a m in g d at a a n d e nor m o us a mo u nts of i nf or ma t io n . T h ey c a n a ls o s av e mo n ey
bec a us e t he c l ou d v en dor t ak es c ar e o f t he i nfr as t ruc tur e a n d k no wl e dg e ne e de d to
k ee p t he env ir o nm e nt r un n i ng .

MI CRO S O FT

On
M ic ros o ft's bus i nes s i nt e l li g enc e ( BI) p ro d u c ts as s is t f ir ms i n tr ans f orm i n g d at a
i nt o s o ph is t ic a te d , e a s y - to- u nd er s ta n d r e pr es e n ta t io ns t ha t ar e s ho w n wh er ev er
dec is i ons ar e m ad e. O r g an iz at i o ns m ay us e th es e s o l ut i ons to dev e l op am as s i ng
da t a- ex p l or a t io n ex p er i enc es t h at lo ok an d a c t l ik e t he ot h er M ic r o s of t t ec h n o lo g ies
th ey us e on a d a i ly b as is , al l ow i n g t he m t o g e t u p a n d ru n n in g q u ic k ly . T hey m ay
a ls o us e t h e l i br a r y of d at a c o n ne c t ors t o c on n ec t t o m aj or c l o ud a n d o n - pr e m is es

ty
s ourc es i nc lu d i ng Ex c e l, S har e P o in t, Az ur e SQ L D at a bas e , Dy na m ic s 36 5 , a n d
S al es forc e , as we l l as dev e l op n e w o nes .

Pot ent ia l B en ef it s of BI S e r vi ce s

si
Thr ou g h b u il t - in au t o ma t io n a n d i nt e l l ig e n c e, M ic r os of t's B I s o l ut i ons mak e i t
s i mp l e f or b us i n es s es to pr ep ar e an d mo d e l da t a. T h ey may l ev e r ag e hu n dr eds of
er
da t a v is ua l is at i ons , A I - po w er e d f e at ur es , a n d br an d i ng op t io ns t o mak e t h ei r r e por t
mo re us er - fr i e nd ly . T he IT g ia nt 's BI s o lu t i ons pr ov id e s op h is t ic at e d, s e lf - s erv ic e
an a ly t ic a l an d en t er pr is e BI to o ls to ev ery o ne i n a n or g an iz a ti o n —fr o m bus i nes s
an a ly s ts a nd B I s p ec i a lis ts t o b us i nes s us ers — t o h e lp th e m m a k e b et t er, f as ter
dec is i ons .
iv

A no th er a dv an t ag e o f M ic r os o ft's BI s o l ut i o n is t h at d at a ac c ur ac y an d s ec ur ity c a n
be m ai n ta i ne d . Its bus i nes s in t e ll i g enc e s o l u ti o ns w ork w it h a n org an iz at i o n's m os t
Un

v a lu a bl e bus i n es s d at a, wh ic h n ec es s it at es a h i gh l ev el of s ec u rity a nd pr iv ac y .
W h il e em p l oy in g na t io na l c l ou ds t o m ee t loc a l res tr ic t i ons o n s erv i c e d e l iv ery , da ta
res id e nc y , ac c es s , an d c o ntr o l, us ers m ay be tt er s a fe g ua rd t h e i r d at a s o t ha t i t
me e ts i nd us t r y c o mp l i anc e s t an d ar ds an d c e rti f ic a t io ns .

Si gnif i ca nt BI t oo ls
ity

W it h eas y - t o- us e r e p or ts th a t a p pe ar wh er ev er j u dg m e nts ar e ma d e, M ic r os o ft 's

mos t k no wn b us in es s i nt e l li g enc e pr od uc t , P ow er BI , bri d g es t he g ap b et we e n d a ta
an d d ec is io ns . C us t o me r s c a n us e th e c o mp a ny 's Po w er B I E m be d de d p ro d uc t t o
ge t wor l d - c las s a n a ly tic s w it h ou t hav i n g t o c r ea te i t th e ms e lv es . Fur t her m or e,
m

Az ure Sy na ps e A n a ly t ic s d e l iv er s d at a f or rap i d BI an d m ac h in e le ar n in g n e eds

thr o ug h a s i n gl e in t er f ac e , a n d A z ur e An a ly s is Serv ic es h e l ps br ow s e v as t a m ou n ts
of d at a us i n g a f ul ly ma n ag e d pl a tf or m t ha t prov i d es e n ter pr is e - g rad e d at a m o d els
i n th e c l o ud .
)A

Us e r Be nef it s of Mi c r osof t ’ s BI Too ls and Comp et ito r An al y si s

(c

Th e IT gi a nt's B I t oo ls a n d s er v ic es ar e t h e bes t i n t h e b us in es s , wi t h fe a tur es l ik e

v is ua l an d mo b i le ex p lor at i o n a n d a ut h or i ng . I n c om p ar is o n t o ot he r p o pu l ar BI
s y s te ms l ik e Q l ik v i e w, t hey c a n pr ov id e a dv a nc e d em b ed d e d an a ly t ic s a n d
de m ons tr at e pr ov en r es u l ts . F urt h er mor e , M ic r os of t's s o l ut i on s i m pr ov e da ta
 s ourc e c o n nec t iv i ty a nd s u p po r t by i nt e gr a ti n g wi t h pl a tf or ms s uc h as M ic r os of t
Dy n a mi c s , S a l es f or c e , G oo g l e A na ly t ic s , G it H ub , c o m Sc or e , A do b e A na ly t ic s ,

e
Circ u it I D, Az ur e Mo b i l e M an a ge m en t, Ma i lc h i mp , M S Ex c e l, an d o t hers .

Fur th er mor e , t he P ow er BI ap p l ic a t io n has a m or e us er - fr ie n d ly d es ig n a n d c a n be

lin
us e d by a ny on e , i nc l ud i ng Mar k e ti n g, Sa l es , a n d ot h er r e la t ed de p art m en ts .
A dd i ti o n al ly , M ic r os o ft 's t o ols ar e qu i te c os t - ef fec t iv e .

On
P EO PL E SO F T

Ma ny p e op l e r e fer t o P eo p l eS o ft E R P as e n ab l i ng " t h e Re a l - T i me" b us in es s m o de l .

P eo p l eS o ft is a n i nt egr a te d s ui t e o f b us i nes s a pp l ic at i ons — C RM , H R, Pr oj ec t
A dm i n is tr at i o n, a n d s o on —t h at a i ds y ou i n t h e da i ly ex ec u t i on an d o per a ti o ns of
c om p any p r oc es s es . I t is an o n - pre m is e s ol ut i on t ha t y o u may h o s t o n a ny Cl o ud .
Th is s o l ut i o n, w h ic h is bas e d o n a c l i en t/s er v er arc h it ec tur e , a l l ow s y ou to c o nn ec t

ty
d irec t ly t o b us in es s pr oc es s es , re m ov in g i nt er na l a n d ex t er n a l in t erm e d iar i es ,
i nc re as i ng pr o d uc t iv ity , an d l o wer i n g ex p e ns es .

Th is u p da t ed v er s i on i nc lu d es ev ery t h i ng y o u' l l n e ed to i nc orp or at e t h is f unc t io n a l

si
to o lk it i n to y our en t ir e b us in es s . It c a n h e l p y ou ma n ag e h u ma n re s ourc e ac t iv it i es ,
s tre n gt he n c us t o mer r e la t io ns hi ps , a n d s i m p li fy n arr at iv e r ep or ti n g. Y ou c a n ev e n
pro gr a mm e i t t o up d at e i ts e l f ac c or d i ng t o y our s c he d u le .
er
W ha t is P e o pl e S of t E RP , ex ac t ly ? It's a s et o f ap p l ic a t io ns c re a te d s pec i f ic a l ly f or
to d ay 's e nt er pr is es . P eo p l e So ft is a c o mp l e te s o ft w are pac k a ge f ro m O r ac l e th at
i nc l u des u n iq u e t oo ls an d ap p l ic a t io ns f or g en er a l c o m pa ny us e , s uc h as ma te ri a ls ,
pay r o l l, an d c o m mu n i c at i on ma n ag e m en t. Th is wo rk f orc e ma n a ge m en t s o l ut i on ,
iv

wh ic h is i d ea l f or m i d - s iz e t o b ig bus i nes s es , i nc l ud es a f u ll s u it e of t o ols f or

ma n ag i n g, p l a nn i ng , a nd tr ac k i ng op er at i ons .

Wh at Do e s P eop le S of t D o ?
Un

P eo p l eS o ft pr ov i d es y ou wi t h a l l o f t he t o ols y o u' l l n ee d t o e ff ic ie n tl y a nd
ef fec t iv e ly m a na g e y o ur mos t i mp or ta n t b us i nes s t as k s . Th e P eo p l eS o ft s y s t em is
us er - fr i en d ly , a l lo w in g y ou to s e lec t t h e t oo l s y ou th i nk y o u' l l ne e d a n d o pt o ut of
th e res t. O n a dd i t io n, P eo p l eS o ft s t or es d at a i n t he c l ou d. As a r e s u lt , y o u' ll nev er
l os e s i g ht o f i m por ta n t ac t iv it i es or s e ns i t iv e i nf or ma t io n a ga i n. Y ou c a n a ls o us e
th is s erv ic e t o tr a ns fer d a ta t hr ou g h ou t y our c om p any , m a na ge r ep or ts , a n d
ity

dev e l op c us t om er r e l a t i o ns h i ps .

P eo p l eS o ft H u m an Ca p it a l M a na g em e nt ( HC M), for ex am p l e, al l o w s y ou to ma n a ge
te a m m em b er s , ap pr o v e pr o mo t io ns , c h an g e e mp l oy ee pe rs o n al i nf or ma t io n, an d
ex a m i ne p ay s t ubs , a mo n g o th er HR du t ies . Its an a ly tic s s of tw ar e a ls o a l l ows y ou
m

to ev a l ua te per s o nn e l an d or g an is at i o na l d at a.
)A
(c
 P eo p l eS o ft HC M is e x tr e m e ly ad a pt ab l e. I t c a n be us e d to a l mo s t a ny s ec tor o r
s it u at i on . M or e im p or ta nt ly , its d iv ers e s u i te o f ap ps i nc l ud es i nd us try - s p ec if ic

e
c ap a b il i t ies an d o ff er s u nr iv a ll e d f l ex i b i l ity f or i m pr ov i n g c or p ora t e o pe ra t io ns a n d
c om p et i tiv e n es s .

lin
Y ou c a n tr ac k , ma n a ge , a nd a d m in is tr at e t as k s for y o ur w h ol e work f orc e w i th
P eo p l eS o ft , i nc l ud i ng em p l oy e es , m a na g ers , c on t in g en t w ork ers , s tu d en t w ork ers ,
c on tr ac t ors , a nd fac u lt y . Y o u m ay als o us e P eo p l eS o ft t o c ons tr u c t C lo u d c lus ters ,
l ev er a ge y o ur d at a i n ap p l ic a t io ns , a nd m i gra t e a n d t es t y ou r i nn ov at i ons t o t he
Cl o ud .

On
Wh at do es Pe opl e Sof t E R P O f f e r You?

P eo p l eS o ft is us e d by te ns o f t ho us an ds of c om p an i es a ro u nd th e wor l d. Ac c ord i n g
to O r ac l e's w e bs i t e, ar o u nd 3 0, 00 0 pe op l e u t i li s e it . Pe o p le S of t n o t o n ly
au t om at es , m o n it or s , a n d tr a c k s b us i nes s pr oc es s es , b ut i t a ls o s tr ea m l in es ,

ty
mo n it ors , a n d tr ac k s th e m. I t a ls o k e e ps t rac k o f p ers on n e l d at a, de p art m en ts ,
tas k s , a nd p er k s . Pe op l e S oft h as a s u bs t an t ia l pres e nc e i n n um er o us ar eas ,
i nc l u d in g h ea l thc ar e, pu b l ic s ec t ors , ed uc a ti o n , res e arc h , a nd p rof es s io n a l an d
fi n anc i a l s er v ic es , a n d is w e l l - s ui t ed f or s o lv i ng H u m an C a p it a l M an ag e me n t ( HC M)

si
an d E n ter pr is e Res o ur c e M an a ge m en t (E R P) d e ma n ds .

P eo p l eS o ft i nc l u d es a nu m be r o f im p ort a nt bus i n es s a p pl ic at i o ns , w h ic h ar e l is t e d
be l ow . T h es e pr o gr a m mes c a n as s is t y o u in g a in i n g a d is ti nc t c o mp e ti t iv e
er
adv a nt a ge .

• Co nc ern e d ab o ut Pe o p le S of t S e lec t io n A d o pt i on 9 . 2 up d at es ? T h is pr ogr a m me

a ll o ws y o u t o c h oo s e no t o n ly w h ic h up d at e s y o u w a nt , b ut als o wh e n y o u w an t
iv

th e m t o b e a p p li e d. E v er y t en we ek s or s o , t h ere w il l b e a ne w u pd a te . Wi t hi n
y our par a m et er s , t h e a p pl ic at i o n a ls o a l l o ws y ou t o k e e p pr im ary s tr at eg ic
adj us t m e nts .
• P eo p l eS o ft A pp l ic at i o n En g i ne – Cr ea te , tes t, a nd d e pl oy on l i ne b atc h
Un

pro gr a mm es t h at r eq u i r e h i gh - v o l um e b ac k gr ou n d pr oc es s i n g w it h t h is s of tw ar e.
Th e e n gi n e, l ik e CO BO L a p p lic a ti o ns , d e l iv ers m or e e ff ic i en t up d at es t h an
CO BO L , t h ank s t o a da t ab as e t ha t c o nt a i n s a l l of t h e i nf or m at i o n n ee d e d fo r
up d at i ng .
• P eo p l eS o ft D ep l oy me nt Fr am e work —T h is t oo l a l l ows y o u t o m o v e d at a fro m
P eo p l eS o ft D ev e l op m en t an d Tes t in g to t h e O r ac le C l ou d a nd tr ans f er da ta t o
v irt u a l s y s te ms o n t he O r ac le C l o ud .
ity

• P eo p l eTo o ls – T h is s of tw ar e is w h at m a k es Pe o p le S of t w h at it is . I t is a
po w erf u l ap p l ic at i on dev e l op m en t to o l t ha t al l o ws y ou t o a da pt Pe o pl e S of t
obj ec ts t o ma tc h y ou r s p ec if ic b us i n es s r eq u ir em e nts . P eo p l e To ols is a ls o
c ap a b le of i nt eg r a t i ng w it h P e op l e S of t Bus i n es s O bj ec ts as a " bo l t- o n"
ap p l ic a t io n .
• O rac le C l ou d P eo p l e S of t – Th is pr og ra m m e a l l ows y o u t o ac c e s s P eo p l e So ft
m

pro d uc ts ov er t h e c l o ud . Yo u c an a ls o us e th is ap p t o l au nc h o th er Pe o p le S of t
ap p l ic a t io ns , s uc h as P e op l e S of t HC M a nd o th er t oo ls y o u us e on a r eg u l ar
bas is , fr o m a s in g l e l o c at i on .
)A

Th es e ar e o nly a f ew o f t h e p ow erf u l c a p a b il i t ies av a i l ab l e w i th P eo p l eS o ft . Th e

s y s te m a ls o a l l ows y o u t o c h oos e w h ic h tec hn o l ogy s ol u t io ns t o u s e b as e d o n y our
tec h no l ogy r e qu ir e m e nts an d y our d es ire t o t rac k , p l an , an d m a na g e y o ur
tec h no l og ic a l fo o tpr i nt fr o m a s i ng l e l oc at i on .
(c
 Che c k Yo ur U nd er st a nding

e
Fil l Up s :

1) …… … …… … . m e ans a s tr uc tu re d l i nk b et we e n gr ou ps o f c o mp o ne n ts

lin
2) A s y s t em c on ta i ns a _ __ w h ic h is p l an n ed t o re ac h a s p ec if ic g oa l .
3) …… … …… … is t he m aj or g oa l o f a Sy s t em A na ly s is a n d Des i g n
4) Th er e ar e … … …. p has es in S AD
5) A n __ _ is a d et a il e d s t udy ab o ut a p ar t ic u l ar pro b l em .

On
Tru e/ Fa l se :

1) In ter pr et i n g fac ts is a par t o f Sy s te m A n a ly s i s .

2) In p ut d ev ic e is a n op e r at i on a l c o m po n en t o f th e s y s t em
3) Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn is th e pr oc es s of c re a ti n g a nd ma i nt a i ni n g
i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems

ty
4) Sy s t e m a na ly s is is a p r oc es s w h ic h is d o ne on t h e ex is t i ng mo d e l or th e n ew ly
c rea t ed mo d el
5) Str a te g ic I nf or ma t io n i s a c a t eg ory o f i nf or m at i on s y s t e m

Su mm ar y
si
er
• Sy s t e m a n aly s is is a me t ho d o f o bs e r v i n g a s y s te m in ord er t o i nv es t ig a te or
en h anc e i t. I t is us e d i n t he f i e ld o f i nf or m at i on t ec hn o l ogy , wh e re c o mp u ter -
bas e d s y s t e ms m us t be d es c r ib e d in or de r to b e ex a mi n e d b a s ed o n t h eir
s truc tu r e a n d d es i g n.
iv

• Sy s t e ms an a ly s is in th e I nf or m at i on Tec h no l o gy d o ma i n mi g ht i nc l ud e l ook i n g a t
en d- us er us a ge o f a p r od uc t b u nd l e or it e m, as w e l l as l o ok in g at s ou rc e c o de
fro m t op t o b ot t om t o c har ac ter is e t he s y s t e ms us ed in p ro gr am m i ng .
• Ex per ts i n s y s t e m a na ly s is ar e f re q ue nt l y c a l le d u po n to ex a m in e s y s te ms
Un

c r it ic a l ly a nd r ec o m me nd nec es s ary a dj us tm en ts . Sy s t e ms a na ly s i s is us e d b ot h
i ns i d e a nd ou ts id e t he bus i nes s wor l d t o d et er mi n e w he th er a s y s t e m is
pos s i b le or e ff ec t iv e wi t hi n t h e c on t ex t o f its ov er a l l d es ig n a n d t o s h ow t h e
op t io ns av a i la b l e to t h e e mp l o y in g i n dus try o r a n ot he r pa rty .
• As a res u lt , s y s t em an a ly s is is u n iq u e to s y s te m o ff ic i als , w ho ma i nt a in s y s t e ms
on a d a i ly b as is , an d t he ir j obs ty p ic a l ly e nt a il a h i g h - lev e l v i e w o n a s y s t e m in
ord er t o d et er m in e i ts ge n er al v ia b i l ity i n ac c ord a nc e wi t h its pl a n.
ity

• Th e S of tw ar e D ev e l o p me n t L if e Cy c l e ( S DL C) is a fra m ew ork t ha t l ay s o ut t h e
s te ps i nv olv e d i n s o ft war e d ev el o p me nt at e ac h s ta g e. I t c o nt a i ns a pr ec is e
b lu e pr in t for dev e l op i n g, d e p loy i ng , a nd s us t a in i ng s of tw ar e.
• Th e S of tw ar e Dev e lo p me n t L if e Cy c le ( SD L C) des c r i b es th e e nt ir e dev e l op m en t
proc es s , i nc l u d in g a l l pr oc es s es i nv o lv e d i n des i g ni n g, d ev e lo p in g , t es t i ng , a nd
m

de p l oy i n g a s o ft war e p r od uc t.
• Th e S of tw ar e D ev e l o pm e nt L if e Cy c le ( S D LC) is a me t ho d t ha t s p ec if i es t h e
ma ny s te ps r eq u ir ed i n s o ft w are d ev e l o pm e nt i n o rd er t o c r e at e a h i g h - q u a li ty
res u l t. SD LC s t a ges e nc o m pas s t h e en t ir e l i fe c y c l e o f a s of tw ar e pro d uc t , fro m
)A

c onc e pt i on t hr o ug h r e t ir em e nt .
• Th e r eq u ir em e nts ac qu ir e d in t h e SR S d oc u m en t ar e us e d as i np u t in t h is
ph as e, a nd th e s of tw a r e a r c h i tec tu re r e qu ir e d t o im p l em e nt s y s te m dev e l op m en t
is d er iv e d .
• W he n th e d ev e l op er r ec e iv es th e Des i gn d oc u m en t, t he i m p le m e nt at i o n/c od i n g
proc es s b eg i ns . S o ur c e c o d e is c r ea te d fr om t he s o ft war e des i gn . D ur i ng t his
(c

ph as e, a l l o f th e s o ft w ar e 's c o mp o ne n ts are i mp l e me nt e d.
• W he n th e c od i ng is f i n is h e d a n d t he m o du l es ar e av a i l a bl e for t es t i ng , t es ti n g
be g i ns . T he g e ne r a te d s of tw ar e is t h oro u g h ly tes te d i n t h is p h as e , a nd any
fl a ws d is c ov er ed ar e a s s i gn e d to d ev e lo p ers to b e c orr ec te d.
 • Re tes t in g , a ls o k n ow n as r e gr es s i o n tes t in g , is c arr i ed ou t u n ti l t h e pr o gra m m e
me e ts t h e c us t o mer 's ex pec ta t io ns . T es t er s us e t h e SR S d oc um en t to e ns ure

e
th at t h e pr ogr a m me m ee ts t he c us t om er's r e qu ir e me n ts
• De p en d in g on t h e c u s to m er 's ex p ec t at i o ns , th e p ro d uc t is e it h er p ut i n th e
pro d uc t i o n env ir o nm e n t or i n it i al ly s ubj ec t e d to U AT (Us er Ac c e pt a nc e T es t i ng ).

lin
• In UA T, a r e p l ic a o f t he pr od uc t i o n e nv ir on m en t is c o ns tr uc t ed , a n d t h e
c us t o mer , i n c ol l a bor at i on wi t h t he dev e l o pers , p er for ms t h e t es t i ng . I f th e
c us t o mer is s a ti s f ie d wi t h th e a p pl ic at i o n, t he c us t o mer mus t s i g n o ff f or i t t o g o
l iv e .
• Af t er a pr o d uc t is d e p loy e d in a pr o duc t io n env ir o nm e nt , t h e d ev e l o pers ar e

On
res p o ns ib l e for pr o duc t m a i nt e na nc e, w hic h i nc lu d es f ix i ng a ny is s ues t ha t ar is e
an d a ny e nh a nc em e nt s t ha t n ee d t o b e m ad e.

Act iv it y
• Pr ep ar e a S u m mar y C har t o f d if fer e nt p h as e s o f S DL C

ty
Q ue sti on s & E xe r ci s e
1) De f in e t he Sy s t e m A n a ly s is an d D es i g n C on c ep ts .
2) Dis c us s t he P has es o f S D LC .
3) Ex pl a i n th e v ar i ou s r e as o ns f or c o nd uc ti n g s y s te m a na ly s is .

i nc or p or a t in g l a tes t te c hn o l ogy .
5) Dis c us s R o le o f Sy s t e m A n aly s t . si
4) Dis c us s M a na g e me nt r o l e i n s y s t em an a ly s is t o c a te r c o m pe t it i on an d
er
6) Ex pl a i n th e S o ft war e d ev e l o pm e nt f ir ms r o l e i n ER P / Bus i n es s In t el l i ge nt Sy s t e m
7) Des c r i b e t h e S A P, O R AC L E , B A AN , P EO P L E SO FT , M IC RO SO FT an d G O O G L E
ro le in ER P / Bus i nes s I nt e l li g en t Sy s t em
iv

G lo ss a ry

• De si gn: In t h is p h as e , t h e r eq u ir em e nt g at her e d i n t h e SR S d oc um e nt is us e d
as an in p ut a n d s of t war e ar c h it ec t ur e th a t is us ed f or i m pl e m en t in g s y s t em
Un

dev e l op m en t is d er iv e d.
• Imp le me nt a t io n o r C oding : I m p le m en t at i o n/ Co d i ng s t arts o nc e th e dev e l op er
ge ts t h e D es ig n doc u me n t. T h e So ft war e d es ig n is tr a ns l a te d in t o s o urc e c o d e.
A l l th e c o m po n en ts of th e s o ft war e ar e i m p le me n te d i n t h is ph as e.
• Te stin g: Tes t in g s t ar ts o nc e th e c o d i ng i s c o m p le t e a nd th e mo d u les ar e
re le as ed f or tes t in g. I n t h is ph as e, t he d ev e l op e d s o ft w are is t es t ed t ho ro u gh ly
an d a ny d ef ec ts f o un d ar e as s i gn e d to dev e l op ers t o g et t he m f ix e d.
ity

• Re tes t in g , r e gr es s i o n tes t in g is d on e u n ti l t he p o i n t at wh ic h t h e s of tw ar e is as
per t he c us to m er ’s ex pec t at i on . T es t ers r e f er SR S d oc um e nt to mak e s ur e t h at
th e s o ft war e is as per th e c us to m er ’s s ta n da rd.
• Dep lo ym ent : O nc e t he pr o duc t is tes t ed , i t is de p loy e d i n t h e pro d uc t i on
env ir o nm e nt or f ir s t U AT ( Us er Ac c ep ta nc e tes t in g) is d o n e d e p en d i ng o n th e
m

c us t o mer ex p ec t a ti o n.
• Ma int en an ce : Af t er th e de p l oy m e nt o f a pr o duc t o n th e pr od uc ti o n e nv iro n m en t,
ma i nt e n anc e o f t h e pr od uc t i. e . if any is s u e c o m es up an d n e eds to b e f ix ed or
any en h anc e me n t is t o b e d on e is t ak en c are by t h e dev e l op ers .
)A

Furt he r R ea din g

• Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , J IJ U J O HN
• Sy s t e ms A n aly s is An d Des i gn A C om p le t e G u i de 2 0 20 E di t io n , G er a rdus
(c

B lok dy k
 Ans w e r s t o ch ec k yo ur Und e r st a ndi ng

Fil l Up s

e
1) Sy s t e m

lin
2) Str uc tur e a n d b eh av io ur
3) Im pr ov e or g a n iz a t io n a l s y s t ems
4) 5
5) an a ly s is

Tru e/ Fa l se

On
1) Tru e
2) Fa ls e
3) Tru e
4) Tru e
5) Tru e

ty
Module II: Requirement Determination and
Development Cycle
si
Unit - 1: Und e rst an din g t h e n e ed s f or d ev e l oping /up gr ad ing sy st em
er
Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to :

• Id e nt ify t h e n ee d f or s y s te m u pg ra d es .
iv

• Dis c us s t he ap pr oac h e s t o s y s te m i n te gr at i o n.
• Des c r i b e t h e v ar i ous d ep l oy me n t op t io ns f or i nt egr a te d s y s t ems .
• G o ov er th e m a i n s te p s o f s y s te m i n te gr at i o n.
•
Un

G o ov er s y s te m in te gr at i on me th o ds .
• Des c r i b e t h e a dv a n ta g es a nd d is a dv a nt a g es of s y s t e m i nt eg ra t io n.

Int rodu ct ion

Y ou s ho u ld c r ea t e an up gr ad e p l a n be for e y o u b eg i n a n up gr a de . T a b le - 1
des c r i b es s om e fu n d a me n ta l Fus i o n Mi d d le war e u pgr a de p l a nn i n g proc e du res a n d
ity

up gr a de r e q uir e m en ts to b e c ar e f ul ly c o ns id ere d b ef or e be g in n i ng a n u p gr ad e. T he
ta b le als o i n d ic a t es w her e t o g o for mor e i n f or ma t io n o n e ac h s t e p o f th e pr oc es s .

No te : P le as e k ee p i n m in d th at t h e or d er i n wh ic h y ou p er for m y our pr e - u pgr a de

tas k s m ay d i ff er de p en d in g on y o ur c urre n t e nv iro n me n t. Us e t he c hec k l is t b e lo w to
m

rev ie w th e m os t i mp or t an t pr e - up gr ad e c o ns i der a ti o ns .

Tab le - 1 Upg r ade Pl a nning R oa dm ap

)A

Ta sk De s cr ipt ion Doc um en ati on

Un d ers t a nd t he O r ac le Fus i o n M id d l ew are In tro d uc t i o n to O r ac l e

d if fer e nc es b et we en 11 g us ers s h o ul d u n d ers t a nd t h e Fus io n Mi d d le wa re 12 c
(c

O rac le F us i on c onc e pt u al d i ff ere nc e s be tw e en for 1 1 g Us e rs

M id d l ew ar e 1 1 g a nd 11 g a n d Re l eas e 12 c ( 12 .1 . 3)
Re l eas e 1 2c ( 1 2. 1 .3) be f or e s t ar t in g the u pgr a d e
 Ta sk De s cr ipt ion Doc um en ati on

e
pr oc es s .

lin
Un d ers t a nd wh ic h of Y ou s ho u l d u nd ers ta nd wh ic h o f " Pr od uc ts and
y our 1 1g pr o duc ts a nd y our 1 1 g c o m p on e nt s c a n be Fe at ur es Av a i l ab l e i n
fe at ur es c an be up gr a de d t o 12 . 1. 3. O rac le F us i o n

On
up gr a de d t o 12 . 1. 3 M id d l ew are 12c "
NO T E: If y ou p la n t o us e
11 g c o m po n en ts w i th up gr ad e d " Pr od uc ts and
12 . 1. 3 c o mp o ne n ts , y ou s ho u l d Fe at ur es N o t Av ai l a b l e
un d er s t a nd h o w t h e up gr a de in O r ac l e F us i o n
c ou l d i m pac t i n ter o p era b i l ity o r M id d l ew are 12"
c om p at i b i li ty .

ty
in t he U n ders t an d i n g
In ter o pe ra b i li ty and
Co m pa t ib i l ity gu i de .

V er ify t h at y our
da t ab as e is s u pp or te d . da t ab as e
s c he m as .
to
T he
si
Th e 1 2c d o m ai n req u ir es a
s t or e the
da t ab as e
new
th a t
hos ts t h e s c h e m as us ed i n F us io n
Up gr ad i n g and
Pr ep ar i ng Yo ur O r ac l e
Da ta b as es
(12 . 1. 3)
for 12 c
er
M id d l ew are mus t b e s up p ort e d.

Up d at e o r r e p l ac e y our If i t is d e ter m i ne d t h at y o ur n e w Up gr ad i n g fro m a 3 2 -

32- B i t o per a ti ng Re l eas e 1 2 c (1 2. 1 .3) c om p on e nts B it to a 64-Bit
iv

s y s te ms t o 6 4 - Bi t, if r eq u ir e a 6 4 - B it o p era t in g O p era t in g Sy s t em
nec es s ary . s y s te m, y o u s ho u l d mi gra t e t o th e
ne w mac h i nes b ef or e t he
up gr a de .
Un

V er ify t ha t you ar e Y our ex is t i n g O r ac l e Fus i o n Un d ers t a nd i ng the

run n i ng a s up p or t ed M id d l ew are d ep l oy me n t m us t S up p ort e d Up gr a d e
v ers io n of O r ac l e F us i on me e t c e rt a in re q ui re m en ts be f ore St ar t in g P o i nts
M id d l ew ar e 11 g . up gr a di n g to O r ac l e Fus i o n
M id d l ew are 12c ( 12 .1 . 3).
ity

V er ify t h at y our Th e system har d war e a nd V er ify i ng C er t if ic at i o n

op er at i n g s y s t e m, s of tw ar e t h at w i l l b e us e d t o an d Sy s te m
ex is t i ng h ar d w ar e , a nd s up p or t y our F us io n M id d l ew are Re q ui re m en ts
a ll s u p por t in g s of tw ar e 12c ( 1 2. 1. 3) d ep l oy me n t m us t
has b e en c er t if i ed to me e t the F us i o n M id d l ew are
m

work w i th t he c er t i fic a ti o n r e qu ir e m e nts .

c om p on e nts you ar e
up gr a di n g.
)A

Dev e lo p a b ac k u p a nd
rec ov ery s tr at e gy .
(c
B ef or e y o u b e g in an up gr a de , b e Dev e lo p i ng a B ac k u p
s ur e y o u h av e c om p l e te c op i es o f Str a te gy f or Up gr a de
y our s y s te m - c r i t ic a l f i les ;
i nc l u d in g t he d at a ba s e th at w i l l
hos t y o ur s c h em as .

Un d ers t a nd t h e b a s ic To pr ev en t a ny p ot e nt i a l Un d ers t a nd i ng the

ru les an d a ny pr o b l ems w it h y our u pgr a d e, y ou B as ic R u les and
res tr ic t io ns f or y our s ho u l d u nd ers ta n d s om e b as ic Res tr ic t i ons of
 Ta sk De s cr ipt ion Doc um en ati on

e
up gr a de . r u les a n d r es tr ic t i ons . Up gr ad e

Co ns id er th e i mp ac t on
de p l oy e d
11 g a p pl ic at i o ns a nd
c om p on e nts .
lin
If y o u w i ll be us i ng F us io n Un d ers t a nd i ng
M id d l ew are 1 1 g c o m po n en ts i n In ter o pe ra b i li ty and
y our u p gra d ed 12 c ( 12 .1 . 3) Co m pa t ib i l ity with
env ir o nm e nt , y ou s h ou l d r ev ie w Pr ev io us V ers i ons

On
an d u nd ers t a n d a n y p ot en t ia l
i nt er o p er ab i l ity an d c om p at i b i li ty
is s ues .

P la n f or s y s t em Th e up gr ad e pr oc es s i nv o lv es an P la n n in g f or Sy s te m
do w nt i me d ur i ng t he ” i n p lac e” u p gr ad e f or m os t Do wn t i me Du ri n g a n
up gr a de pr oc es s . Fus io n M i d dl e war e c om p on e nts . Up gr ad e

ty
Y ou w il l ne e d t o p re p are f or t he
s y s te m t o be do w n dur i n g th is
ti m e. To t es t ba c k up an d
r ec ov ery in c as e of a f a i lur e a n d

si
to p la n th e do wn t i me f or t h e
up gr a de , tes t t he u p gra d e
pr oc es s a nd t es t t he res t ore
fu nc t i o na l ity . T h is a l s o h e lp to
er
p la n for t he s c e n ari o i f s o m et h in g
go es wr on g dur i n g u pgr a d e a n d
th e 11 g s y s t em n e eds t o be
r es t or ed .
iv

G et t he pr o d uc t Y ou m us t ac q u ir e a nd ins t al l th e O bt a i ni n g Pro d uc t
d is tr i bu t io ns for y our Re l eas e 1 2c (1 2 .1 .3 ) s of tw ar e Dis tr ib u t io ns
up gr a de . be f or e y ou c an b eg i n t he up gr a de
Un

pr oc es s . Yo u wi l l ne e d to
do w nl o ad t h e a ppr o pr i at e pr od uc t
d is tr i bu t io ns f or y o ur u pgr a d e.

Un d ers t a nd ho w t o u s e O r ac le pr ov i des a s t a nd ar d s u it e Us i n g t he S ta n da r d
th e s t a nd ar d of t o o ls th a t c a n b e us ed to Ins ta l l at i on and
i ns t a ll a ti o n, au t om at e m any of th e Up gr ad e To o ls
c on f ig ur at i o n a nd i ns t a ll a ti o n, u pgr a de a nd
ity

up gr a de t o ols . c on f ig ur at i o n proc es s e s .

Nex t St e ps : Af ter E ac h c o mp o ne n t y o u up gr a de has Loc a ti n g Yo u r

ge n er al p la n n in g , y ou a s et o f s p ec if ic u p gra d e tas k s Co m po n en t - S pec i fic
wi l l n ee d to o bt a i n t he th at m us t b e p er for m e d. S o me of Up gr ad e
m

c om p on e nt - s p ec if ic th es e tas k s ar e p erf or me d a ft er Doc u me n ta t io n

up gr a de d oc u me nt a ti on th e up gr ad e . R ev ie w t he u p gra d e
for t he c o m p on e nts y ou doc u me n ta t io n fo r y o ur
are up gr ad i n g. c om p on e nt(s ) t o e ns u re y o u h av e
)A

a s uc c es s f u l up gr a de .

2 Upg r adi ng a C lon e d En vi ron me nt b ef or e Upg r adi ng a P ro du cti on

En vi ro nm ent ( R ec om men de d)
(c

O rac le s t r o n gly adv is es m ak in g a c o py o f y o ur ac tu a l pr o duc t i on env ir o nm e nt ,

up gr a di n g t he c l on e d env ir o nm e nt , v er i fy in g t h at th e u p gr ad e d c o mp o ne n ts w ork as
ex p ec te d, an d t he n ( a nd on ly t he n) u p gr ad i n g y o ur pr od uc t i o n e nv i ron m e nt .
 S ee " M ov i ng fr o m a T es t t o a Pr o du c ti o n E nv iro n me n t" i n O r ac l e F us io n
M id d l ew are A d m in is te r i ng O r ac l e Fus i o n M id d l ew are fo r m or e in f orm a ti o n o n

e
c rea t in g a t es t env ir o n me n t to us e w h en ro l l i ng ou t a n up gr a de .

Pr e- u p gr ad e t es t i ng o n a c lo n ed env ir o nm e nt y ie l ds v a l ua b l e i nf o rm at i on t h at c an

lin
be a p pl i e d t o y our o v er a l l pr od uc ti o n up g rad e s tr at egy . A mo n g t h e a d d it i on a l
adv a nt a ges a r e :

• Id e nt ify an d r es o lv e a ny u pgr a de is s u es .
• Ex per i m en t w it h c o mp l et i ng an e n d - t o- en d u p gra d e.

On
• Rec o gn iz e u pgr a de pe r for m anc e a n d h ow p u rge s c r i pts c a n as s is t .
• Us i n g t he U p gr ad e As s is t a nt , d et er mi n e t he ti m e re q u ire d t o u pgr a d e
Me t ad at a a n d O p en I n s ta nc es .
• B e fa m i l iar w i th th e d at a bas e's r es o urc e us ag e (s uc h as t em p or ary
ta b les p ac e ; P G A , e tc ) .

Cre at i n g a Bac k u p S tr a t e gy d es c r ib es a c o mpr e he ns iv e l is t o f bac k u p

ty
c ons i d era t io ns a nd pr oc e d ur es . B ef or e be g i nn i ng t h e u p gr ad e, ens ur e th at y o u
hav e rev i ew e d th is in f or ma t io n a nd per f orm e d a c o mp l et e b ac k up .

3 De v elo pin g a B ac k up St ra t eg y fo r Upg r ad e

si
B ef or e i ns t a l l in g any ne w R e le as e 1 2c ( 1 2. 1. 3) d is tr i bu t io ns a nd b eg i n ni n g t he
up gr a de o f y our O r ac le Fus i o n Mi d d le w are 1 1 g de p l oy m e nt to R e le as e 12c
er
(12 . 1. 3), ens ur e th at a ll s y s t e m - c r it ic a l fi l e s h av e be e n b ac k e d u p. O r ac l e s tr o ng ly
adv is es y o u t o p er for m a c om p l et e b ac k up o f y o ur ex is t in g de p l oy m e nt , i nc l ud i n g
th e d a ta b as e th a t h o us es y o ur O r ac l e F us i on M id d l ew ar e s c h e mas . f or s pec i f ic
i nf or ma t io n o n e ns ur i ng t h at al l of y our e nv ir on m en t's c om p on e nts c ou l d b e
ren e we d i n t he oc c as i on of a t hw ar te d u p gra de
iv

4 Und e rst an din g In - P la c e ve r su s O ut - of - P l ac e Up gr ad e s

Un

W he n u p gr a d i ng y o ur 11 g e nv ir on m en t to 12 c (1 2. 1 .3) , y o u s h ou l d u n ders ta n d h ow
th e up gr ad e wi l l af f ec t y o ur pr e - u p gra d e e n v ir on m en t. U pgr a des to s c h em as an d
do m a in d ir ec t or i es , f or ex am p l e, ar e d on e " i n p l ac e ," wh ic h m ea ns t ha t th e ex is t i n g
11 g fi l es ar e u pd a te d dur i n g t h e u p gra d e. As t h e bi n ar ies ar e in s ta l l ed i n a n ew
d irec to ry , t h e 12c ( 1 2. 1. 3) O r ac l e H o me bi n ar ies are up gr ad e d " o ut o f p l ac e ." Th e
m id t ier a n d s c he m as ar e inc l ud e d i n t h e up gra d e to 1 2c ( 1 2. 1. 3) . A m i dt i er - on ly or
s c he m a- on ly u p gr a d e i s n ot pos s i b le .
ity

Th e fo l l ow i ng s ec t i ons d es c r ib e h o w eac h c o mp o ne n t is u p gra d ed :

• O r ac le H o m e B i nar i e s - O ut of P l ac e Up gr a de
m

In a n e w O r ac le h o me , y o u wi l l i ns ta l l t he O r ac le I nfr as truc t ure 12c (1 2 .1 .3)

d is tr i bu t io n b in ar i es ( i nc l u d in g W eb L og ic S erv e r a n d J RF) as w e ll as ot h er 1 2c
(12 . 1. 3) d is tr i b ut i o n b i nar i es . T h e u pg ra d e o f b in ar i es is c o ns i der e d " o ut o f p l ac e"
as th e 1 1 g b in ar i es ar e n ot ov er w ri tt e n.
)A

• Sc he m as - U p gr a d e d I n P l ac e

Th e 1 1g s c he m as ar e u pg ra d ed t o 12c " i n p l ac e" w h ic h m e an s t h at t h e

Up gr ad e As s is t a nt up da t es a n d ov erw ri t es th e s c h e m as d ur i ng th e u p gra d e
proc es s . T h e s er v er s mus t b e d ow n d ur in g t h is proc es s .
(c

• Ins ta nc es - Mi gr at e d d ur in g t he s c he m a up gr ad e (F or SO A U p gra d es O n ly )
 Th e u p gr a d e of ac t i v e a n d c los e d ins t a nc es fr om 1 1 g t o 1 2c h a pp e ns
au t om at ic a l ly as par t of t he s c h e ma u p gra d e. Y o u c an m a na g e t h e up gr ad e

e
us in g a d mi n is tr a ti o n s c r i pts .

• Do m ai n D ir ec t or y R e c on f ig ur at i o n - I n- P lac e Up gr a de

lin
T h e c ur r en t d o ma i n h as b e en " in p l ac e" u pgr a d ed . Y o u wi l l id e n ti fy t he loc a ti o n
of t h e 1 1 g d o ma i n d ur i ng t h e u p gra d e, an d t he 1 1g do m a in wo u l d be r ec on f ig ur ed
to p o i nt t o th e n ew 12 c ( 1 2. 1 .3) ho m e d irec t ory .

• Do m ai n C o mp o ne n t Co nf i g ur a t io n - In- P l ac e Up gr a de

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1. 1. 1 N ee d f o r Up gr a dat ion of t he Sy st em

15 comp e ll ing r e as on s t o up gr ad e y ou r co mput er sy st em s

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If y o u ow n or m an a ge a s ma l l or m e di u m - s iz ed b us i nes s , y ou ar e we l l aw ar e of t he
adv a nt a ges of t ec h n o l ogy . Tec h no l o gy a l lo w s S M Bs t o c o m pe te wi th lar g er p l ay ers
i n w ay s t ha t w er e u nt h ink a bl e on ly a f ew y ears a go . H ow ev er, t ec h n o lo gy has a
dra w bac k f or m a ny S M B o wn er s : th e n ee d f or c o ns t a nt u p gr ad es .

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" W he n w il l t he c o ns ta nt c h an g es c o me t o a n en d ?" " Wh e n c an I s to p up gr a di n g my
s y s te ms ?" is a fr e q u e nt ly as k e d q u es t i on a t Cor rec t S o l ut i ons . T h e tru t h is t h at
er
tec h no l og ic a l adv a nc e me n ts w i l l a lw ay s nec es s it at e up gr a des . C o ns u m er de m a nd
for n ew f e at ur es , c h an ges i n g ov er nm e nt c o mp l i a nc e an d r e por t in g, an d an ur g e f or
th i ngs t o p er for m b et t er ar e j us t t hre e of t he m a ny re as o ns w hy bus i n es s es w i l l
a lw ay s r e qu ir e u p gr a d es .
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G iv en t ha t u p gr a d es a r e h er e t o s t ay , t he k e y is t o r ec o g n is e th a t i nv es t in g i n t he m
wi l l b e ne f it y o ur b us i n es s r at h er t ha n v i e w t he m as a nu is a nc e . W e'v e c o mp i l ed a
l is t o f 1 3 r e as o ns w hy y ou s ho u ld k ee p u p gra d in g!
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1. Enh an c ed P ro du ct i vit y

To day , we h av e fas t er C PUs , fas t er ha rd dr i v es , a n d mo re pr oc es s ors – a nd t h es e

res o urc es m ea n t ha t w or k lo a ds are proc es s e d m or e qu ic k ly . Es s en t ia l ly , ol d er
s y s te ms ar e s l ow er t h an ne we r on es .
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2. Bett e r co mmu ni ca t io n

Ne wer t ec h n o lo gy al l o ws b us in es s es t o c om mu n ic at e w i th c us to m ers a n d p o te nt i a l
c us t o mers i n a v ar ie t y of w ay s . E m ai l , s o c i al m e di a , o r t hr ou g h y o ur w ebs i te .. .
Inc r e as e d b us in es s p o te nt i a l r es u lts fr o m mo re f lex i b le c om m un ic at i on o p ti o ns .
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3. Imp ro v ed ef f ic ie nc y

W e n o w h av e t he tec h no l o gy t o d o t h i ngs th at we c o ul d no t do i n t he p as t . R e mo te
)A

ac c es s v i a m ob i l e d e v ic es , f or ex a mp l e, a l l ows s a l es re ps t o q u ic k ly t ak e ord ers

wh i l e on t h e r o ad , k n o wi n g ex ac t ly w ha t t im e fra m e th ey c a n d e liv er i n .

4. Inc r e as ed s e cu rit y

B us i n es s es us i ng Wi n do ws X P, f or ex a m pl e , ar e v u ln er ab l e to i nf or ma t io n t h ef t or
(c

c om pr o m is e b ec aus e ou t da te d s y s t ems ar e n ot ac tiv e ly s ec ur ity - c hec k e d. Be tt er

s ec ur i ty c h ec k s ar e i n p lac e w it h n ew er t ec h no l o gy .
 5. Enh an c em ent s

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Ne w o per a ti n g s y s t em f ea t ur es c an be us e d to pr ov i de en h an c e me nts t h at w er e n o t
pos s i b le i n o l der s y s t ems . T his m ea ns t h at b us i nes s es us i n g o l d er t ec h n o lo gy w i l l
l ac k fu nc t i o na l ity t h at c ou l d pr ov id e t he m w i t h a c o mp e ti t iv e adv a nt ag e .

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6. V endo r a s si st an ce

S of tw ar e v e nd or s tes t t h e ir a pp l ic at i o ns o n th e m os t rec e nt v ers i ons of a ny g iv en

op er at i n g s y s t e m. Th e y w il l n ot s p e nd t i m e t es t i ng a p p lic a ti o ns on o ld m ac hi n es . Is

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y our v en d or s t il l s u p p or t i ng y our ol d t ec h n o l ogy ?

7. IT a ss is t an c e

Th is is r e l at ed t o th e pr ev i o us po i nt . IT pr of es s io n a ls are u na b l e t o s u pp or t
obs o l et e tec h n ol o gy . Y o u ng IT pro f es s i o na ls may b e u nf a m i l iar wi t h l eg ac y
s y s te ms . It w i l l t ak e t he m l on g er t o f in d an s wers t o y o ur IT qu es t i ons , r ais i n g y o ur

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s up p ort c os ts .

8. Cu rr ent ly av a il abl e w ar r ant ie s

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If y our s y s te m is s t i l l un d er w ar r an ty , it c a n b e r e p a ir ed an d r et urn e d t o s e rv ic e
qu ic k ly , c aus i n g l es s d is r u pt i o n to y our b us i nes s . Ho w ev er , s y s t e ms th a t ar e mo re
th a n f iv e y e ar s o l d an d ar e no l on g er c ov er ed by w arr a nty c an fa i l a n d f orc e t he
er
c om p any i nt o d is as t er r ec ov er y m o d e.

9. Cos t sa v ing s
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Up gr ad i n g m ay a p pe a r t o be c os t ly , h ow ev er t he fac t of t h e m at ter s ee ms to be
th at o ld er mo d e ls h av e f ar m or e is s u es – an d t h us m or e c os ts . T he ex pe ns e of
pro b l ems c aus e d by u ns t e ady h ar dw ar e a nd t ec h n o lo g ies c an qu i c k ly ex c ee d t he
c os t o f i nv es t i ng in a n u p gr a d ed s y s t e m.
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10 . Co mp at ib il it y

W he n s o m et h in g n ew e nt er s t he mark e t, it may b e i nc o mp at i b l e wi t h ex is t i ng
s y s te ms a n d s of tw ar e . F or ex a m pl e , th e n e x t up d at e t o W i n do ws 1 0 w i l l r e m ov e
s om e fe a tur es , m ak i n g it i nc o m p at i bl e w it h th e W i nd ows 2 0 03 s erv e r t h at s o me
S M Bs s ti l l us e.
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11 . R ed uc ed pow e r co n sum ptio n

E lec tr ic ity is b ec o m i ng pr o h i bi t iv ely ex p e ns iv e f or Aus tr al i a n bus i n es s es . Th e

ex c e l l en t th i n g wo u ld be t h at n ew ly d ev el o p ed c o m p ut er s y s te ms t y p ic a l ly c o ns u m e
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l es s po w er , r es u lt i n g i n s i gn i f ic a nt s av i n gs f o r y o ur c o mp a ny .

12 . St af f Sa t i sf a ct ion
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St a ff m em b er s bec o m e inc r e d ib ly a nn oy ed wi t h o ut - o f- d a te s y s t e ms an d s of tw ar e
bec a us e t h ey s i mp ly c an n ot d o t he ir j o bs as w el l or pro f ic ie nt ly as t hey w o ul d l ik e.
If t hey b ec om e s o d is s at is fi e d th a t t h ey l ea v e, y o u r is k los i n g bu s i nes s k n o wl e dg e
– a nd it's n o t go o d P R f or y o ur c o mp a ny i f i n d iv i d ua ls t e l l e ac h o t h er why t h ey l ef t.
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13 . Cus t om e rs w ho ar e i nt e re st ed
 Cus to m ers , l ik e e mp l oy e es , m ay b ec o m e d is s at is f ie d if t h ey in te rac t w it h a
c om p any t ha t us es ou t da t ed tec h no l o gy . T h is c an g iv e y o ur c o m pa n y t h e re p ut at i o n

e
of be i n g " o ut of s t e p." By i nv es t i ng i n t ec h n o lo gy , y o u w i ll prov i d e a be tt er
c us t o mer ex p er i enc e wh i l e a ls o d e m ons tr at i ng t h at y o u ar e i n i t f o r t he lo n g h au l .

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1. 1. 2 S y st em int eg r at ion ap pr oa ch e s

Sy s t e m in t egr a ti o n i s m ul t if ac et ed a n d c an b e ap pr o ac h e d us i n g v a ri o us

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arc h i tec t ur a l fr a m ew o r k s , b as e d u p on t h e nu m be r a nd es s e nc e of e l e me n ts th a t
mus t b e l i nk e d .

Mod el of po int - t o - poi nt com mun ic at ion

Po int - t o - poi nt int eg r at i on ( P 2 P) is a n arc h it ec tur a l p at ter n w her e i n ev ery pr oc es s

is fu l ly l i nk e d t o a ll o t her a p p l ic a t io ns a nd s y s te ms w it h wh ic h i t mus t c o l la b ora t e

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an d s h ar e da t a. A P Is , w eb h ook s , or c us to m c o de c an b e us e d to i m p le m en t th is
mo d e l.

A po i nt - t o- p o in t c on n e c ti o n ex tr ac ts da t a fr o m o n e s y s t e m, m od i fi es or f orm a ts i t,

si
an d t he n s e nds it t o a no t her s y s t e m. E a c h ap p l ic a t i on i m p le me n ts a ll o f th e
rat i on a l e f or d at a tr a n s l at i on , tr a ns f or ma t io n , a n d r ou t in g wh i l e t ak i ng i nt o ac c o u nt
th e pr ot oc o ls an d d at a m o de ls s u p por t ed by ot h e r i nt e gra te d c o m p on e nts .
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 Th e po i nt - t o- po i nt in te gr a t io n ar c h it ec tur e (s tar /s p a gh e tt i) .
Adv ant ag e s an d di s ad va nt a ge s : O n e o f th e pr i m ary b e ne f its of po i nt - t o- p o i nt

e
i nt egr a ti o n wo u l d b e th e a b i li ty of a n IT te a m to q u ic k ly b u i l d a s m a l l - s c al e
i nt egr a te d s y s t em . O n th e c o ntr ary , th e mo d e l is d if f ic ul t to s c a l e a nd t h e

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l ea d ers h i p of al l t he c o ll a bo r a t io ns c a n ge t v ery c h al l e ng i n g w h en ev er t h e r a ng e of
ap p l ic a n ts ex p a nds . A s s um e us ers ou g ht t o u nd er tak e 1 5 in te gr a ti o ns t o c o nn ec t
s ix m od u l es . As a r es u lt , th e s o- c a l l ed s t ar/s pa g he tt i in te gr at i o n oc c urs .
Wh en to a ppl y it : Th is a p pr o ac h is a p pr op ri at e f or b us i n es s es t ha t d o n ot hav e
c om p l ic at ed b us i n es s r at i on a l e a n d r e ly o n a f ew s of tw ar e c o m po ne n ts t o r u n t he ir

On
op er at i o ns . It is a ls o a n ex c el l e nt c h o ic e f or bus i n es s es lo ok i ng t o c on n ec t t o S a a S
ap p l ic a t io ns .
Hub - and - sp ok e mod e l
Th e hu b- an d- s p ok e mo d e l is a fa r mor e ef fec t iv e t ec hn i q u e of i n te gr at i on
arc h i tec t ur e t h at o u tl i nes p o i nt - to - p o in t is s ues w h i le av o i d in g t h e s tar /s pa g he tt i
mes s . B ec a us e th e r e la t io ns hi ps a mo n g a l l s ub - s y s t e ms are m an a ge d by a

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c en tr al iz e d l oc at i on ( mes s a ge br ok e r), th e y do no t c o n n ec t di rec t ly w i t h o ne
an o th er.
Th e h u b f unc t io ns as a m es s ag e - or ie n te d m i dd l ew ar e w it h a c e nt r a lis e d i n te gr at i on
en g i ne , t ra ns la t i ng pr o c es s es i n to a s o l it ary c l as s ic a l d ia l ec t a n d r ou t in g m es s a g es

si
to t h e ap pr o pr i a te d e s ti n at i ons . Th e s p ok e s (a d ap te rs ) th a t c on nec t t he c e n tre t o
th e s u b - s y s t e ms ar e ha n d le d s e pa ra te ly .
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 Th e i nt eg ra t io n ar c h it e c tur e o f hu b - a nd- s p ok e.
Adv ant ag e s an d di s a dv ant ag es : I n c o m par is on to P 2 P, t h e m o d e l o ff ers s ev er a l

e
adv a nt a ges , inc l ud i n g gr e a ter s c a la b i l ity . B ec a us e e ac h s y s t e m o n ly h as on e
re la t io n t o t he ma i n loc at i o n, s a f ety a n d arc h it ec tur e s im p l ic i ty i mp rov e. T h e

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c en tr al iz a ti o n o f t h e hu b , o n t h e o t her h a nd , c ou l d b e a v u l n er ab i l i ty i n s uc h a
mo d e l. Th e en t ir e in fr as tr uc t ur e is r e l ia nt o n a s in g le in te gr at i o n en g i ne , w h ic h c an
bec o me a b ig hi n dr anc e as t he v o l u me of w or k gr ows .
Wh en to app l y it : In e - c o m m er c e , f i na nc i a l op er at i ons , a n d p ay me n t pr oc es s i n g,
th e hu b- an d- s p ok e m o de l is w id e ly us e d. Fu rth er mo re , it is a pre f err ed d es ig n f or

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he av i ly r e gu l at e d i nd u s tr i es w it h s er i o us s ec ur ity r is k s .
Ent e rp ri s e S er v ic e B us ( E S B) mod e l

Th e E SB a r chit e ct u re c a l ls f or t h e dev e lo p me n t o f a s e par at e s p ec i a l is e d

s ubs y s t em — a n en te r pr is e s er v ic e bus — th a t ac ts as a ma i n s tre a m c ons u mer
i nt erf ac e l ay er l ink i n g ot h er s ub - s y s t ems .

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Th e E SB is a s e qu e nc e o f m id d le w are s erv i c es t h at c o nn ec t m u lt i p le s y s te ms a nd

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ac t as a mes s a gi n g b ac k b o n e. U nl ik e hu b - a nd- s p ok e , wh ic h us es a s in g l e
c en tr al is e d i nt eg r a t io n e ng i n e, E S B pr ov i de s e ac h s y s t e m wi t h it s o wn i n te gr at i o n
en g i ne a n d ad a pt er , wh ic h c o nv er ts a s ta t em e nt in to t h e c l as s i c a l t e m pl a te a n d
ret ur n t o t h e loc at i o n s up p or t e d f or ma t. E S Bs w er e ori g i na l ly des i gn e d t o c o n nec t
er
c om p l ic at e d i n ter n a l ne tw or k of lar g e en t erp ris es , b u t t h ey c a n als o wo rk w i th
c l ou d s erv ic es .
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Th e arc hi t ec t ur e f or e nt er pr is e s e rv ic e b us i nt e gra t io n .

Adv ant ag e s a nd d is ad va nt a ge s: O n e o f th e adv a nt ag es of E S Bs is t h at eac h

s ubs y s t em is d is as s o c i at ed by a " m es s ag i ng bus ," a l lo w in g i t t o b e r e pl ac e d or
(c

a lt ere d wi t ho ut i m pac t i ng th e c ap a b il i t ies of ot h er s u b - s y s t e ms . T h is b en e fi ts fr o m

h ig h s c a la b i l ity . F ur th er mor e, s uc h pr oj ec ts ar e d ep e nd a b le a n d s i mp l e to d es i gn .
In ter ms of dr aw b ac k s , t he s pr e ad of i n te gra t io n tas k s ac r os s s y s te ms mak es
ma i nt e n anc e a nd tr o u b les h oo t in g m or e d if f i c u lt .
 Wh en to us e it : A n E S B m od e l is t h e b es t way t o i m p le m en t l a rge proj ec ts l ik e
en t erpr is e ap p l ic a t io n i nt egr a ti o n ( E AI) , as i t al l o ws f or s c a l a b il i ty . I f a c or p ora t io n

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wa nts t o br i n g it al l t o ge t her o n - pr em is es , t h is is a go o d fi t.

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1. 1. 3 D epl oy me nt opt ion s f o r in t eg r at ed s yst e ms

Des p it e t h e f ac t t ha t we'v e m en t io n ed th e 3 m os t pr ev a l e nt arc h i tec t ures , t h e

rea l i ty is muc h di ff er en t. A s in g l e i nt e gr at i on ap pr oac h c ou l d n o l o ng er s uf fic e ,
par t ic u l ar ly for b us in e s s es t h at us e a d iv ers e r an g e o f tec h ni q ues . Bus i nes s es ar e

On
fre q ue nt ly r e qu ir e d t o mer g e al l thr e e d i ff ere n t s e ts w i th i n a s i ng l e ec os y s te m ,
ut i l is in g m u lt i pl e k i n d s o f m id d le w are a n d A P I l ay ers b e tw e en IT c o m po n en ts .
For tu n at e ly , an i nc r e a s i ng n um b er of c l ou d p la tf or ms a re of f er in g th e ir s erv ic es to
de a l w i th c o m pl ex i nt e gr a t io ns . C o ns i d er t h e t w o p o pu l ar de p l oy m e nt o pt i ons l is t e d
be l ow .
Int eg rat ion pl at f or m as a S er v ic e (i P aa S)

ty
In te gr at i o n P la tf or m a s a S er v ic e r ef ers t o a c o ll ec t io n of c lo u d - bas e d i nt e gra t io n
s o lu t io ns t ha t ar e pr i m ar ily us e d f or i m pl e m e nt i ng in t egr a ti o ns i n th e c l ou d .

si
As a n a l l- inc l us iv e s er v ic e, i P a a S c on n ec ts s y s te ms , proc es s es , a n d d at a i nt o a
s i ng l e us er i nt er f ac e. I t pr ov i d es a l i bra ry of rea dy - to- us e c o nn ec to rs t ha t a l lo w
d is p ar at e us er to in t er ac t w i th o n e a no th er r eg ar d les s of w her e t h ey ar e p lac e d.
Da ta tr a ns f or m at i on a nd s hi p p in g fr om an d t o a pp l ic at i ons a re h a n d le d by i P a a S.
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Ex am p l es of p o te nt i a l i Pa a S c o n nec t io ns s i m p li f ie d .
 P ro s a nd con s : iP a a S ar e a dv an t ag e ous i n a v ar i ety o f w ay s . It's a d ap ta b l e,
v ers a t i le , a n d s c a la b l e. I nt e gr at i on ac t iv it i e s ar e a u to m at e d w it h i P a a S, al l ow i n g

e
for t he r el a ti o n of s y s te ms a nd d at a d e pl oy ed in a ny e nv i ro n me nt a nd a l l ow i ng f or
fas ter pr oj ec t d e l iv er y . I n ter ms o f f l a ws , th ere m ay b e s ec u ri ty c onc er ns , as w it h
any pu b l ic c l ou d.

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Wh en to u s e it : i P a a S is i d ea l f or r e a l - t i me ap p l ic a t io ns a n d s up p orts a w i de r an g e
of in t egr a ti o n s c e n ar i os s uc h as en t erpr is e a pp l ic at i o n i nt e gr at i on ( E AI) , d a ta
i nt egr a ti o n, c l ou d in t e gr a t io n , B 2 B in t egr at i o n, A PI m an a ge m en t, I nt er ne t o f T hi n gs
i nt egr a ti o n, an d m a ny ot h er s .

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Hyb r id int eg r at io n p l at f o rm ( H I P)

A hy br i d i nt e gr a t io n p l at for m ( H I P) is a m o re g en er a l is e d v ers i o n of wh at i P aa S
prov i d es . I t is a c ol l ec ti o n o f i nt e gr at i on s of t war e t h at inc l u des b ui lt - i n c a p ab i l i ti es
for mak i ng on - pr e m is es a nd c lo u d - bas e d me t ho ds w ork t og et h er as a c o h es iv e

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b loc k .

si
In te gr at i o n p la tf or ms s e r v e as a b ri d ge b e tw e e n le g ac y s y s te ms ru n n in g o n
phy s ic a l h ar dw ar e, a pp l ic at i ons a nd d at a b as es i n a pr iv at e c l o ud , a n d s y s t e ms
run n i ng i n t he p ub l i c c lo u d. S uc h p la tf o rms n ec es s it at e t h e l eas t a m ou n t o f
c on f ig ur at i o n. T h ey i n ter fac e an d i nt eg ra te wi t h a ny s y s t e m by ut i l is i n g t wo m aj or
er
c om p on e nts : pr o toc o l c o n nec t or s f or h a nd l i ng c om m u nic a ti o n pr ot oc ols s uc h as
HTT P, TC P , J MS , an d s o o n, a n d m es s ag e f or ma tt ers f or h a nd l in g v ar io us d at a
for m ats s uc h as J SO N , X ML , a nd s o on .
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Di a gr am o f a hy br i d i n te gr at i on pl a tf or m.
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Adv ant ag e s a nd d is ad va nt a ge s : HI Ps of f er a v ar i ety of b en e fi ts , r an g i ng fr om

ma n ag e d A P Is a nd c lo ud of fer i n gs to re - us ab l e i nt e gr at i on fr a me work s f or ty p ic a l
ap p l ic a t io ns . C o mp a ni es c a n ex p ec t h i gh s ec ur i ty a n d a d ec l in e in i nt e gra t io n
 c os ts , t im e , an d m a i nt en a nc e ef for ts w it h t h i s m o de l . A t t he s a m e ti m e, in t egr a ti o n
p la tf or ms h av e n ot y et r e ac he d m at ur ity , m a k i ng i t d if f ic u l t to s e l e c t a s u it ab l e o ut -

e
of- th e- b ox s o lu t io n.

Wh en to u s e it : HI P s ar e pr im ar i ly c o nc e rne d w i t h t he d ig i ta l tra ns f or m at i on of

lin
l eg ac y s y s t e ms . T h is is a n ex c e l l en t fr a m ew ork f or or ga n is a t io ns t ha t ne e d t o
re la te on - pr e mis e a n d c l ou d s o l ut i ons .

1. 1. 4 K ey st e ps of s y st e m int eg r atio n

On
Sy s t e m i nt e gr at i on k e y s t eps

By c o n nec t in g e n ter p r is e d at a a n d s y s te m s , b us i n es s es c ou l d c om p ut er is e a nd
ac q u ir e c o m pl e te d is c l os ur e o f t h eir b us i n e s s o p er at i ons . Th er e are a f ew c r i tic a l
s te ps t o t ak e i f y ou w an t to un d ert ak e fu l l i mp l e me n ta t io n a nd s e e a q u ic k r et ur n
on y our inv es tm e nt .

ty
si
er
iv
Un
ity

Pr oc e d ur es f or im p l em en t in g s y s t e m i nt egr a t i on .
Ana l ys is of f ea si bi lit y and p lan nin g
m

Ev ery i nt eg r a t io n pr o c es s be g i ns wi t h an as s es s me nt o f t he s y s t ems t o b e
i nt egr a te d an d t h e dev e l op m en t o f a fe as ib l e s tr at e gy . Cre at e a n ac c ur at e
rep res e nt at i on o f y o ur ex is t i n g s o ft w are a n d i ts t ec hn ic a l s pec i f ic a ti o ns , as w el l a s
a lis t of a ll i nt e gr at i on r eq u ir em e nts . W id e n th e pri or i ty , ti m e l in e, an d c os t of y o ur
)A

i nt egr a ti o n pr oj ec t . It ' s a s m ar t op t io n t o inc l ud e a l l p o te nt i a l r is k s a n d s o l ut i ons i n

y our pl a n.
Ar ch ite ctu r e mod e lin g
Th is s t ep i nv o lv es c h oos i n g o ne of th e c o m mo n m o de ls we me nt i on e d a b ov e o r
des i g ni n g a c us t o m ar c h i tec t ur e t o m e et y o ur s p ec i f ic n ee ds . Yo u a ls o n ee d
(c

de t ai l e d bl u e pr i n ts of h ow s y s t ems w i l l c o m mu n ic a t e w i th o t her c o mp re h ens iv e

s y s te ms . T h e m os t la b our - i n te ns iv e , t h is p ha s e is o f gr e at im p ort a n c e as i t o ut l i nes
 th e i nt e gr at i on mo d e l, m e th o ds , a n d pr oc es s i n g e ne ra l . Pr e l im i n ary a nd phy s ic a l
des i g ns ar e c r ea t ed at t h is s t a g e.

e
E xe cut ion

lin
Th e ne w i nt e gr a t ed fr am e wor k h as b e en ex te ns iv e ly c h ec k ed t o de t erm i n e t h at a l l
c om p on e nts i nt er ac t s ea m l es s ly w i t h e ac h ot her a nd th a t n o d at a is l os t d ur in g
tra ns m is s i o n. I t c o u l d t h en be i nc or p or at e d a nd i ntr o duc e d t o c ons u me rs . I t is
s ug g es t e d t h at th e i m p le m en t at i on s t ag e be k e pt as s hor t as pos s i bl e i n ord er to
av o i d c h al l e ng es r e l a te d to p o te nt i a l c h an ges in t he in t egr a ti o n pr oc es s . A g il e

On
proj ec t m an a ge m en t c ou l d b e us e d b ot h d ur in g a n d a ft er t h is p has e t o as s is t a
c om p any i n ad a pt i ng t o c h an g in g e nv ir on m e nt o f i nt e gra t i on s y s t e ms .

Rep a ir s

Us ers s h o u ld n ’t ov er l o ok per i o d ic ins p ec t i on s o n t h e d ev ic e . I t is rec o m m en d ed t o

s c he d u le p er f or ma nc e di a gn os tic s t o e ns u r e t ha t a l l mo d u les o per a te f la w les s ly

ty
an d t ha t n o er r or s oc c ur .

1. 1. 5 S yst em i nt e gr at ion m et hod s

Fo ur Co m m on Sy s t e m In te gr at i o n Me t ho ds
si
er
V ert i ca l

Th e v er tic a l me th o d is s im p l e t o e nf orc e b ut h ar d t o m a na g e as w he n t h e i n dus try

ex p a nds . S ub - s y s t ems i n a v ert ic a l ly i nt e gra te d s y s t em ar e or ga n iz ed i nt o
iv

'i nf or ma t io n s i l os ' b as e d o n th e ir fu nc t i ons . T h es e s il os ' s ubs y s t ems ac t

au t on o mo us ly , w i th no c o m mu n ic at i on w i th o th er s i l os .

Adv ant ag e s
Un

• Co nv en i en t – Si nc e i t do es n ot r eq u ir e m uc h c o d in g k n ow l e dg e , th i s is a
go o d m et h od f or c o m p an i es t ha t d o no t h av e a s tr o ng I T t e a m.
• S i mp l e to bu i l d – N o r em ark a bl e c o d i ng s k il l s ar e re q ui re d t o br in g t h is
i nt egr a ti o n t o l if e.
• S ec l u d ed s u bs y s te ms – Ins t ea d o f be i n g c on nec t ed , e ac h s u bs y s te m
s en ds i n d iv i d u al r eq u e s ts t o o t her s u bs y s te m s .
ity

Dr aw b a ck s
• V er t ic a l i nt e gr a t io n is t oo r i gi d – it w i l l n ot p er m it f or a ny f lex i b i l ity o r
a lt er a t io n .
• Fur th er s i l os m us t b e bu i l t ov e r ti m e – A ne w s i lo mus t b e b ui l t fo r e ac h
m

ne w s u bs y s t e m.
• Di ff ic u lt t o m a na g e – W he n a s y s te m h as t oo ma ny in fo rm at i o n s i los , i t
bec o mes c l ut ter e d an d s l o w.
)A
(c
 Ho riz o nta l
Th e h or iz o n ta l me th od , as op p os e d t o v e rt ic al s y s te m in t egr a ti o n, a ll o ws

e
c om m u nic a ti o n b et we en s ubs y s t ems . Th is is ac c o m p l is h e d by es ta b l is hi n g a n
E nt er pris e S er v ic e B us ( E S B) . T he E S B s e rv es as b ot h a tra ns la t or a n d a
c on n ec t or b e tw ee n t h e s u bs y s te ms . T o c o m mu n ic at e w it h t h e E S B , e ac h s ubs y s te m

lin
req u ir es on ly o n e i nt er f ac e. O n e f ea tu r e of t his t ec hn i q ue is t ha t wh e n
mo d if ic a t i o ns ar e i nt r od uc ed to ot he r s u bs y s te ms , on ly t h e E S B ne e ds t o c h an g e,
i ns t ea d o f th e ov er a l l n et wor k . Nev er th e l e s s , s inc e t he E S B is t he o p era t io n's
c en tr al h u b, a ny is s ue s w it h th e s ubs y s t ems or th e E S B i ts e l f c an br i ng t he e nt ir e
proc es s t o a h a lt .

On
Adv ant ag e s
• Q u it e a da pt a b le – Su bs y s t e ms c ou l d e as i ly m ak e a n d r ec eiv e us er r e qu es t
v i a th e E S B .
• Few er m o d if ic at i ons – O n ly c h a ng es t o th e E S B ar e r e qu ir e d if a s ubs y s t em
c ha n ges .
• S ubs y s te m c o m mu n ic at i on – U n l ik e v er t ic a l in t egr at i o n, s u bs y s te ms c a n

ty
c om m u nic a te w i th e ac h ot h er.

Di sa dv ant ag e
• S ig n if ic a nt r is k of t ec hn ic a l e rror – If s o me t h in g go es wro n g w i th on e of t he

si
s ubs y s t ems o r th e E S B, it c o u l d hav e a n i m pac t o n th e e nt ir e s y s t em .
• S lo w er c o mm u n ic a t io n s p ee d – D ue t o t he v o lu m e of d at a b e in g p roc es s e d,
th e E S B m ay p er f or m s l ow ly .
• Ne ed s a de di ca t ed s t ru ct u r e – T he E S B r eq u ir es t o b e p art ic ul ar ly m a de
er
for a n i n d iv id u al ’s s y s t em .

St ar / Sp agh et t i
Th e s t ar, s p ag h et ti , or p o i nt - to- p o in t me t ho d , as it is a ls o i d en t if i ed , inv o lv es
iv

l ink i n g ev er y s ub - s y s te m i n div i d ua l ly t o mos t o f t h e ot h er s u b - s y s t e ms . T his

en a b les fu r t her i nt er a c ti o n w i th o ut th e us e of a n E S B . H ow ev er, if o ne s u bs y s t e m
req u ir es mo d i fic a ti o n, th e o th er s m us t as we l l . W he n th er e a ren 't t oo m a ny
s ubs y s t ems in t h e s y s t em , t his is a n ex c el l e n t me t h o d.
Un

Adv ant ag e s
• In d ep e nd e nt – C o m mu n ic a t io n is a u to m at ic .
• Ev er y s ubs y s t em is l i nk e d – E ac h s u bs y s t em is i nd iv i du a l ly l i n k ed t o
ev er y ot he r s ubs y s t em .
• Fas t er c o m mu n ic at i on – W it h ou t th e c u m bers om e E S B , da t a mov es mo re
qu ic k ly ac r os s t he s tr u c tur e.
ity

Di sa dv ant ag e
• W he n on e s ubs y s t em c ha n ges , al l s u bs y s te ms mus t c h a n ge a s w e l l –
e ls e t h ey wo u ld no t b e a b le t o e ff ec t iv e ly c o m mu n ic a t e.
• Ex t r e m ely s o ph is t ic a t ed – A g re at d ea l o f pr e par a ti o n is n ec es s ary t o
m

gu ar a nt ee t h at e ac h s ub - s y s t em is c o nn ec t ed c orrec t ly to t h e ot h ers .
• Th er e is a h i gh r is k of pr o b l ems w he n t h e re ar e t o o m a ny c o n n ec t i ons –
Th e m or e s u bs y s te ms th er e ar e, t he mor e l ik e ly th er e w il l b e pr o b l ems .
)A

Dat a fo rm at t hat ev e r yon e us e s

W he n t h is ty p e o f i n t egr a ti o n a p pr oac h is us e d , a ne w d a ta l an gu a ge is c r ea t ed .
Es per a nt o's l a ng u ag e is a u bi q u it ous t e mp l at e t h at a l m os t a l l s ubs y s te ms ar e us in g
to tr a ns m i t a nd an a ly z e i nf or ma t io n a m o ng e ac h ot he r. T his t ec hn i qu e c a n b e us e d
to av er t hav i n g m ul t ip l e a da pt or s f or e ac h s u bs y s t e m i n a s y s te m .
(c

Adv ant ag e s
• E xc el l ent t r an s lat ion – A l l s u bs y s t ems a re 'f l ue n t' a nd c an i nt er ac t
fl a wl es s ly .
• Dig it aliz ed – T h er e is n o n ee d t o p hy s ic a l ly s ub m it us er r eq u es t .
 • De vi c es n e ed n ot co l lab or at e – Ev ery s u b - s y s t em op er at es d if f e ren t ly .

e
Di sa dv ant ag e
• H igh c odi ng s ki ll r equ ir ed – T h is is a c om p l ex me t ho d t ha t n ec es s i ta t es a
h ig h l ev el of c o d i ng pr of ic i enc y .

lin
• T he ri s k of in it i a l prob l em s – A l o t o f i s s ues wi t h t he da t a f or ma t t en d t o
ar is e d ur i ng s et up .

On
1. 1. 6 Ben ef it s and c ha ll en ge s of sy st em int eg r ati on

Cor p ora t e m an a ge r s m ig ht we l l b e a fr a id t o s p en d in s y s t e m i n t egr a ti o n re m ed i es

bec a us e it 's d if f ic u l t t o f ul ly u n d ers t an d t he s c op e o f o ne ’ s s h or tf a lls an d
i nf or ma t io n f l ow d is c r ep a nc ies u nt i l t h ey 'r e c o m p le t ely r es o lv e d w i th a s t ro n g
s y s te m in te gr at i o n p l a n. B ut do n' t w orry , th ere 's a l ot of mo n ey t o b e m a de i n a
s y s te m in te gr at i o n d ev e lo p me n t pr oj ec t. Le t' s lo ok a t s o m e o f th e ot h er a dv a n ta g es
of s y s te m i nt e gr a t io n an d a n i nv es t m en t in tec h no l ogy t ha t enc o u rag es s i mp l i f ie d

ty
as s im i l at i on .

P ro ce s se s t h at a re m or e ef f i ci ent — A w e l l- des i g ne d s y s t e m in te gra t io n s tra t egy

wo u ld t he n s im p l ify or ev e n c o m p le t ely op t im is e bus i n es s o per a ti o ns . W h en

si
i nd iv i du a ls ar e n o l o n ger r e q u ir e d t o b ri d ge th e g ap b et w ee n s y s t ems , we ar e fr ee
to c o nc en tr at e o n m o r e pr od uc tiv e , h ig h er - l ev e l t as k s . M aj or s y s te m i nt e gr at i on
be n ef i ts i nc l u de i nc r e a s ed ef fic i e nc y an d s tr e am l i n ed o p era t i ons .
er
Enh an c ed Vo lum e O f sa l es — C o m pa n ies i n t h e eC om m erc e a n d r et a i l s ec tors (as
we l l as o t her s t ha t r e ly o n s a les ) ty pic a l l y s ee a s i g ni f ic a n t i nc re as e in s a l es
v o lu m e fo l l ow i ng an in v es t m en t i n s y s t em in t egr a ti o n. W he n i nv en t ory is u p da t ed in
rea l- t im e , c o ns u mer s wi l l h av e m or e pu rc has i n g o p p ort un i t ie s an d a be tt er
iv

purc h as in g ex p er ie nc e. F ur t h er m or e, t e a m m e mb ers a re g iv e n da t a th at en a b les

th e m to o pt i m is e r es toc k i ng o r d ers , t rac k i nv en to ry mo re e as i ly , a n d o pt i m is e
s a les - r e l at ed op er at i o ns .
Un

Re al- tim e Dat a — I n ma ny i nd us t ri es , h av in g ex p os ur e to pr ec is e , r ea l i nf o r ma t io n

me as ur em e nts c ou l d be a k ey d if f ere n ti a t or. B ec a us e y o ur ev a lu at i o ns w i l l b e
bas e d on ac c ur at e, u p - t o- da te d at a , s y s te m i nt eg ra t io n en a b les f ar g re at er
bus i n es s ag i l ity an d s ma r t er b us i n es s d ec is i ons .

Uti liz e N ew Dat a in Nov e l Wa y s — A n ot h er s u bs t a nt i a l s y s te m in t egr a ti o n

ity

adv a nt a ge r ev olv es a r ou n d d a ta a nd th e t y pes of d at a t h at a c orp or at i o n c o u ld

s tor e a n d r e tr i ev e. A s ea m l es s ly e ng a ge d d ev ic e w o u ld prov i d e n ew op p ort u ni t ies
for d at a c o l l ec t i on . T oo m uc h d at a r ep res en ts m ore s t at is t ic s an d p ers pec t iv es ,
wh ic h c o u ld p r ov e b en e fic i a l, im pr ov em e n ts , a n d ot h er s i g ni f ic an t pr o gres s in
ne ar ly ev er y d ep ar tm e nt o f a b us in es s .
m

Sub st ant ia l C ost E f f ic ie nc ie s — W it h ou t a do u bt , o n e of th e m os t ap p e al i n g

be n ef i ts o f s y s t e m i nt egr a ti o n is f i na nc i al s av i ngs . A c u s t om - b u i lt s y s te m
i nt egr a ti o n s tr at e gy wi l l s av e m o ney by s tre n gt he n i ng op er at i ons i nt o a s i n g le
p la tf or m o nc e f eas i b le an d li nk i ng s y s te ms t ha t w o ul d s t ay i n p l ac e. T h ere ar e a ls o
)A

c os t s av i n gs c or r e l a te d wi t h gr ea ter ef fic i e n c y a nd inc re as ed j u d g em e nt as a r es u l t

of av a i la b i l ity o f i nf or ma t io n .

Enh an c ed S ca l abi lit y — T he maj or ity o f m od er n s y s te m i nt e gra t io n s tr at e gi es

mak e us e of c lo u d - b as e d s t or a g e, c lo u d c om p ut i n g, a nd ot her c l o ud res o urc es .
(c

Sc al a b i li ty is an i mp or ta nt f ac tor i n b ot h th e f i na nc i al an d s tr at e g i c as p ec ts o f t he
eq u at i on .
 Th e c l o ud is v er y c o s t - e ff ec t iv e b ec aus e i t pr ov id es a l l o f t he b e ne f its of on -
pre m is es r es o ur c es w it h ou t t h e c os ts o f ac qu ir i n g a nd m a in ta i n i ng th e har d war e.

e
It's a ls o s c a l a bl e , as ad d it i o na l c l ou d r es ou rc e s are a ut o ma t ic a l ly m ad e av a i l ab l e
as y o ur bus i n es s ex pa nds . Sc a l in g b ac k is a ls o s i mp l e b ec a us e y o u'r e us ua l ly o n ly
c har g e d f or t h e r es our c es th a t th e c o mp a ny has ac t ua l ly us e d .

lin
Cha ll en ge s

Ev ery b us i nes s i n to d ay 's wor l d has a wi d e r an g e o f ap p l ic a t io ns a n d s erv ic es .

In te gr at i n g t h os e pr oc es s es is fr e qu e nt ly a c rit ic a l nec es s ity , a nd c a n be a s er i ous
obs t ac l e f or IT . L e t’s ex a m in es t h e f iv e m os t c o m mo n s y s te m i nt e gr at i on

On
obs t ac l es -

• Int eg rat ing w it h mon olit hi c s yst em s:

Le t us f irs t a gr ee th a t th e maj or ity of e nt er pr is es w i l l h av e m o no l i t h ic s y s t ems , an d

th at i t is o ft e n d i ff ic u lt to g et r i d o f t h os e s y s te ms . Th is is du e to t he f ac t th at s uc h

ty
s y s te ms ar e h e av i ly r e li e d o n by bus i nes s e s , a nd t h ey ar e m os tl y le g ac y s y s te ms
th at c an n ot b e r ep l ac ed f or t h e s ak e of i n te gr at i on . If a s of tw a re s y s t em has a
mo n o l it h ic ar c h i tec t ur e, it is r ef er r ed t o as mo n o l it h ic . Fu nc ti o n al l y d is ti nc t as p ec ts
are no t arc h it ec t ur a l ly s e p ar a t e c o mp o ne nts i n m o no l i th ic a rc h i tec tur e, bu t ar e a l l

si
i nt erw ov en . I nt e gr at i on bec o mes di ff ic u l t as a r es u l t of s uc h arc h it ec t ur e. A
s y s te ms i n te gr at or m us t k e e p h o ld t o rec og n is e a nd s e l ec t th e b es t m e th o d of
i nt egr a ti n g w it h m o no l i th ic b us in es s a p pl ic a ti ons .

•
er
Dat a i s vi ew ed dif f e r ent ly b y d iff er ent bu sin e ss un it s:

Th e us e of c ur r en t c or por a te d at a is im p ort a nt for t h e ac h i ev e m en t of th e b us in es s .

S inc e t he ir o p er a t io n a l r es p o ns ib i l it i es v ar i es an d th ey m i gh t e v en us e m u lt i p le
pro gr a ms or s o ft war e, e ac h b us i n es s e nt i ty or b us in es s d o ma i n s e es d at a
iv

d if fer e nt ly . T h is is f i ne for a n i n div i d ua l un i t, bu t i n ord er t o in te gr at e t h es e

s y s te ms ac r os s t h e en t er pr is e, a s t an d ar d d at a m o de l is re q u ire d. A s y s t e ms
i nt egr a tor m us t n ot o n ly m e et a c o mp a ny 's re qu ir e me nt s , bu t a l s o go a bov e a nd
bey o nd to d es ig n an in t egr a ti o n w it h a s ta n dar d is ed v i ew of da t a w it h in t he
Un

c om p any . T ha t's w h e r e a s y s t e m in te gr at or s h o ul d c onc e ntr at e m os t ly on da t a

mo d e l li n g a n d as s ur e a t hr es h o ld fo u n da t i on a l da ta s tr uc t ur e i s ac c o m p lis h e d
dur i n g i nt e gr a t io n . Th e te r m " mi n i mu m c an on ic a l d at a m o de l" is of te n us e d m any
en t erpr is e ar c hi t ec ts av o i d us in g c an o n ic a l da t a b ec aus e a gre e i n g o n i t fr e qu e nt ly
i nv o lv es a dd i ti o na l d i s c us s io ns a nd me et i n gs to re ac h a c o ns e ns us . In d iv id u a ls
fre q ue nt ly av o i d t h es e m e et i ngs , b ut th is c a n no t b e rej ec t e d th at a m i n im u m
c an o n ic a l da ta m od e l s ho u l d b e c h os e n f or i nt egr a ti n g s y s t e ms i n o rd er t o g a in a
ity

c ons is te n t v i ew o f d at a at t h e i nt e gra t io n l a y er. T h is a ims t o a l l ev i at e p oi n t - t o- po i nt

da t ab as e d es i g n a nd e n ab l es o th er e n ter pr is es or a pps t o c o m mu n ic a t e to t h e
dev ic es v i a a s e r v ic e t h at i m p le m en ts c an o n ic a l d a t a m od e l l i ng ra th er t ha n
i nt egr a ti n g t o s ta n da l o ne dev ic es ex pl ic i t ly i n th e ir n at iv e d at a m o de l .

• Do it qui c kl y or do it bet t e r:
m

W he n I T re q u ir es to s up p ly a ny th i n g t o t he i r bus i n es s , t h ey a re f req u e nt ly li m i te d
by t i m e a n d b u d ge t. Pr oj ec ts a r e fr eq u en t l y m an a ge d by n o n - t e c hn ic a l ma n ag ers
wh o ar e b us in es s - foc us e d a n d l ac k k n ow l e dg e o f b es t pr ac tis es an d arc h it ec tur a l
)A

pr inc i p les . B ec aus e o f th es e c o ns tr a in ts , p rop er arc h i tec t ura l p l an n i ng , w hic h is

us e d to e ns ur e q u al i ty , is fr e qu e nt ly d if f ic u l t for IT . T h er e ar e s ev era l t oo ls o n t h e
ma rk e t t ha t c a n h e l p s p ee d up proj ec t im p l em e nt at i o n a nd m e et bus i n es s
req u ir e me nts m or e q u ic k ly , bu t t h ey fr eq u e nt ly lac k a g o od d ev e l op m en t p i p el i n e
an d us e of t he b es t ar c h it ec t ur a l pri nc i p les . A s y s te m i n te gr at or s ho u l d w a lk a f in e
l in e an d gu ar an t ee th at th e i nt eg ra t io n s o lu t io n ad dr es s es n ot on ly to d ay 's
(c

fu nc t i o na l r e q u ir e m e nt s , bu t a ls o p ot en t ia l f ut ur e a nd n o n - f u nc t i o na l r eq u ir em e nts
s uc h as ef fec t iv e n es s , ex p an d ab i l ity , r e - us a b il i ty , a n d pr es erv a ti o n.
 • Pi c ki ng t he Ap p rop ri at e I nte gr at ion Too l:

e
Th ere are nu m er ous d ev ic es i n th e m ar k et t h at c l a i m to pr ov id e t he f i n es t
i nt egr a ti o n ex p er ie nc e . It is d i ff ic ul t t o s e l e c t th e bes t t oo l f or a n e nt er pr is e . A n
i nt egr a ti o n to o l i n m o der n c o n nec t iv i ty c a n qu i te d e fi n it e ly a i d f u s i on as s i m i la t io n.

lin
Hy br i d i nt e gr a t i on e n a b les o n - pr em is e s o ft w are t o w ork i n t an d em wi t h c l ou d - bas e d
ap p l ic a t io ns . I t c on n ec ts y o ur ex is t i ng e nt er p ris e n e tw ork to S a a S/ P aa S , B2 C, B 2 B ,
B YO D, an d B i g D at a . Hy br i d i nt egr a ti o n is des ir e d bec a us e e nt erp ris es m ay n o t
wa nt t o go c o m pl e te ly c l ou d du e to l e g ac y s y s te m de p e nd a bi l i ty , r e gu l at ory is s u es ,
an d wor ri es a bo ut t h e c on f id e nt i al i ty an d pro t ec t i on o f c r it ic a l ma t er ia l . Hy br i d

On
i nt egr a ti o n to o lk it c o nn ec t s uc h d is c r ep a n c i es by a l l ow i ng b us i nes s es to u t il is e
i nn ov at iv e w eb an d mo b i l e a pps of th e ir ex is t i ng pr ogr a ms v i a a s erv ic e or A PI
l ay er .

• The c ha ll eng ing asp e ct of int eg rat ion i s in teg ra tio n:

ty
“W he n y o u g o t o I B M , y ou ge t a n i nt eg ra te d I B M s o lu t io n . W he n y o u g o to H P , th ey
l ea d w it h a H P s o l ut i o n. Bu t wh e n y o u s ay , ‘ I a lre a dy h av e D e l l s er v ers , a n d I ’d l ik e
to a d d H P s tor a ge , ’ th at c a n b ec om e pr o bl e ma t ic , a n d th a t’s wh er e th e i n te gr at i on
c ha l l en g e c o mes fr o m, ” - Ro g er Ch a n ni n g , Ch i ef T ec h n o lo gy O f fi c er at C o ge n t

si
In br o ad s ens e , an or g an is at i o n s e lec ts a l o a d of pro d uc t l i n es fro m a s p ec if ic
ret a i ler , o n ly to d is c ov er th a t th e s t ac k is e it her v ery c o mp l ex t o m a in ta i n or d o es
no t m ee t t he ir n e eds . I t is c r i t ic a l t o s e l ec t t h e r i gh t s e t of p ro d uc ts f or y o ur
er
c om p any . Th e c o m mo d ity s e l ec t e d ou g ht t o be c ap a bl e o f i nt e gra t i ng w i th ot he r
s y s te ms or pr o d uc ts , e it h er th r o u gh a w e b s e rv ic e l ay er or thr o ug h th e us e of
l ibr ar i es . T h is wi l l as s i s t bus i n es s es in av o i d i ng a n ot h er m on o l it h a nd f or m ul a ti n g
an d d ev el o p in g i m p le me n ta t io ns f or pr es e n t or p ros p ec t iv e pr od uc t l in es .
iv

Che c k Yo ur U nd er st a nding
Un

Fil l in the B l an k

1. __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ is r es po ns i bl e f or i nt e gr at i o n tes t in g .
2. Th e __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ a l lo ws c o m mu n ic a t i on b et we e n s u bs y s t e ms .
3. A _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ is a m or e g en er a liz e d v er s i on o f w ha t i P aa S p ro v i des .
4. A _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ ex tr ac ts d a ta fr o m o ne s y s te m, mo d if i es or f or ma ts it , a nd
th e n s en ds i t t o an o th er s y s te m .
ity

5. __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ as a S er v ic e re f ers to a c o l l ec t i on o f c l o ud - b as e d
i nt egr a t i o n s o l ut i ons t ha t ar e pr i mar i ly us e d for im p l em e nt i ng in t eg rat i ons i n
th e c l o ud .

Tru e- F al s e
m

1. Co m po n en t t es t i ng m a y b e d on e i n is o l at i on fro m res t of t h e s y s te m
de p en d i ng u p o n its l if e c y c l e m od e l.
2. St u bs a nd d r iv er s ar e us e d i n c o m po n en t a n d i nt e gra t io n t es t i ng . Tru e or
)A

fa ls e.
3. In b i g b an g i n te gr at i on , a ll t h e m od u l es are n ot re q u ire d t o b e c o mp l et ed
be f or e in t egr at i o n tes t i ng s t arts .
4. St u bs a nd d r iv er s ar e us e d i n b i g b an g i n te g rat i on .
5. Th e go a l o f i nt e gr a t io n t es t i ng is to f i n d de f e c ts i n c om m u nic a ti o n be tw e en
tw o m od u l es r at h er th an s ee i ng if mo d ul es a re wo rk i n g c orr ec t ly .
(c
 Su mm ar y

e
Sy s t e m i n te gr at i on is mu l t id i m ens i o na l a n d c ou l d b e a d dr es s e d u s i ng
v ar io us ar c h i tec tu r a l c onc e pts , l i m it o n t he a mo u nt an d es s e nc e o f el e me n ts
th at mus t b e l ink e d.

lin
• In te gr at i o n P l at for m a s a S erv ic e r ef ers t o a c o l l ec t i on of c lo u d - ba s ed
i nt egr a ti o n s o l ut i o ns t ha t ar e pr im ar i ly us e d f or des i g ni n g a n d i m p le m en t in g
s ea m l es s i nt e gr a t io n i n th e c l o ud .
• i Pa a S is be n ef ic i al i n a v ar i ety o f w ay s . I t's a d ap ta b l e, v er s a t il e , an d
s c a la b le . I nt e gr a t io n op er at i o ns ar e d ig i ta l i z ed w i t h i P aa S , a l lo w i ng f or t h e

On
l ink a ge o f s of tw ar e a n d p r oc es s es u t i l iz e d i n a ny s urr o un d in gs a n d a l l ow i n g
for s h or ter c ons tr uc t i o n d el iv ery .
• As f or f la ws , t h er e ma y b e s ec ur ity c o nc ern s , l ik e any c lo u d p la tf or m.
A hy br i d i nt e gr a t io n p l at for m (H I P) s e e ms t o b e a mo re ge n era l iz e d v ers i on
of w h at i P a a S pr ov i des . It is a c o l lec t i on of i nt e gr at i on s o f tw are t h at
i nc l u des bu i lt - i n c a p ab i l it i es f or m ak i n g o n - pre m is es a nd c l ou d - bas e d
s o lu t io ns wor k t og e th er as a s i n g le u n it . T he E S B arc h it ec t ur e c a lls f or t h e
dev e l op m en t of a s ep ar a t e s p ec i al iz e d s u b s y s te m — a n e nt er pri s e s e rv ic e

ty
bus — th at ac ts as a s i mp l e us er i nt er fac i a l r eg i o n l ink i n g ot h er s u bs y s t e ms .
• Th e h ub - a nd - s p ok e mo d e l is a m ore adv anc e d ty pe of in te gr at i on
arc h i tec t ur e t h at ad dr es s es p o i nt - to- p o in t is s ues w h i le av o i d in g t he
s tar /s p a gh e tt i m es s . B ec a us e t h e li nk s b et w ee n a l l s u bs y s t e ms ar e h a nd l e d

on e a n ot he r .
• si
by a c e n tr a l hu b ( m e s s ag e br ok er) , th ey d o n ot c om m un ic at e d i rec t ly w i th

P oi n t- t o- po i nt i nt e g r at i on ( P 2 P) is an in te gr at e d d ev e l o p me n t
er
env ir o nm e nt wh er e in ev er y s y s te m is c l os e l y a tt ac he d t o ot he r a pp l ic at i ons
an d s y s te ms w it h wh ic h it m us t c o l la b or at e an d s ha re d at a. A PIs , we b -
ho ok s , or c us t o m c o de c a n b e us ed t o i m p le me n t th is m o de l .
iv

Act iv it y

G et d iv i de d i n to t h e g r ou p o f 5 a nd pr e pa re a pr es en ta t io n o n v ar i ous m e th o ds of
s y s te m i nt e gr at i on .
Un

Q ue sti on and E xe r ci s e

1. D ef i n e th e N ee d f or u p gr a d at i on of t he s y s te m.

2. D is c us s th e Sy s t em i n te gr at i on ap pr oac h e s .
ity

3. Ex p la i n t he D e pl oy m en t o pt i ons f o r in te gr a te d s y s t ems .

4. D is c us s th e K ey s t e ps of s y s t e m i nt e gra t i on .

5. D is c us s Sy s t e m i nt e gr a t io n m e th o ds
m

6. Ex p l a in t h e B en e fi ts a n d c ha l l en g es of s y s te m i nt e gr at i on
)A

G lo ss a ry

• S yst em int eg rat ion is m u lt i d im e ns io n a l an d c o u ld be r eac h ed us i ng v ar io us

arc h i tec t ur a l c o nc ep ts , li m i t on t he a m o un t a nd es s e nc e o f e le me n ts t h at
mus t b e l i nk e d .
(c

• Int eg rat ion P l at f o rm as a S erv ic e r e fers to a c o l l ec t i on o f c l ou d - b as e d

i nt egr a ti o n s o l ut i o ns t ha t ar e pr im ar i ly us e d f or des i g ni n g a n d i m p le m en t in g
i nt egr a ti o ns i n t he c lo ud .
 • Pl at f or m f or h yb rid i nt eg r ati on ( HI P ) A hy br id in te gr at i o n p la tf or m ( HI P) is
a mor e ge n er al iz e d v er s io n of w ha t i Pa a S pr ov i d es . It is a c o l l ec t i on o f

e
i nt egr a ti o n s of tw ar e th at inc l ud es b u i lt - i n c a pa b i l it i es for m a k i ng o n -
pre m is es a nd c lo u d - b a s ed s ol u ti o ns wo rk to g et h er as a s i n g le u n it .
• Th e E S B a rc hit e ct u r e e nt a i ls th e dev e lo p me n t of a s e p ara t e s pec i a l iz e d

lin
s ubs y s t em — a n e nt e r pr is e s erv ic e b us — th at s erv es as a c o m mo n us er
i nt er f ac e l ay er t h at c o nn ec ts ot h er s u bs y s t e ms .
• Th e hu b - a nd - spo k e mod el is a mo re a dv a nc ed ty p e of i nt e gra t i on
arc h i tec t ur e t h at ad dr es s es p o i nt - to- p o in t is s ues w h i le av o i d in g t he
s tar /s p a gh e tt i m es s . B ec a us e t h e r el a ti o ns h i ps a m o ng a l l s u b - s y s te ms are

On
ma n ag e d b y a c en tr a l iz ed l oc a t io n ( m es s a g e br ok er), t hey d o n o t c o nn ec t
d irec t ly w it h o ne a n ot h er .
• Po int - t o - poi nt in t eg r at i on ( P2 P) is an arc h it ec t ur a l p at te rn wh e re in ev ery
s y s te m is c los e ly r e la te d t o a ll o th er s y s te ms o r a p pl ic a ti o ns w i t h w h ic h i t
mus t c o l la b or a te a n d s har e d at a. A P Is , w eb - ho ok s , or c us t om c o de c a n be
us e d t o i mp l e me n t th is m o de l .

ty
Furt he r R ea din g

1. Ho w to D o Sy s t ems A na ly s is , J oh n E. G ibs o n, W il l i am T . Sc he rer , W i l li a m F.

si
G i bs o n , M ic h a e l C. S m it h
2. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn Pr in t ed Ac c es s C ard ), H arry J . R os e n b la tt
3. Th e Sy s t ems T h i nk er , A n a ly t ic al Sk i l ls : L ev e l Up Y ou r D ec is i on M ak in g,
Pr ob l e m S o lv i n g, a n d De d uc t i on Sk il ls . No t ic e T h e De t ai ls O t h ers M is s .
er
4. Mo d er n Sy s t e ms A na ly s is an d D es i g n, J e ffr ey A. H of f er, J o ey G e or ge ,
J os e p h S . V a lac ic h
5. Mo d e l in g a n d A n aly s is o f Dy na m ic Sy s t e ms , S ec o n d E d it i on , R a mi n S.
Es f a nd i ar i, B ei Lu
iv

6. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is a n d D es i g n, An O bj ec t - O r i en te d A p pr oac h w it h UM L A l an
De n nis , B ar ba r a W ix o m, D av id T e gar d en
7. Mo d er n Sy s te ms An a l y s is a n d Des i g n, G lo ba l Ed i t io n, J os e p h S Va l ac ic h ,
J oey F . G e or g e
Un

8. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , Sc ot t T il l ey , H arry J . R os e n bl a tt

9. Sy s t e ms A na ly s is a n d D es i gn i n a C ha n g in g W or ld J o h n W . S atz i n ger ,
Ro b er t B. J ac k s o n, S t ep h en D . B ur d
10 . Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , Sc ot t T il l ey
11 . B un d l e, Sy s t e ms A n al y s is a n d D es i g n, Lo os e - le af V ers io n , 1 2t h + Mi n dT ap ,
1 ter m Pr in te d Ac c es s Car d, Sc ot t T i l le y
12 . Sy s t ems An a ly s is a nd D es ig n, J IJ U J O H N
ity

13 . Sy s t e ms An a ly s is An d D es ig n A C o m pl e te G u id e 20 2 0 Ed i t io n, G er ard us
B lok dy k

Che c k you r Un de r st a nding : Ans w e r s

m

Fil l in the B l an k

1. Dev e lo p er , Sp ec i a lis t i nt e gra t io n t es t er

)A

2. Hor iz o nt a l me t ho d
3. Hy br i d i nt e gr a t io n p l at for m (H I P)
4. P oi n t- t o- po i nt I n te gr at i on
5. In te gr at i o n P la tf or m
(c

Tru e/ Fa l se

1. Tru e
 2. Tru e
3. Fa ls e

e
4. Fa ls e
5. Tru e

lin
Unit - 2: R equ i re me nt Det e rm in at io n

On
Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

• Des c r i b e t h e R eq u ir e me n ts de f in i t io n .
• Dis c us s t he D e ter m i n i ng r eq u ir em e nts .
• Ex pl a i n th e M aj o r ac t i v it i es i n r e q uir e m en t d et er m in at i o n

ty
• Dis c us s t he R e qu ir e m en t a na ly s is t ec h n i qu e s
• Dis c us s I nf or ma t io n g at h er i n g t ec h n iq u es ) .
• Des c r i b e t h e o n li n e m et h ods /t o ols f or re q u ir em e n t g a th er i ng fr o m us er
• Ex pl a i n th e A u to m at e d d at a c o l l ec t i on

2. 1. 1 . I nt rodu ct ion

si
Th e d et er m in a ti o n o f r eq u ir em e nts an d t h e s tr uc t ur i ng of r e qu i re me nts ar e t wo
er
c rit ic a l c o m p on e nts of s y s te m an a ly s is . I n terv i ew i n g, qu es ti on n a ires , d ir ec t
obs erv at i o n, an d doc u me n t a n a ly s is h av e tr ad i t io n al ly b ee n th e f o ur ma i n me th o ds
us e d by s y s te m a n a ly s ts to ga t her da t a. J AD an d pro to ty p in g a re tw o pro m i ne nt
me t ho ds f or d e ter m i n i ng r e qu ir e me nt s th a t wer e d ev e lo p ed an d b as e d o n prev i o us
tra d it i on a l m e th o ds . A w e ll - s tr uc t ur ed c har a c ter iz at i o n of s y s t e m r eq u ir em e nts c an
iv

c om m u nic a te ef fec t iv e ly a mo n g a na ly s ts , d es i gn ers , us e rs , a nd pro gr a mm ers

s i gn i fic a nt ly . Tr ad i ti o na l pr i mar y r e qu ir e m en ts s tr uc tur i n g t oo l s inc l u de DF D,
s truc tu re d En g l is h , d ec is i o n t ab l es , d ec is i on tre es , a n d E - R d i agr a ms . R AD an d
O O A ar e e me r g i ng t o day t o h el p s tr ea m l in e an d s h ort e n t h e ov era l l S D LC . R A D
Un

SD L C, o n t h e ot her h a nd , c om b i nes t he tr ad i ti o na l a na ly s is p has e an d a po rt i on o f

th e d es ig n p has e i n to a s i ng l e s t ep .

Wh at i s Re qui r em ent s?
A r e qu ir e me n t is a n ec es s ar y as p ec t of a n ew s y s t em w h ic h m i gh t i nc l u de d a ta
proc es s i ng or c a pt ur e, b us in es s ac t iv i ty c o ntr o l, k n ow l e dg e pr od uc ti o n, a nd
s up erv is or s u pp or t.
ity

Th e pr oc es s o f d et er m in i n g r e qu ir e m en ts e nt a i ls s t udy i ng th e ex i s ti n g s y s t em a nd
ga t her i n g de ta i ls t o d et er m in e wh a t t h e pr e req u is it es ar e, h o w it ap p ea rs t o w ork ,
or wh er e a dv a nc e me nt s m us t be ma d e.

Si gnif i ca nt Init i at i v e s in t he Pe r s ev e ra nc e o f Req ui r em ent s

m

Anti c ipa tion of R equ i re m ent s

• I t pr ed ic ts s y s te m c h ar ac t er is t ic s b as e d o n pr ev io us ex p er ie nc e, s uc h as s pec i fic
)A

pro b l ems or fe a tur es a nd s y s t e m r e qu ir e me n t s f or a n ew s y s t e m.

Th is c ou l d r es u lt t o an a ly z at i on o f as pec t s t ha t an in ex per i e nc ed a n a ly s t w ou l d
ot h erw is e ov er l ook . H ow ev er , if s h ortc uts a re o b ta i ne d an d pr ef e renc e is in i t ia te d
dur i n g th e i n qu ir y , m a nd a te es t im a t io n m i gh t w e ll be c o m pr om is e d.
(c

Inv e sti gat ion of R equ ir em ent s

 • It is r es e ar c h in g t h e ex is t i ng m od e l an d d es c r ib i n g i ts c har ac t e ris t ic s fo r
fu tur e us e.

e
• A na ly s ts us e f ac t - fi n d in g s tr at e g ies , pr ot oty p in g , a nd c om p ut er - as s is t ed
to o ls t o d oc u m en t a n d des c r i b e s y s t e m f e at ur es at th e h ear t o f s y s t e m

lin
an a ly s is .

Req ui r em ent s De s c ri pt ion

• It c o ns is ts o f d at a a na ly s is t o d et er mi n e t he r eq u ir em e nt s p e c if ic at i o n,

On
fu nc t i o na l ity of d es c r i pt i ons f or t he n e w s y s te m, an d c l e arl y s t at i ng ho w
muc h i n for m at i o n r eq u ir em e nts w o ul d b e m a de av a i l ab l e.
• It e nt a i ls th e ex am i n at i on of f ac t ua l d a ta , t he u n de rs t an d i ng o f t h e k ey
pre r e q uis i tes , a nd t h e c l as s i f ic a t io n o f r e qu ir em e nt - f ul f i ll m e nt s tr at eg i es .

Te chn iqu es f o r G at he rin g Inf o rm at ion

ty
Th e pr i m ar y g o a l of i nf or ma t io n ga t h er in g me t ho ds is t o as c er ta i n a n
org a n iz a t io n's i nf or ma ti o n r e q ui r e m en ts , wh ic h ar e t he n ut i l is e d by an a ly s ts to
org a n is e a c onc is e S R S t ha t th e us er u n ders ta n ds .
Th e op t i mu m S R S d oc um e nt s h o u ld -
•
• si
be c om pr eh e ns iv e , d ef i ni t e an d j ar g on fr e e.
De f in e d, or g an is at i o na l, s tr a te g ic , a n d fu l f i ls tac t ic a l i n for m at i on ne eds .
er
• res o lv e a ny d is agr e em en ts t ha t m ay ar is e be tw ee n us ers a n d an a ly s ts .
• em p l oy s gr ap h ic al ai d s t o fac i l it a te c o m pr eh ens i o n an d d es i gn .

Th ere are n u m er o us m et h ods f or c o l l ec t i ng d at a -

iv

Int er vi ew ing
Un

A s y s te ms an a ly s t c o l l ec ts i nf or ma t io n fro m i nd iv i du a ls or gro u ps by in t erv ie w in g

th e m. T he an a ly s t c o u ld b e pr o fes s i o na l , p res c r ip t iv e , p o l it ic al , or c as ua l , as t he
ef fec t iv e n es s of an i nt er v ie w is de p en d e nt o n t h e a n a ly s t's ex p er tis e as an
i nt erv ie w er .

Th ere are t w o ap pr oac hes t h at c a n b e t ak e n

ity

• Uns tr uc t ur e d I nt er v i e w - Th e s y s t e m a na ly s t u nd er tak es a qu e s ti o n - a n d-
ans w er s es s io n t o g at her s t a nd ar d s y s t em i nf or ma t io n .
• Str uc tur e d I nt er v i ew - I t i nc lu d es v ar i ous b a s ic q ues t io ns t o w h ic h t h e us er
mus t a ns w er i n e i th er a c l os e ( obj ec t iv e) or op e n ( d es c r ip t iv e) s ty l e.
m

The B en ef it s of Int e r vi ew ing

• Th is t ec hn i qu e is of t en th e m os t ef fec t iv e me t ho d of ga i n in g q ua l i ta t iv e
)A

da t a.
• It is b e ne f ic i a l f or t h os e wh o are u na b le to ef fec t iv e ly c om m u n ic a te i n
wri tt e n fo r m o r wh o d o n ot hav e t he o p po rt un ity t o f i nis h a q u es t i on na ir e.
• I nf or ma t io n c a n b e q u ic k ly af f ir me d a nd c r os s - c hec k e d.
• It is c a p a bl e o f d ea l i n g w it h c o mp l ic at e d s u bj ec ts .
(c

• It is s im p l e to d is c ov er k ey pr o b le m s by s o l ic it i n g op i n io ns ;
• It is s im p l e to c o m pr e he n d m a in c h a l le n ges by pr oc ur i n g op i n i ons ;
 • It c ov er s u p t h e o p en i n gs i n th e r a ng e s of c o nf us io ns an d red uc es
for thc o m in g d i ff ic ul t ie s .

e
Q ue sti onn ai r es

lin
S uc h a t ec hn i q ue w ou l d b e us e d by a na ly s ts to c o l l ec t k no w le d ge ab o ut
v ar ie d s y s t em is s u es f r o m a l ar ge n u mb er o f p eo p le . Q u es t i on n a ir es are c l as s if i e d
i nt o tw o ty pes .

• O pen - en de d Q u est io nna ir e s - T h is ty p e o f qu es ti o nn a ir e inc l u des qu es ti o ns

On
th at c o u ld b e q uic k ly a nd ac c ur at e ly be c ons tr ue d. it c o ul d i nv es t i ga t e a
d if fic u lty an d c o ntr i b ut e to a par t ic u l ar s o l ut i on .
• Clo s ed - end ed Q ue st i onna i re s - It c o nt a i n qu es ti o ns wh ic h are u s ed w h en
th e s y s t ems a n a ly s t e f fic ac i ous ly rec or ds a l l mu t ua l ly ex c l us iv e r es po ns es .

Ben ef its of Q u e st io n nai r e s

ty
• It is v e r y ef f ic ac i ous i n i nv es t i ga t in g n o n - c o- loc at e d us ers ' i n te res ts ,
be h av ior s , e mo t io ns , a nd op i n io ns .
• It is b e ne f ic ia l t o fi n d ou t h o w m a ny p eo p l e i n a s p ec if i ed p op u l at i on

•
si
s up p or t o r op p os e of a p art ic u l ar c ha rac ter is t ic o f t h e pr op os e d mo de l .
B ef or e giv i n g an y s p e c if ic d ir ec t i o n t o t he s y s te m pr oj ec t, i t is us ef u l to
as c er t ai n t h e ov er a l l o p in i on .
er
• It is m or e d e pe n da b l e a nd ens ur es t he a no ny m ity of c o m m en t s a n d
fe e db ac k .
• It is a de q u at e f or s e lec t in g c re d i b le da t a a n d pr ov id i n g s ta t is t ic a l
ev id e nc e t h at c o u l d b e e m ai l e d or m a i le d.
iv

Re vi ew of R ec or ds , P ro ce du re s, and Fo rm s
Un

A n a na ly s is o f av a i la b l e d at a, me t ho ds , an d f or ma t io n a i ds in ge n era t in g ins i g hts

i nt o a fra m ew or k by a na ly s i ng t h e ex is t i ng s y s t e m's a bi l i ti es , pr oc es s es , or
ac t i ons .

Ben ef its
ity
m
)A
(c
 • It e na b l es c o ns u mer s to ac c es s s o me i n for ma t io n a bo u t t h e org a n iz a t io n or
proc es s es b ef or e i mp o s i ng o n o th ers .

e
• It a ids in t he d oc um e n ta t io n of o p era t io n a l p roc es s es i n a br ie f s p an o f ti m e
bec a us e pr oc es s h an db o ok s a n d s tr uc t ur e s c h ar ac t er is e t he l a y ou t a n d
fe at ur es of t h e ex is t i n g ar r an g e me nt .

lin
• It c o u ld pr ov i de a s o li d k n ow l e dg e o f t h e tra ns ac t i ons ha n dl ed in t h e
org a n is a t io n , as w e l l as r ec o g n is e i n for m at i on f or c o mp ut a ti o n an d ev a l u at e
ef fec t iv e n es s .
• Th is c o u l d as s is t a n an a ly s t i n un d ers t a nd i ng t he s y s te m's pr oc es s es t ha t
mus t b e e nd or s ed .

On
• It a ddr es s es t he s it u at i on , t he p arts t h at are i mp ac te d, a nd t h e d es ire d
ou tc om e.

O bs e rv ati on
It is a w ay o f c o l l ec t i ng d at a t ha t i nv o lv es n ot ic i ng a nd s tu dy in g p eo p le ,
oc c ur re nc es , a n d o bj e c ts . T he an a ly s t v is its t h e or ga n is at i o n t o p erc e iv e h o w th e
c urr en t s y s te m w or k s an d t o c o mpr e he n d th e s y s te m's r eq u ir em e n ts .

ty
Ben ef its
• It is a s t r a i gh tf or war d way t o c o l lec t d at a.

si
• It is us e fu l wh e n t h e a ut h e nt ic ity of th e da ta c o l lec t ed is c a ll e d in to
qu es ti o n, or w h en t he c om p l ex i ty of c ert a i n as p ec ts o f t he s y s te m pr ev e nt s
c l ear ex p l an a ti o n by e nd - us ers .
•
er
It ge n er a t es qu i t e v a li d a nd pr ec is e i nf or ma t i on
• It y i e l ds a ll t h e fac e t o f r ec o rds t h at ar e i ns u ff ic ie n t an d o ut m o de d.

Joi nt App li c at io n De ve lop me nt ( J AD)

iv

It is a nov e l I BM t ec h n iq u e th at us es or g an is ed a n d i nt e ns iv e w o rk s ho ps t o br i ng
ow n ers , us er s , a n aly s t s , d es i g ne r s , a n d b u i l ders to g et h er to d ef i n e a nd des i g n t he
s y s te m. J AD - tr a in e d a na ly s ts wh o h av e s om e s p ec i a l is e d s k i l ls s e rv e as w ork s h o p
Un

fac i l it at ors .

Ben ef its of J A D
• I t k ee ps c os ts d ow n by s u bs ti t ut i ng l e n gt hy tr ad i ti o n al i n terv i ew pr oc es s a n d
fo l l ow - u p me e ti n gs .
It is b e n ef ic ia l in c o r p or a t e s tr uc t ure t h at e n dors es m u tu a l c o nf l ic t res o l ut i o n.
• Pr om o tes p r o fes s i o n a l r e la t io ns h ip a m o ng work ers a t a l l l ev e ls .
ity

• T h is c o ul d r es u lt t o t he c r ea t iv e dev e lo p m e nt o f a d es ig n ; •
• I t E n ab l es ex p los iv e gr o wt h a n d e nh a nc es au t hor i ty of in f orm a ti o n m an a ge m en t.

S ec ond ar y R e se a rc h or B ac kg ro und R ea di ng
m

By ac c es s in g t he g l ea n ed in f orm a ti o n, t h is proc es s is f re q u en t ly us ed f or
i nf or ma t io n g at h er in g. It c on ta i ns s uc h a n or i gi n a lly c ol l ec te d i nf or ma t io n fr o m a ny
for e ig n or do m es t ic s o ur c e t h at t h e m ark e t er h as us ed .
)A

Ben ef its

• It is mor e e as i ly ac c es s i bl e g iv en t h e a bu n da nc e of t he in t ern e t.
• It pr ov i d es c r i tic a l i nf or ma t io n w it h r e d uc e d m o ney a n d ef f ort .
•
(c

It b eh av es as p i on e er t o pr im ary res e arc h an d l i n es up t h e e mp has is o f

pr im ar y r es e ar c h.
 • It is us e d by th e r es e ar c h er t o c o nc l u d e if t he r es e arc h is w ort h i t as it is
av a i l ab l e w it h pr oc ed u r es us ed a n d is s u es i n c o l l ec t i ng t h em .

e
lin
Fe as ib ili ty A na ly s is

Fe as i b i l ity s t ud i es a r e pr e li m i nary inv es t i ga t io ns t ha t as s is t ma n ag e m en t i n

de t erm i n in g wh et h er a s y s t em s tu dy is f e as ib l e f or dev e lo pm e nt or no t. It
rec o g n is es t he p ot e nt i al o f dev e l op i ng t he pres e nt fr a me work , c r ea t in g a wh o l e

On
ne w s y s t em , a nd pr o d uc in g s tr ea m l in e d f ore c as ts f or f urt h er s y s te m d ev e l o pm e nt .

Ben ef its

• It is us ed t o s k e tc h ou t t h e pr o b le m an d d et er m in e w h et h er a v i ab l e or s u i ta b l e
s o lu t io n c a n b e fo u nd .

ty
• T h e pr im ar y g o a l of a fe as i bi l i ty s tu dy is t o d et er mi n e th e s c o p e of t h e pr ob l em
rat h er th a n to s olv e i t.

si
•Th e o u tc o m e o f a f eas i b i li ty a n a ly s is is th at a for m a l s y s t em pro p os al ac t as
dec is i on d oc u m e nt th a t i nv o lv es th e c o mpr e he ns iv e c h ar ac t er is t ic s an d fe at ur es of
th e pr op os e d fr a m ew o r k .
er
2. 1. 2 . Req ui r em ent s def init ion
iv
Un
ity
m
)A
(c
 e
lin
On
ty
si
er
iv
Un

1. D efi ne Fu nct ion al Req ui r em ent s

De f in i ti o n o f r eq u ir em en ts is b o th a n ar t a nd a s c i enc e. It n ec e s s it a tes a na ly s ts
work i n g d ir ec t ly wi t h c l ie n ts an d dr a wi n g on t h e ir c o mm u n ic a t i on an d t ec h n ic a l
ab i l it i es t o unc ov er u nd er p in n i ng c l ie n t re q u ire m en ts t h at a s y s t em s o l ut i on c ou l d
ity

res o lv e. O ne o f t h e mos t p ot en t ia l m is tak e is at t em p ti n g to " l e ap t o a s o lu t io n"

wi t ho ut a t h or o u gh k no w le d ge of t he c us t om er's op er at i on a l is s ues a n d b as ic
ne e ds . R eq u ir em e nts an a ly s is is , by d ef i ni t io n , a n ex pl or at or y an d dy na m ic
proc es s . Cus t om er s fr eq u en t ly c o ul d n o t s uf fic i e nt ly s t at e wh a t th e y tr u ly ne e d u nt i l
th ey s e e wh a t th ey h a v e r e qu es t e d i n pr i or d em a nds it er at i ons w i t h a n IT t ea m .
m

As prev i o us ly m en t i o ne d , a n it er at iv e pr o j ec t s t ra te gy m ig h t w e ll b e re q u ire d ,
wh er e in r e pe a te d s e qu e nc es o f R e qu ir e m en ts De f in i ti o n, Sy s t em D es ig n, a n d
Sy s t e m B u il d p has es wo u l d pr ogr es s iv ely de f in e a nd b u i ld t h e s o lu t i on i n a n
)A

it er at iv e or s p ir a l a ppr oac h .

W h il e c r e at i n g a pr oj e c t - s p ec if ic pr o pos a l, k ee p i n m i nd t ha t th e W ork Br eak d ow n

Str uc tur e fo r s uc h a s ta g e d o es no t al w ay s por tr ay t h e ord er i n w h ic h t he pr oc es s
an d t as k s mus t b e c om p l et e d on a s p ec if ic pr oj ec t. B ec a us e t he R e qu ir e me n ts
De f in i ti o n P has e is it er a t iv e an d ex p lor a to ry i n n at ur e, i t is re c om m e nd e d th at
(c

s ta g es 1 - 4 ( De f in e F u nc t i on a l R e qu ir e m en ts , D ef i ne N on - Fu nc t i o n a l R eq u ir em e nts ,
an d C on d uc t Ex is t i ng S o l ut i on I nv en t ory a nd G ap A na ly s is ) b e ov er l ap p ed a n d
ex ec u te d c o nc u r r e nt ly wi t h a f in is h - t o- fi n is h r e li a nc e on t h e pu b l ic at i on .
 S ol u ti o n r eq u ir em e nt s ar e c l as s if i e d a s " Fu nc t i on a l" or " No n - F un c t i on a l."
Fu nc t i on a l r e q u ir e m e nts de f in e w h at t h e s o l ut i o n m i gh t b e a b le t o do . N on -

e
Fu nc t i on a l r eq u ir em e nts ar e t hos e t h at are r e q uir e d f or t h e s ol u ti o n t o be
i nc or p ora t ed an d e n d or s e d b u t do no t c h a rac t er is e th e i n na t e b us in es s is s u e or
op p ort u n ity t o b e r ec t if i e d. F u nc t i on a l r eq u ir em e nts ar e d et er m i ne d i n a m a nn er

lin
th at e n ab l es th e m t o be in d ep e nd e nt o f a s pec i f ic t ec hn o l og ic a l i mp l e me n ta t io n s o
as t o b et t er c om pr e h en d t he c o ns um er's pro b l em a tic are a b ef o re for m u la t in g a
re me dy . T h ey c h ar ac t er is e th e a b i l it i es a n d f ea tu res of t h e n e c es s ary s o lu t io n
rat h er t h an s p ec if ic s of tw ar e f e at ur es . F o r ex am p l e, a F unc t io na l r e qu ir e me n t
m ig ht be : “ Th e s y s t e m s h a ll ac c e pt a s tu de n t r e gis tr at i on f or a c l as s ” or “T he

On
s y s te m s h a l l au t om a ti c a lly r ou t e th e a pp rov a l of a purc h as e r eq u i s it i o ns to a pre -
des i g na te d s i g n in g a ut hor i ty fo r a p art ic u lar un i t”.

Dur i n g t h e a na ly s is pr oc es s , r e qu ir e me nt s m us t al w ay s b e e mp h as is e d . It is
ac c o m p l is h e d pr i m ar i l y by c at e go ris i n g an d as s es s i n g ev ery r e qu ir em e nt w it h th e
he l p o f c ons u m er i ns ig ht a n d th e re q u ire m en t 's c os t - be n ef i t r at i o. A s a n i ns t a nc e :

Req ui r em ent

ty
De s cr ipt ion
P rio r ity

A “ s h ow s to p per ” re q u ir em e nts , w i th o ut w hic h t h e s o l u ti o n is

Mus t H av e

si
of li tt l e us e or b e ne f it

De m ons tr ab l e e ff ic i en c y , c os t s av in gs , or i nc o m e pr o duc i ng
Pr ef err ed
er
r eq u ir e me nt

O pt i o na l In ta n g ib l e or s m a l l b e ne f its o n ly ; c os t > = be ne f it)

iv

Ca nc el To o c o mp l ex or c os t ly , or n o v a l u e ad d

W he n a n aly s i n g IT s o l ut i ons f or a s pec i f ic c ons u m er is s ue , t hre e m aj o r

Un

c ons i d era t io ns s h ou l d b e t ak en : Pr oc es s , Da ta , a nd B e hav i or . Th e w ork ac t iv i ty

an d s t eps t h at t h e s o l ut i on mus t s u pp or t ar e r ef err e d to as t h e p roc es s . Th e t er m
" da ta" r e fer s to t he i nf or ma t io n an d f ac ts t ha t ar e r eq u ir ed to c arry ou t t h e pr oc es s .
Th e t er m " b e hav i o ur " r ef er s to t he pr oc es s 's a n im a ti o n an d i nt erac t io n w it h t h e
proc es s 's ac to r s . T h e s e el e m en ts are i d e n ti f ie d a n d a re i nt err e l at e d in ev ery IT
s o lu t io n, bu t th e ir i m p or t a nc e w i l l v ary d ep e nd i n g on t h e es s e nc e of t he c us t om er
de m an ds . A F ac u l ty La d de r R ank i n g p roc es s , a St u d en t R e g is t rat i on pr oc es s , a
ity

fac i l ity m on i to r i n g p r oc es s , an d a D a ta Ma rt or D ec is i on S u pp or t Sy s t e m, for

ex a m p le , w i l l a l l d i ff e r in th e a m o un t o f d at a, pr oc es s , a n d b e hav i o ur i nv o lv e d.
W he n c ons i d er in g ac tiv i t ies i n t h is p h as e, th e an a ly s t m us t us e th e ir bes t
j ud g em e nt t o d ev el o p a pr oj ec t - s p ec if ic a p pro ac h t ha t a dd res s e s t h is v ar i at i on in
th e pr ob l e m d om a i n.
m

▪ Th e an a ly s t mus t a ls o c h oos e t he me th o d fo r g at h e r in g d at a t ha t wi l l b e us ed
to c a p tur e r e q u ir e m en ts as a f i n al c o ns id er at i on . C us t o me rs m ay b e
i nt erv ie w ed in d iv id u a l l y , i n s m a ll gr ou ps , du ri ng f ac i l it at e d w ork s es s io ns , or
)A

i n s om e c o mb i n at i on of t hes e m et h ods . T h e ex ac t ap pr o ac h a n d s e qu e nc in g
of wo r k m us t b e de t er mi n ed a n d a gr ee d up o n w i th t he c l i en t i n or d er t o
m in i m is e d is r u pt i o n to t he ir da i ly o p era t io ns w h il e m ax i m is i n g p art ic ip a ti o n of
k ey s t ak e h ol d er s a n d s u bj ec t ma tt er ex p er ts . Bec a us e th e S o l ut i on C o nt ex t
Di a gr am s e r v es as a b o un d ary a nd b as e l i n e f or t h e an a ly s is ef for t, it is
s tro n gly adv is e d th at i t b e c r e at e d i n a f ac il i ta t ed w ork s es s i o n w it h th e
(c

l arg es t nu m be r of c us t om er re pr es en ta t iv es an d t he Pr oj ec t S po ns or pr es e n t.
 ▪ Conf ir m t he a va il abi lit y of User Sub j ect Ma tte r Ex pe rts fo r
Req ui r em ent s De f in it ion.

e
Th e f ir s t c r it ic a l s t ep in de f in i ng r e qu ir e m en ts is i de nt i fy in g t h os e pe o p le
wh o u n der s t an d t h e pr ob l e m d o ma i n a n d c a n s p e ak w it h a ut h or ity a b o ut t h e
c l ie n t's an d c us t o m er c o ns t it u enc y 's ne e ds . Wh e n a s ol u ti o n wi l l s erv e a

lin
l arg e an d div er s e s e t of c us t o mers , it w il l b e n ec es s ary t o c o l l ab ora t e w it h
c l ie n t l e ad er s h ip t o i de n ti fy a s ubs e t o f c us t o mers wh o c a n ad e qu a te ly
rep r es e nt t he la r g er s et o f c us to m ers wh o w i l l us e t h e IT s o l ut i on .

On
▪ Cr e at e a So lut ion Co nt e xt Di ag r am
It is nec es s ar y t o c r e at e a gr a p hic a l re pr e s en t at i on of t he i nt er fac es a n d
bo u nd ar i es o f t h e pr ob l e m ar e a or pr oc e s s t o be a na ly z e d. T he c o nt ex t
d ia gr am mus t d e pic t a l l k n ow n a n d re l e v an t ex ter n a l a ge nts or ac t ors
(or ga n iz a t io ns , s y s t em s , r o l es , ex t ern a l p roc es s es , a n d s o on ) as we l l as th e
maj or i n for m at i on s tr ea ms i n a n d ou t o f t he a re a f or th e e x c ha n ge of
i nf or ma t io n or r es p o ns e to ev e nts .

ty
• Cr e at e a P ro ce s s Mo del
Ex c el l e nt tr e at is es o n th e d ev e l o pm e nt of pr oc es s mo d e ls h av e be en w ri tt e n,
an d a c o m pl e te ex pl a na t io n is f ar be y o nd t he p urv ie w o f t h is h a nd b ook . T he

si
go a l o f c r e a ti n g a pr o c es s m o de l is t o c o m p reh e n d th e ef for ts b e i ng m ad e as
we l l as t he d ut i es of th e nu m er ous ac t ors in t he pr oc es s . Fu nc t i on a l
Dec o mp os it i o n D i a gr a ms an d Cr os s - F unc t i on a l W ork f l ow m o d el s m us t b e
dev is e d w it h c us t o me r s ubj ec t m at t er ex p ert s i n c as es wh er e t h e p roc es s f l ow
er
as p ec t of t he pr o b l e m d om a i n is s i gn i f ic an t. A F u nc t i on a l D e c om p os it i on
Di a gr am may b e s u ff ic ie n t i n s i mp l er c as es to par t it i on , d ec o mp os e, an d
des c r i b e th e ac t iv i t ies o f t h e ar ea u n d e r s t udy . T h e ex t e nt o f a po t en t ia l IT
s o lu t io n is c a lc u la te d by a na ly z i ng t h e ex i s ti n g s ta te pr oc es s m od e l to t h e
v i ab l e v is i o n o r " To B e" pr oc es s m o de l th at th e c l ie n t ex p ec ts th e ne w IT
iv

s o lu t io n t o s up p or t .

• Cr e at e a Hig h - L ev el Dat a Mo de l
Un

To d ef i ne t h e c us t o m er 's d at a n ee ds a n d maj or b us in es s ru l es , a n e nt ity

re la t io ns h ip d i agr a m ( ER D) at t h e c o nc ep t u a l lev e l s ho u l d be c r ea t ed . T h is
s ho u l d inc l u de t he m aj or f u nd a m en ta l a n d as s oc ia t iv e e nt i ty ty p es , as w e l l as
th e ir pr i mar y a ttr i b ut e s a nd re l a ti o ns h i ps . T h is s ho u ld b e a c o nc ep t ua l l ev el
ER D t h at is n ot d e p en d en t o n a n y p ar t ic u l ar p hy s ic a l d at a bas e
i mp l e me nt a ti o n. Its p r i mar y g o a l is t o en ab l e v a li d at i o n o f bu s i nes s d at a
req u ir e me nts , t er ms , an d b us i nes s r u les , a s w e l l as t o pr ov i de f ee d bac k to
des i g ner s a nd d at ab a s e a d m in is tra t ors w ho w i l l bu i l d m or e d et a i l ed l og ic a l
ity

an d p hy s ic a l d a ta mo d e ls for im p l em e nt at i o n . I f t he c u rre nt s it u at i on inv o lv es

an ex is t i ng IT s ol u ti o n , ex is t i n g c o nc e p tu a l d at a m o d els fro m th e s o lu t io n c a n
be r e us e d or r ev er s e e n g in e ere d . Th e d at a m o de l c o u l d a ls o be us e d t o
de f in e fr es h b us i nes s r e gu l at i o ns an d d at a re qu ir e m en ts f or t he pr op os e d
s o lu t io n.
m

▪ Cr e at e U s e Ca s e s
Us e Cas es fac i l it a te t he tr ans i t io n fr o m t h e proc es s m od e l t o th e h u m an -
s y s te m in t er ac t io n t h at wi l l be s u pp or te d by t he IT s ol u ti o n. H i g h - lev e l
)A

" bus i n es s " Us e Cas e s th a t c h ar ac t er iz e t he m aj or in t erac t io ns b et we e n

us er s a n d th e s o l ut i o n s ho u l d be d ef i n ed . If a c ros s - f unc t io n a l w ork f l ow
mo d e l h as b e en c r ea te d, c an d i da t e Us e Cas es c a n b e id e nt i f i ed at t h e
po i nts wh er e c us t om e r r o les i nt er ac t wi t h t he s y s te m to c o mp l et e a tas k .
J ud g me n t m us t b e u s ed to e ns ur e t h at t he Us e C as es c an b e v a l i da te d
d irec t ly w it h th e c us to m er w h i le a ls o s er v i ng as a f ou n da t io n f or t h e
(c

A pp l ic at i on Dev e l op er s t o d ev e lo p mor e d et a i le d Us e C as es d ur in g t h e
Sy s t e m D es i g n P h as e .
 Def in ing Fun ct i on al Req ui r em ent s

e
As a res u lt of t he pr ec ed i n g ac t iv it i es i n t his s t ag e , f u nc t i o na l re q u ire m en ts w i ll be
d is c ov er ed t hr o u gh a c om b i na t io n of c o nv er s at i ons w it h c us t o mer s an d a na ly s is of
th e c o nt ex t m o de l , p r oc es s mo d e ls , d at a mo d e l, a n d us e c as e s . T he B us i n es s

lin
A na ly s t s i mp ly d oc um en ts th es e Fu nc t i o na l R eq u ir em e nts d ur i ng t his ac t iv ity in
pre p ar at i on for m or e f or ma l r eq u ir em e nts s p ec if ic at i on , gr o up i n g, an d r ank i n g l a ter
i n th e s t ag e.

2. Est ab li sh No n - Fun ct i ona l R equ ir em ent s

On
No n- f u nc t i o na l r e q ui r e me n ts i nc l u de al l o f th e c ha rac te ris t ic s th at t he s o l ut i o n m us t
hav e i n or der t o b e u s ab l e, f as t , r e l ia b l e, s ec ur e , an d a pp e a li n g to us ers . D ur i ng
th is s t ag e , th e t ea m wi l l i d en t ify , c at e go ris e, a n d pr io ri t is e t h e v a r io us ty pes o f
req u ir e me nts .

• Det e rm in e t h e R equ i r em ent s f or th e S olut i on T e chno log y P l atfo rm

ty
If th e tec h no l o gy pl a tf or m r e q u ir e d t o s u p po rt t h e s o l u ti o n is k no w n at th is p o in t, i t
s ho u l d be s p ec if i ed . It is ex pec t ed t ha t i n m any c as es , t h e s ol ut i on w i l l be a n
ex t e ns i o n of a n ex is ti ng I T S er v ic e , an d t hu s t he t ec hn o lo gy p l at f or m r eq u ir em e nts
wi l l b e k n o wn . D ur in g th is ac t iv ity , c urr en t IT Arc h i tec t ure s t a n dar d s s h o u ld als o b e
c ons i d ere d .

• E va lu at e T e chno log y V endo r (CO T S) si

er
▪ If a C o mm er c i a l O ff - Th e- Sh e lf (C O T S) s o l ut i on is b ei n g c o ns i der e d, its
tec h no l ogy p la tf or m mus t b e as s es s e d a g a ins t f unc t io n a l r e qu i re me nts i n
th is ac t iv i ty as w el l as t h e I T Arc h i tec t ure . F ur th er mo re , t h e v e n d or's
fi n anc i a l v i ab i l i ty an d qu a l if ic at i ons (r ef er en c es , e tc .) s ho u ld be a s s es s e d .
▪
iv

De f in e t he r eq u ir em e nts f or q u al i ty , de p en da b i l ity , av ai l a bi l i ty , a nd s erv ic e

l ev e l .
▪ Th e te a m s h o u ld doc um e nt t h e s o l ut i on 's ex p ec ta t io ns i n t er ms o f s y s t e m
qu a l ity , r el i a b il i ty , a v a il a b il i ty w i n do ws , an d ov era l l IT S erv ic e lev e l
Un

req u ir e me nts .
▪ Def in e P e rf o rm an ce Req ui r em ent s
▪ A ny s y s te m p er for m anc e a n d v o lu m et ric i n for m at i o n (r es po n s e t im e ,
tra ns ac t i on v o lu m es a nd c y c l es , c onc urr en t us ers , d at as et s iz e a nd gr ow th
rat e, ar c h iv a l n ee ds , e tc .) th at c a n b e us e d t o d ef i n e t h e p erf or m a nc e n ee ds
an d m et r ic s f or t h e s o l ut i on s ho u ld be c a p tur ed an d es ti m at e d by t he t e am .
▪ Det e rm in e S ec ur it y, Leg al , R egul at or y, an d Co mp li an ce R eq ui r em ent s
ity

▪ A ny s ec ur ity , l eg a l, r eg u l at ory , a n d c o m p l ia nc e r eq u ir em e nts s ho u l d b e

doc u me n te d a nd v er if i ed w i th t h e c l ie n t, a nd s h ou l d b e c o mp ar ed t o F e der a l,
St a te , U C, an d U C S C IT c om p l ia nc e p o l i c i es . T he pr oj ec t t ea m s h o ul d
c ons u lt t h e S ec u r i ty D es ig n P ac k ag e f or g ui da nc e o n po l ic i es th at w i l l gu i d e
s y s te m a nd da t a c l a s s if ic at i o n, t he re by i de n ti fy in g s ec ur ity r e qu ir e me n ts
m

th at mus t b e m et w it h i n th e s y s t em des i g n.
▪ Det e rm in e t h e IT B ud get Co nst r ain ts on th e So lut ion
▪ If t he s o l ut i o n has any ex is t in g b ud g et c o ns tr a i nts , t h es e s ho u l d be
i de nt i f ie d i n th is ac t i v ity t o g ui d e d ec is i o n m ak in g a nd t h e ge n era t io n o f
)A

s o lu t io n o pt i o ns . T he te a m s h ou l d a ls o as s e s s t he f e as ib i l ity of m ee t in g t he
s o lu t io n r e qu ir e me n ts i n l ig h t of th e c l i en t's f in a nc ia l c o ns tr a in ts an d
ex p ec ta t io ns .
(c
 Non - F unc t io na l Re qu ir em ent s M ust B e Do cum ent ed

e
Th e Bus i n es s A na ly s t d oc u me nts t h e N o n - F unc t io n a l r eq u ir em en ts d is c ov er e d
dur i n g th is s t a ge .

lin
3. Co ndu ct an i nv ent or y o f ex i st in g sol uti ons a nd a ga p an al y s is .

• O rg an iz e Ex i st in g So lut i ons i n Re l atio n to R equ ir e men ts

Th e fu nc ti o na l an d n o n - f u nc t i on a l re q ui re m e nts s h o u ld be ma p pe d a g ai ns t ex is t i n g

On
IT s erv ic es a nd s o lu t i ons to s ee if an ex is t i ng s o lu t io n c a n b e r e us e d , p art i a lly or
c om p l et e ly , t o m ee t t h e n ee ds o f th e c l i en t.

• Ide nt if y Fun ct i on al G ap s in t he Sol uti on

If a pr e - ex is t in g s ol u t i on th at p art i al ly m ee ts th e r eq u ir em e nts is d is c ov ere d , t he

s hor tc om i n gs or g aps i n th e s o l ut i on s ho u l d be no te d a n d we i g ht ed f or i m por ta nc e.

ty
• Cr e at e St rat eg i es t o Clo s e So lut ion G a ps

Dur i n g t h is ac t iv i ty , t h e t e am w i ll d ev is e s tr a te g ies a nd a p pro ac hes to f il l fu nc t io n al

si
ga ps b et we e n t h e r e q u ir e m en ts a nd t he ex i s ti n g s ol u t io n. T hir d - p arty " b o lt - o ns " o r
ad d it i o na l m o du l es f o r s o ft war e p ac k ag e s o lu t io ns , us e o f ot h er ex is t i n g s o lu t io n
c om p on e nts , o r c us to m d ev e lo p me n t a n d i nt erf ac e d ev e lo p me n t are ex am p l es o f
th es e s tra te g i es .
er
• Sp e cif y t he Sol ut io n G ap R equ i re me nts

Th e fu nc t i o na l g a ps i n th e s o l ut i on a n d th e s tr at e gi es f or a ddr es s i ng t he m s h o u ld
iv

be r ef i n ed i nt o a s et o f s o l ut i on ga p r eq u ir e me n t s t at e me nts th a t wi l l be i nc l u de d in
th e f in a l R eq u ir em e nts S p ec if ic at i on doc u me nt .

4. Sp ec ify R eq ui r em e nt s
Un

Th e fu nc t i o na l g a ps i n th e s o l ut i on a n d th e s tr at e gi es f or a ddr es s i ng t he m s h o u ld
be r ef i n ed i nt o a s et o f s o l ut i on ga p r eq u ir e me n t s t at e me nts th a t wi l l be i nc l u de d in
th e f in a l R eq u ir em e nts S p ec if ic at i on doc u me nt .
▪ Req ui r em ent s Com pi l at i on
Ev en i n a m ed i u m - s i z ed pr oj ec t, th e nu m ber o f re q ui re m en ts c ap t ure d c an b e
d if fic u lt to ma n ag e a nd ev a l u at e w it h t h e c li e nt t e a m. T o a i d in t h is pr oc es s ,
req u ir e me nts s h ou l d be s p ec i f ie d in a c o n s is t e nt , s tr uc t ur ed m a nn er t o f ac i l it at e
ity

ma n ag e m en t a nd ev a l u a t io n. T o h el p w it h t his ef for t, a r eq u ir em e nts t e mp l at e

bas e d o n th e Vo l er e R e qu ir e me nts S p e c if ic at i o n Te m p la t e f ro m t he A t la nt ic
Sy s t e ms G u i l d was c r e at e d.
▪ Req ui r em ent s mu st b e e va lu ate d and ran k ed.
Th e s et of r eq u ir e m e n ts s h o u ld b e ev al u at e d an d pr i ori t is ed b as e d on us er pr i or ity
m

an d c ri t ic al i ty .
▪ Imp le me nt a t io n G rou p a nd P ha s e Re qui r e ment s
S om e r e q uir e m en ts wi l l s h ar e lo g ic a l d ep e nd e nc ies a n d af f i ni ty . Wh e n
c ons i d er in g t h e s c o p e of th e i ni t ia l s o l ut i on to b e i m p le m e nt ed , t h e t e am s h ou l d
)A

us e t his i n for m at i o n, a lo n g w i th th e r e qu ir e me n t ra nk i ng i nf or m at i on , t o gro u p

an d p h as e th e r eq u ir e me n ts fo r i m pl e m en ta t i on s eq u enc e a n d p erf or m a tr a de -
of f a na ly s is . A t t his po i nt , a l l k n ow n re q ui re me n ts s h ou l d b e c a pt u red , gr o up e d,
an d p has e d – ev e n i f th ey g o bey o nd t h e s y s te m's c urr e nt p l an n e d s c op e . T h is
is s ig n if ic a nt bec a us e an i nt e nd e d n ec es s it y in a s ubs e qu e nt d e s i gn e d s t ag e
c ou l d w el l im p ac t t h e l ay o u t of pr ev i ous s y s t em des i g ns i n c ert a i n s it u at i ons .
(c
 Pub li c ati on of t h e R e qui re m ent s Sp e cif ic a tion

e
Th e R eq u ir em e nts S p ec if ic at i on was pu b l is he d a n d d is tr ib ut e d f or rev i ew to t h e
c l ie n t an d k ey s tak e ho l der s d ur i ng t h is ac t iv i ty . Doc u m en t v ers io n c on tr ol is c r it ic a l
i n th is a n d l at er s t ag es as f ee d bac k f ro m mu l t ip l e s t ak e h ol d ers is r ec e iv e d a nd

lin
c orr ec t i ons ar e m a d e. As a r es u lt , it is s ug ges t ed th a t a s i ng l e t ea m m em b er b e
as s ig n ed t o m a na g e v er s io n c o nt ro l f or t he Re q ui re m en ts S p ec if ic at i on doc u m en t
as we l l as t h e r ec or d i n g of t h e a ppr ov a l proc es s for agr e ed - u p on c ha n ges .

5. O bt ai n Req ui r em e nt s Ap pr ov al

On
Condu ct a re v iew of t he r equ i re me nts w ith th e spon so r s.

A f or ma l rev i ew me e t i ng w i th th e c l i e nt , k ey s t ak e h o ld ers , a nd s p ons ors s h o u ld be

he l d t o ga t her f e ed b ac k o n t he R e qu ir e me nts S p ec if ic at i on de l iv era b le .

Add re s s R equi r em en t s and I s su es

ty
Is s u es r ais e d d ur i ng t h e R e qu ir e me n ts Rev i ew s h ou l d b e d oc u m en t ed i n t h e
Pr oj ec t Is s ue lo g by t h e Pr oj ec t M a na g er a n d a ddr es s e d i n a s y s t em a tic m an n er by
th e t e a m. T o av oi d gr i dl oc k a nd " a na ly s is p ara ly s is ," is s u es s ho u l d b e pr io ri t iz e d
an d w ei g ht e d in r e l at i on t o th e s et o f pr ior i t iz ed re q ui re m en ts . Be f ore m ov i ng o n to

si
th e nex t ph as e, t he p r oj ec t t e a m a n d s po n s or s ho u l d s tr iv e t o r es o lv e a ll m aj or
is s ues . M i no r is s u es c an b e p os t p on e d a nd ad dr es s ed dur i n g t he s o lu t io n re l e as e
p la n ni n g pr oc es s .
er
O bta in t he Spo nso r' s Aut ho riz at i on of th e Req ui r em ent s

Th e c ons u m er , IT S , a n d ex ec u t iv e s p o ns o rs mus t a l l g iv e of f ic i a l w rit t en c o ns e nt t o

iv

th e R eq u ir em e nts Sp e c if ic at i o n.
Un

2. 1. 3 D ete r min ing re q uir e me nt s

A r e qu ir e me n t is a n ec es s ar y as p ec t of a n ew s y s t em w h ic h m i gh t i nc l u de d a ta
proc es s i ng or c a pt ur e, b us in es s ac t iv i ty c o ntr o l, k n ow l e dg e pr od uc ti o n, a nd
s up erv is or s u pp or t.
Th e pr oc es s o f d et er m in i n g r e qu ir e m en ts e nt a i ls s t udy i ng th e ex i s ti n g s y s t em a nd
ga t her i n g de ta i ls t o d et er m in e wh a t t h e pr e req u is it es ar e, h o w it ap p ea rs t o w ork ,
ity

or wh er e a dv a nc e me nt s m us t be ma d e.
Si gnif i ca nt Init i at i v e s in t he Pe r s ev e ra nc e o f Req ui r em e nt s
Anti c ipa tion of R equ i re m ent s
• I t pr ed ic ts s y s te m c h ar ac t er is t ic s b as e d o n pr ev io us ex p er ie nc e, s uc h as s pec i fic
pro b l ems or fe a tur es a nd s y s t e m r e qu ir e me n t s f or a n ew s y s t e m.
m

Th is c ou l d r es u lt t o an a ly z at i on o f as pec t s t ha t an in ex per i e nc ed a n a ly s t w o u l d
ot h erw is e ov er l ook . H ow ev er , if s h ortc uts a re o b ta i ne d an d pr ef e renc e is in i t ia te d
dur i n g th e i n qu ir y , m a nd a te es t im a t io n m i gh t w e ll be c o m pr om is e d.
)A

Inv e sti gat ion of R equ ir em ent s

• It is r es e ar c h in g t h e ex is t i ng m od e l an d d es c r ib i n g i ts c har ac t e ris t ic s fo r
fu tur e us e.
•
(c

A na ly s ts us e f ac t - fi n d in g s tr at e g ies , pr ot oty p in g , a nd c om p ut er - as s is t ed
to o ls t o d oc u m en t a n d des c r i b e s y s t e m f e at ur es at th e h ear t o f s y s t e m
an a ly s is .
 Req ui r em ent s De s c ri pt ion

e
• It c o ns is ts o f d at a a na ly s is t o d et er mi n e t he r eq u ir em e nt s p e c if ic at i o n,
fu nc t i o na l ity of d es c r i pt i ons f or t he n e w s y s te m, an d c l e arl y s t at i ng ho w
muc h i n for m at i o n r eq u ir em e nts w o ul d b e m a de av a i l ab l e.

lin
• It e nt a i ls th e ex am i n at i on of f ac t ua l d a ta , t he u n de rs t an d i ng o f t h e k ey
pre r e q uis i tes , a nd t h e c l as s i f ic a t io n o f r e qu ir em e nt - f ul f i ll m e nt s tr at eg i es .

Te chn iqu es f o r G at he rin g Inf o rm at ion

On
Th e pr i m ar y g o a l o f f ac t - f i nd i n g m e th o d s is t o as c er t ai n a n or g an iz a ti o n's
i nf or ma t io n r e qu ir e m en ts , w h ic h ar e t he n ut i l is e d by a n aly s t s to o rg a nis e a
c onc is e S R S th a t th e us er un d er s t a nds .
Th e op t i mu m S R S d oc um e nt s h o u ld -
• be c om pr eh e ns iv e , d ef i ni t e an d j ar g on fr e e.

ty
• De f in e d, or g an is at i o na l, s tr a te g ic , a n d fu l f i ls tac t ic a l i n for m at i on ne eds .
• res o lv e a ny d is agr e em en ts t ha t m ay ar is e be tw ee n us ers a n d an a ly s ts .
• em p l oy s gr ap h ic al a i d s t o fac i l it a te c o m pr eh ens i o n an d d es i gn .

Th ere are n u m er o us m et h ods f or c o l l ec t i ng d at a -

si
er
Int er vi ew ing

A s y s te ms an a ly s t c o l l ec ts i nf or ma t io n fro m i nd iv i du a ls or gro u ps by in t erv ie w in g

iv

th e m. T he an a ly s t c o u ld b e pr o fes s i o na l , p res c r ip t iv e , p o l it ic al , or c as ua l , as t he
ef fec t iv e n es s of an i nt er v ie w is de p en d e nt o n t h e a n a ly s t's ex p er tis e as an
i nt erv ie w er .
Un

Th ere are t w o ap pr oac hes t h at c a n b e t ak e n

• Uns tr uc t ur e d I nt er v i e w - Th e s y s t e m a na ly s t u nd er tak es a qu e s ti o n - a n d-
ans w er s es s io n t o g at her s t a nd ar d s y s t e m i nf or ma t io n .
• Str uc tur e d I nt er v i ew - I t i nc lu d es v ar i ous b a s ic q ues t io ns t o w h ic h t h e us er
mus t a ns w er i n e i th er a c l os e ( obj ec t iv e) or op e n ( d es c r ip t iv e) s ty l e.
ity

The B en ef it s of Int e r vi ew ing

• Th is t ec hn i qu e is of t en th e m os t ef fec t iv e me t ho d of ga i n in g q ua l i ta t iv e
da t a.
m

• It is b e ne f ic i a l f or t h os e wh o are u na b le to ef fec t iv e ly c om m u n ic a te i n
wri tt e n fo r m o r wh o d o n ot hav e t he o p po rt un ity t o f i nis h a q u es t i on na ir e.
• I nf or ma t io n c a n b e q u ic k ly af f ir me d a nd c r os s - c hec k e d.
)A

• It is c a p a bl e o f d ea l i n g w it h c o mp l ic at e d s u bj ec ts .
• It is s im p l e to d is c ov er k ey pr o b le ms by s o l ic it i n g op i n io ns ;
• It is s im p l e to c o m pr e he n d m a in c h a l le n ges by pr oc ur i n g op i n i ons ;
• It c ov er s u p t h e o p en i n gs i n th e r a ng e s of c o nf us io ns an d red uc es
(c

for thc o m in g d i ff ic ul t ie s .

Q ue sti onn ai r es
 S uc h a t ec hn i q ue w ou l d b e us e d by a na ly s ts to c o l l ec t k no w le d ge ab o ut
v ar ie d s y s t em is s u es f r o m a l ar ge n u mb er o f p eo p le . Q u es t i on n a ir es are c l as s if i e d

e
i nt o tw o ty pes .

• O pen - en de d Q u est io nna ir e s - T h is ty p e o f qu es ti o nn a ir e inc l u des qu es ti o ns

lin
th at c o u ld b e q uic k ly a nd ac c ur at e ly be c ons tr ue d. it c o ul d i nv es t i ga t e a
d if fic u lty an d c o ntr i b ut e to a par t ic u l ar s o l ut i on .
• Clo s ed - end ed Q ue st i onna i re s - It c o nt a i n qu es ti o ns wh ic h are u s ed w h en
th e s y s t ems a n a ly s t e f fic ac i ous ly rec or ds a l l mu t ua l ly ex c l us iv e r es po ns es .

On
Ben ef its of Q u e st io n nai r e s
• It is v e r y ef f ic ac i ous i n i nv es t i ga t in g n o n - c o- loc at e d us ers ' i n te res ts ,
be h av ior s , e mo t io ns , a nd op i n io ns .
• It is b e ne f ic ia l t o fi n d ou t h o w m a ny p eo p l e i n a s p ec if i ed p op u l at i on
s up p or t o r op p os e of a p art ic u l ar c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e pr op os e d mo de l .

ty
• B ef or e giv i n g any s p e c if ic d ir ec t i o n t o t he s y s te m pr oj ec t, i t is us ef u l to
as c er t ai n t h e ov er a l l o p in i on .
• It is m or e d e pe n da b l e a nd ens ur es t he a no ny m ity of c o m m en t s a n d

si
fe e db ac k .
• It is a de q u at e f or s e lec t in g c re d i b le da t a a n d pr ov id i n g s ta t is t ic a l
ev id e nc e t h at c o u l d be e m ai l e d or m a i le d.
er
Re vi ew of R ec or ds , P ro ce du re s, and Fo rm s
A n an a ly s is o f av a i l ab l e da t a, m et h o ds , a n d f or ma t io n a i ds i n g e ner a ti n g i ns ig h ts
i nt o a fr am e wor k by a na ly s i ng t h e ex is t i n g s y s te m's a b i l it i es , pr oc es s es , or ac t io ns .
Ben ef its
iv

• It e na b l es c o ns u mer s to ac c es s s o me i n for ma t io n a bo u t t h e org a n iz a t io n or

proc es s es b ef or e i mp o s i ng o n o th ers .
• It a ids in t he d oc um e n ta t io n of o p era t io n a l p roc es s es i n a br ie f s p an o f ti m e
Un

bec a us e pr oc es s h an db o ok s a n d s tr uc t ur e s c h ar ac t er is e t he l a y ou t a n d
fe at ur es of t h e ex is t i n g ar r an g e me nt .
• It c o u ld pr ov i de a s o li d k n ow l e dg e o f t h e tra ns ac t i ons ha n dl ed in t h e
org a n is a t io n , as w e l l as r ec o g n is e i n for m at i on f or c o mp ut a ti o n an d ev a l u at e
ef fec t iv e n es s .
• Th is c o u l d a s s is t a n an a ly s t i n un d ers t a nd i ng t he s y s te m's pr oc es s es t ha t
mus t b e e nd or s ed .
ity

• It a ddr es s es t he s it u at i on , t he p arts t h at are i mp ac te d, a nd t h e d es ire d

ou tc om e.
O bs e rv ati on
It is a w ay o f c o l l ec t i ng d at a t ha t i nv o lv es n ot ic i ng a nd s tu dy in g p eo p le ,
oc c ur r e nc es , a n d o bj e c ts . T he an a ly s t v is its t h e or ga n is at i on t o p erc e iv e h o w th e
m

c urr en t s y s te m w or k s an d t o c o mpr e he n d th e s y s te m's r eq u ir em e n ts .

Ben ef its
• It is a s t r a i gh tf or war d way t o c o l lec t d at a.
• It is us e fu l wh e n t h e a ut h e nt ic ity of th e da ta c o l lec t ed is c a ll e d in to
)A

qu es ti o n, or w h en t he c om p l ex i ty of c ert a in as p ec ts o f t he s y s te m pr ev e nt s
c l ear ex p l an a ti o n by e nd - us ers .
• It ge n er a t es qu i t e v a li d a nd pr ec is e i nf or ma t i on
• It y i e l ds a ll t h e fac e t o f r ec o rds t h at ar e i ns u ff ic ie n t an d o ut m o de d.
(c
 Joi nt App li c at io n De ve lop me nt ( J AD)
It is a nov e l I BM t ec h n iq u e th at us es or g an is ed a n d i nt e ns iv e w o rk s ho ps t o br i ng

e
ow n ers , us er s , a n aly s t s , d es i g ne r s , a n d b u i l ders to g et h er to d ef i n e a nd des i g n t he
s y s te m. J AD - tr a in e d a na ly s ts wh o h av e s om e s p ec i a l is e d s k i l ls s e rv e as w ork s h o p
fac i l it at ors .

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Ben ef its of J A D
• I t k ee ps c os ts d ow n by s u bs ti t ut i ng l e n gt hy tr ad i ti o n al i n terv i ew pr oc es s a n d
fo l l ow - u p me e ti n gs .
It is b e n ef ic ia l in c o r p or a t e s tr uc t ure t h at e n dors es m u tu a l c o nf l ic t res o l ut i o n.
• Pr om o tes p r o fes s i o n a l r e la t io ns h ip a m o ng work ers a t a l l l ev e ls .

On
• T h is c o ul d r es u lt t o t he c r ea t iv e dev e lo p m e nt o f a d es ig n ; •
• I t E n ab l es ex p los iv e gr o wt h a n d e nh a nc es au t hor i ty of in f orm a ti o n m an a ge m en t.

S ec ond ar y R e se a rc h or B ac kg ro und R ea di ng

By ac c es s in g t he g l ea n ed in f orm a ti o n, t h is proc es s is f re q u en t ly us ed f or

ty
i nf or ma t io n g at h er in g. It c on ta i ns s uc h a n or i gi n a lly c ol l ec te d i nf or ma t io n fr o m a ny
for e ig n or do m es t ic s o ur c e t h at t h e m ark e t er h as us ed .

Ben ef its

•
• si
It is mor e e as i ly ac c es s i bl e g iv en t h e a bu n da nc e of t he in t ern e t.
It pr ov i d es c r i tic a l i nf or ma t io n w it h re d uc e d m o ney a n d ef f ort .
er
• It b eh av es as p i on e er t o pr im ary res e arc h an d l i n es up t h e e mp has is o f
pr im ar y r es e ar c h.
• It is us e d by th e r es e ar c h er t o c o nc l u d e if t he r es e arc h is w ort h i t as it is
av a i l ab l e w it h pr oc ed u r es us ed a n d is s u es i n c o l l ec t i ng t h em .
iv

Fe as ib ili ty A na ly s is
Un

Fe as i b i l ity s t ud i es a r e pr e li m i nary inv es t i ga t io ns t ha t as s is t ma n ag e m en t i n

de t erm i n in g wh et h er a s y s t em s tu dy is f e as ib l e f or dev e lo pm e nt or no t. It
rec o g n is es t he p ot e nt i al o f dev e l op i ng t he pres e nt fr a me work , c r ea t in g a wh o l e
ne w s y s t em , a nd pr o d uc in g s tr ea m l in e d f ore c as ts f or f urt h er s y s te m d ev e l o pm e nt .

Ben ef its
ity

• It is us ed t o s k e tc h ou t t h e pr o b le m an d d et er m in e w h et h er a v i ab l e or s u i ta b l e
s o lu t io n c a n b e fo u nd .

• T h e pr im ar y g o a l of a fe as i bi l i ty s tu dy is t o d et er mi n e th e s c o p e of t h e pr ob l em
rat h er th a n to s olv e i t.
m

•Th e o u tc o m e o f a f eas i b i li ty a n a ly s is is th at a for m a l s y s t em pro p os al ac t as

dec is i on d oc u m e nt th a t i nv o lv es th e c o mpr e he ns iv e c h ar ac t er is t ic s an d fe at ur es of
th e pr op os e d fr a m ew o r k .
)A

St e ps Inv o lv ed in F ea s i bi l i ty A na ly s is
Th e fo l l ow i ng s t e ps ar e to be f o l lo we d w h i le per f orm i n g fe as i bi l i ty an a ly s is −
• For m a pr oj ec t t ea m a nd ap p oi n t a pr oj ec t l e ad er .
• Dev e lo p s y s t e m fl o wc har ts .
• Id e nt ify t h e d ef ic ie nc i es of c urre n t s y s te m a nd s et g o als .
(c

• E nu m er a t e t h e al t er n at iv e s ol u ti o n or po te nt i a l c a n d id at e s y s te m t o m ee t
go a ls .
 • De ter m i ne t h e f eas i b i l ity o f e ac h a lt er na t iv e s uc h as t ec h n ic al f eas i b i li ty ,
op er at i o na l f eas i b i li ty , e tc .
•

e
W e ig ht t h e p er f or ma nc e a nd c os t e ff ec t i v en e s s o f e ac h c a n d id at e s y s te m.
• Ra nk t he o t her al t er n a tiv es a n d s e lec t th e b e s t c an d i da te s y s t e m.
• Pr ep ar e a s y s te m pr op os a l o f f in a l proj e c t d ir ec t iv e t o m a na g em e nt for

lin
ap pr ov al .

On
ty
Fe as ib ili ti es of v a ri o us k ind s

si
E cono mi c Fe a sib il it y
• It is as s es s i n g th e ef fec t iv e n es s of th e c an d i da te s y s t e m t hro u gh a c os t - b en e fi t
an a ly s is .
• I t d em o ns tr a tes t h e ne t b en e fi t of t h e c a n d id at e s y s t em in t er ms o f or ga n is a t io n a l
er
be n ef i ts an d c os ts .
• T h e pr im ar y g o al of Ec o n om ic F eas i b il i ty A na ly s is ( E F S) is t o es t i m at e th e
ec o n om ic r eq u ir em e nt s o f a c a nd i d at e s y s t e m b ef or e c o mm i tt i ng i nv es t me nt f u n ds
to a pro p os a l .
iv

• I t pr ef er s t he al t er na t iv e t h at w i l l m ax i m is e t h e or ga n iz a t io n's n et w or th by
ret ur n in g f un ds as s o on as pos s i b le an d w i th t he le as t a mo u nt o f r is k i nv olv e d i n
dev e l op i ng t h e c a nd i d at e s y s t em .
Tec hn ic a l S u it ab i l i ty
Un

• I t l o ok s i nt o t he pr ac tic a l i m p le m en ta t i on o f e ac h de p l oy m e nt o p ti on .
• I t a n a ly s es a n d d e t er mi n es w h et h er or n ot th e s o l ut i on is s u p por t ed by ex is t i n g
tec h no l ogy .
• T h e an a ly s t d e ter m i nes w h et h er ex is t i ng t ec h n ic al r es o urc es s h ou l d b e up gr a de d
or a dd e d to me et t h e n ew r e q u ir e m e nts .
• I t e ns ur es t ha t th e c a nd i d at e s y s te m re s po n ds ap pr o pr ia te ly to t he ex t en t to
ity

wh ic h i t c an s up p or t t h e tec h n ic a l e n ha nc em en t.

O pe r atio na l F e a sib il i t y
• It d e ter m i nes w h et her th e s y s t em is o p era t io n a l ly ef f ec t iv e a ft er i t h as b ee n
dev e l op e d an d im p le m en t ed .
m

• It ens ur es t ha t m a n ag e me n t w i ll s u pp ort t he pr op os ed s y s te m a nd th at it w il l be
op er at i o na l ly f eas i b le i n th e c ur r e nt or g an is a ti o na l e nv ir on m e nt .
• It d e ter m i nes wh et h er t he us er s wi l l b e i mp ac te d a n d w he th er t hey wi l l ac c e pt
mo d if i e d or n ew b us i nes s m et h ods th a t a ff ec t th e po t en t ia l s y s t em b en e fi ts . • I t
)A

a ls o e ns ur es t ha t t he c a n di d at e s y s te m 's c o m pu te r r es o urc es an d n et work

arc h i tec t ur e ar e op er a ti o na l .
(c
 Beh a vi or al F e as ibi li t y
• It ev a l ua tes an d es t i ma t es th e us er a tt i tu d e or b e hav i o ur to w ard t he dev e l o p m en t

e
of a ne w s y s te m .
• I t as s is ts i n d et er m i ni n g w he th er t h e s y s t em r e qu ir es s p ec ia l e ff ort t o e d uc a t e,
retr a i n, tr a ns f er , a nd c ha n ge e mp l oy e e j o b s t at us o n ne w w ay s of c on d uc t i ng

lin
bus i n es s .

S ch edu le F ea si bi lit y

• I t e ns ur es t ha t th e pr oj ec t is c o m p le te d wi t hi n th e ti m e c ons tr a in ts o r s c h e du l e

On
s pec i f ie d,

It als o c or r o bor a tes a nd au th e nt ic at es wh et h er th e t i me fr am es of pr oj ec t ar e

rat i on a l or n o t.

ty
2. 1. 4 M aj or act i vit ie s in r eq ui r em ent de te r min ati on

Maj or Ac t iv it i es i n th e De ter m i na t io n o f Re q u ir em e nts

Re q ui re m en ts A nt ic i pa ti o n
• It pr e dic ts t he c h ar ac t er is t ic s o f s y s te m b as ed on pr ev i ous ex p er i enc e w h ic h

si
i nc l u de c er t a in pr o b l e ms or f ea t ures a n d r e q u ire m en ts f or a n ew s y s te m.
• Th is c o ul d r es u lt in t o ev a l u at i on o f as pe c ts t ha t m i gh t g o u nac k n o wl e dg e d
by i nc o m p et en t a na ly s t. H ow ev er, i f s h ortc u t s ar e t ak e n a n d b ias i s
er
i ntr od uc e d dur i n g th e i nv es t ig a ti o n, r eq u ir em en t A nt ic i p at i on m ay b e
c om pr o m is e d.
iv

Requirements Investigation

• It is inv es ti g at i ng t h e c ur r en t s y s te m a n d d o c um e nt i n g its f e at ur es f or fu rt her

an a ly s is .
Un

• At th e he ar t o f s y s t e m a n a ly s is , an a ly s ts doc u me n t a n d d es c r i be s y s te m
fe at ur es us i n g f ac t - f i nd i n g t ec h n i qu es , pr ot oty p i ng , a n d c o m p ut er - a id e d
to o ls .

2. 1. 5 . Req ui r em ent s Sp e cif ic at ion s

• I t i nc l ud es d at a a na l y s is t o de t erm i n e th e r eq u ir em e nt s p ec if ic a ti on , f ea tur e
ity

des c r i pt i o ns for t h e n e w s y s te m, an d d es c r ib i ng h o w m uc h in for m at i on

req u ir e me nts w o u ld b e s u p pl i e d.

• I t e nt a i ls th e ex a m in at i on of f ac t u al da ta , t he id e nt i fic a ti o n of c r it ic al
req u ir e me nts , a nd t h e s e lec t io n o f r e qu ir e me nt - fu l f il l m en t s tr at e gi e s .
m

2. 1. 6 . Req ui r em ent a nal y si s t e chn iqu e s

Th e pr oc es s o f d ef i n in g th e ex p ec t at i ons of us ers f or a n a p pl ic at i o n th a t is t o be
)A

bu i l t or m od i f ie d is k n ow n as r e q u ire m en ts a na ly s is . It i nc l ud es a l l of t h e t as k s t h at
are c arr ie d o ut in or d e r t o i de n ti fy t he n e e ds of v ar i o us s tak e ho l d er s . As a res u lt ,
req u ir e me nts an a ly s is en t ai ls a n a ly s i n g, doc um e nt i n g, v a l i da t in g, an d m a na g i ng
s of tw ar e or s y s t em r e qu ir e me n ts . H i gh - q ua l i ty r eq u ir em e nts are d o c um e nt e d,
ac t i on a b le , m eas ur a bl e, t es t a b le , trac e a bl e , a id in t h e i de nt i f ic a t io n of bus i nes s
op p ort u n it i es , a n d ar e de f in e d to ai d i n s y s t e m d es i g n.
(c
 P ro ce s s of A na l yz in g R equ ir e men ts
Th e fo l l ow i ng s t e ps / p h as es c om pr is e th e s o ft war e re q ui re m en ts a n a ly s is proc es s :

e
1. I d en t ify i ng r eq u ir e m en ts

lin
2. Ex a m i ni n g r e qu ir e m en ts
3. M o de l i n g of r e q u ir e me n ts
4. R etr os pec t iv e an d r ev ie w

On
1- Re m ov in g r e q u ir e m en ts

1. Eliciting Requirement

E l ic i t in g re q u ir e m e nts r ef er s t o th e pr oc es s o f ga t her i n g r eq u ir e me n ts t hr o ug h
c om m u nic a ti o n w it h c u s to m er s

ty
2. Ex am i n in g r e q u ir e m en t s

Th is s te p a ids in d e ter m i ni n g th e r e qu ir e me n ts ' q ua l ity . It e nt a ils d e ter m i ni n g

wh et h er t he r e qu ir e m en ts ar e v a g ue , inc o mp l et e , a mb i g uo us , or c o ntr a d ic t or y .

3. M o de l i ng of r e q ui r e m en ts si
Th es e is s u es m us t be r es o lv e d b ef ore proc e ed i n g to t h e nex t s t ep .
er
Re q ui re m en ts ar e ty p i c a lly doc u me n te d i n v ar io us f orm a ts s uc h a s us e c as es , us er
s tor i es , n at ur al - l a ng u ag e doc u m en ts , or p roc es s s p ec if ic at i ons i n re q u ire m en ts
mo d e l li n g.
iv

4. R etr os pec t iv e an d r ev i ew

Th is s t ep is t ak e n t o r e f le c t o n p rev i ous i t er at i o ns o f r e qu ir e m en ts g at h er in g in
Un

ord er t o i m pr ov e t he p r oc es s in t h e fu t ure .
ity
m
)A
(c
 2. 1. 6 . Req ui r em ent s Ana l ys is T e chn iqu es:
B us i n es s Re q u ir e m e nt s A n a ly s is em p l oy s a v ar ie ty of t ec hn i q ues . Th e fo l l ow i ng is

e
a l is t of v ar i o us bus i n es s Re q u ir e m en ts A n a ly s is T ec hn i q ues :
1. B us i n es s pr oc es s mo d e li n g n ot at i on ( B P MN)
2. UM L (U n if i ed Mo d el i n g L a ng u ag e)

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3. Fl owc h ar t t ec hn i qu e
4. Da ta f l ow di a gr am
5. Ro l e Ac tiv i ty D ia gr a ms ( R A D)
6. G a nt t Ch ar ts
7. ID EF ( I nt e gr at ed D e fi n it i o n for F unc t io n M o d e li n g)

On
8. G a p A na ly s is

1- B us in es s pr oc es s m od e l in g n ot a ti o n ( B P M N)
A lt h ou g h B P MN has i ts ow n s y m b o ls a nd e le m en ts , t h is t ec hn i qu e is s i m i lar t o
c rea t in g pr oc es s fl o w c har ts . G r a p hs f or b us in es s proc es s es ar e c re a te d us i n g
bus i n es s pr oc es s m od e l l in g a n d n ot a t io n. T h es e gr ap hs m ak e i t e as ier to
un d ers t a nd t h e b us in es s pr oc es s . B P M N i s a w e l l - k n o wn proc e s s i m pr ov e m en t
me t ho d o lo gy .

ty
2- U ML (U n if i e d Mo d e l i ng L a ng u ag e)
UM L is an i nt egr a te d s et of di a gr ams u s ed t o s p ec ify , v is u a lis e , b ui l d, an d
doc u me n t t he ar t e fac ts of a s o ft w are s y s t em . Wh e n d ev el o p in g o bj ec t - or i en te d

si
s of tw ar e a nd w or k i ng w it h t he s of tw ar e d ev e l o pm e nt pr oc es s , UM L is a us e f ul
tec h ni q ue . U M L e mp l o y s gr a ph ic a l n ot a ti o ns t o re pr es e n t th e d es i gn of a s of tw ar e
proj ec t . U ML als o a i ds i n t he v al i d at i on o f t h e s of tw ar e's ar c h it ec tu ra l des i g n.
er
3- Fl o wc h ar t t ec h ni q u e
A f l o wc h ar t p or t r ay s t he s t ep w is e a pp ro ac h an d c o ntr o l lo g ic o f a fa m i ly o f r e la te d
op er at i o ns . Fl o wc h ar t s c o m e in a v ari e ty o f f or m ats , inc l u d in g l in e ar, c r os s -
fu nc t i o na l , an d t o p - d o wn . T h e f lo wc har t c a n d e pic t s y s t em in t erac ti o ns , d a ta f l ows ,
iv

an d s o o n. F lo w c h ar t s ar e s i m pl e to u nd er s ta n d a n d c a n b e us e d by m em b ers of
bo t h t ec h n ic a l a nd n on - t ec h n ic al te a ms . Th e f lo wc har t t ec hn i qu e is us ef u l f or
h ig h l ig ht i n g th e i m po r t an t as pec ts o f a pr oc e s s .
Un

4- Da t a fl o w d ia g r a m
Th is m et h od is o ft e n us e d to gr ap h ic a l ly c o m m un ic at e i m p ort an t a n d n ua nc ed
s truc tu res a n d pr oc e d ur es . Da t a f l ow d i a gr ams d e p ic t t he f l ow o f d a ta t hr ou g h a
proc es s or s y s t em . It a ls o i nc l ud es th e d at a i np u ts an d o ut pu ts , d at a s tor es , a n d
th e v ar io us s ub pr oc e s s es t h at th e d at a p a s s es t hr ou g h. DF D u s es s t a nd ar d is e d
no t at i ons an d s y m b o l s t o d es c r ib e v a ri o us e nt i t ies an d t h eir r e l at i ons h ips . I t is
eas i er t o id e nt i fy f la ws i n a s y s te m w h en a l l of its c o mp o ne nt s a re v is ua l iz ed .
ity

Th es e f l aws ar e t h en ad dr es s ed i n or d er t o c rea t e a s tr on g s o l ut i o n.

5- Ro l e Ac t iv ity D i agr a ms ( R AD)

A ro l e- ac t iv ity d i agr a m ( R A D) is a pr oc e s s mo d el th a t d es c r i bes r ol e- ac t iv i ty

d ia gr ams . R o le ac t iv it y d i a gr a ms ar e a n e l e v at e d p ers p ec t iv e o f an org a n iz a t io n's
m

dy n a m ic s an d r o le s t r uc t ur e . R ol es ar e us ed t o org a n is e ac tiv i t i es in to u n its o f

res p o ns ib i l ity . Ac t iv i t i es ar e t h e fu n da m en t a l c o mp o ne n ts of a ro l e . An ac t iv ity m ay
be per fo rm e d i n is o la t i on or i n c o nj u nc t i on w i th o t her ac t iv it i es w it h i n th e r o l e.
)A

6- G a nt t Ch ar ts

G a nt t c h ar ts ar e c o m mo n ly us ed i n pr oj ec t p la n ni n g bec a us e t h ey pr ov id e a v is ua l
rep res e nt at i on of t he t as k s th at are s c h e du l ed as w e l l as th e t i me l in es . T h e G an tt
c har ts as s is t i n d et er m in i n g wh at is p l an n e d to be ac c o m p lis h ed by wh ic h d at e . A l l
of t h e proj ec t 's tas k s ' s ta r t a nd e n d d at es c a n b e s ee n i n a s in g l e v i ew .
(c
 7- ID EF (I n te gr at e d D ef i n it i on f or Fu nc ti o n Mo d e l in g)
Th e I nt e gr at ed d ef i n it i on f or f u nc t i on m o de l l i ng ( ID E FM) t ec h n i qu e us es a box t o

e
rep res e nt th e f e at ur e s of a p r oc e dur e an d i ts re l at i ons h i ps t o c h il d an d p ar e nt
s y s te ms . I t s er v es as a b lu e pr in t f or un d ers t an d i ng a n or g an iz at i o n's s y s t em .

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8- G a p A n aly s is
G a p a na ly s is is a t ec h n i qu e f or an a ly s i ng p erf or ma nc e g a p s in a s of tw ar e
ap p l ic a t io n t o as c er ta i n wh e th er or n ot bu s i nes s r eq u ir em e nts are m et . It a ls o
i nc l u des t he s te ps t o b e t ak en to e ns ur e t ha t al l bus i n es s r eq u ir em e nts ar e
s uc c es s f ul ly me t. T he g a p d en ot es t h e d if f ere nc e b et we e n t he c urr en t a nd t ar g et

On
s ta tes . N ee d a n aly s is , n e ed as s es s m en t, an d n ee d - ga p a n a ly s is a re o th er t er ms for
ga p a n aly s is .

2. 1. 7 . Inf or ma t ion g a t he ri ng t e chn iqu e s

Info rm at ion G at he r in g T ec hni que s

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Th e m ai n a i m o f f ac t - f in d i ng t ec hn i qu e s is t o d e ter m i ne th e i nf or m at i on
req u ir e me nts o f an o r ga n iz at i on us e d by an a ly s ts t o pre p ar e a prec is e S RS
un d ers t o od by us er .
Id e al SR S D oc um e nt s ho u l d −
•
• si
B e c o mp l et e, U n a mb i g uo us , an d J ar g on - fr ee .
S pec i fy op er at i o na l , ta c tic a l, an d s tr at e gic in for m at i on r eq u ir em e nt s .
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• S olv e p os s i bl e d is pu t e s b et w ee n us ers a nd a na ly s t.
• Us e gr a p hic a l a i ds wh i c h s i mp l i fy u nd ers t a n d i ng a n d d es i g n.
Th ere are v a r i o us i nf o r m at i on g a th er i ng t ec h n iq u es −
iv

Int er vi ew ing

A s y s te ms an a ly s t c o l l ec ts i nf or ma t io n fro m i nd iv i du a ls or gro u ps by in t erv ie w in g

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th e m. T he an a ly s t c o u ld b e pr o fes s i o na l , p res c r ip t iv e , p o l it ic al , or c as ua l , as t he
ef fec t iv e n es s of an i nt er v ie w is de p en d e nt o n t h e a n a ly s t's ex p er tis e as an
i nt erv ie w er .

Th ere are t w o ap pr oac hes t h at c a n b e t ak e n

• Uns tr uc t ur e d I nt er v i e w - Th e s y s t e m a na ly s t u nd er tak es a qu e s ti o n - a n d-
ity

ans w er s es s io n t o g at her s t a nd ar d s y s t em i nf or ma t io n .
• Str uc tur e d I nt er v i ew - I t i nc lu d es v ar i ous b a s ic q ues t io ns t o w h ic h t h e us er
mus t a ns w er i n e i th er a c l os e ( obj ec t iv e) or op e n ( d es c r ip t iv e) s ty l e.
m

The B en ef it s of Int e r vi ew ing

• Th is t ec hn i qu e is of t en th e m os t ef fec t iv e me t ho d of ga i n in g q ua l i ta t iv e
da t a.
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• It is b e ne f ic i a l f or t h os e wh o are u na b le to ef fec t iv e ly c om m u n ic a te i n
wri tt e n fo r m o r wh o d o n ot hav e t he o p po rt un ity t o f i nis h a q u es t i on na ir e.
• I nf or ma t io n c a n b e q u ic k ly af f ir me d a nd c r os s - c hec k e d.
• It is c a p a bl e o f d ea l i n g w it h c o mp l ic at e d s u bj ec ts .
(c

• It is s im p l e to d is c ov er k ey pr o b le ms b y s o l ic it i n g op i n io ns ;
• It is s im p l e to c o m pr e he n d m a in c h a l le n ges by pr oc ur i n g op i n i ons ;
 • It c ov er s u p t h e o p en i n gs i n th e r a ng e s of c o nf us io ns an d red uc es
for thc o m in g d i ff ic ul t ie s .

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Q ue sti onn ai r es

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S uc h a t ec hn i q ue w ou l d b e us e d by a na ly s ts to c o l l ec t k no w le d ge ab o ut
v ar ie d s y s t em is s u es f r o m a l ar ge n u mb er o f p eo p le . Q u es t i on n a ir es are c l as s if i e d
i nt o tw o ty pes .

• O pen - en de d Q u est io nna ir e s - T h is ty p e o f qu es ti o nn a ir e inc l u des qu es ti o ns

On
th at c o u ld b e q uic k ly a nd ac c ur at e ly be c ons tr ue d. it c o ul d i nv es t i ga t e a
d if fic u lty an d c o ntr i b ut e to a par t ic u l ar s o l ut i on .
• Clo s ed - end ed Q ue st i onna i re s - It c o nt a i n qu es ti o ns wh ic h are u s ed w h en
th e s y s t ems a n a ly s t e f fic ac i ous ly rec or ds a l l mu t ua l ly ex c l us iv e r es po ns es .

Ben ef its of Q u e st io n nai r e s

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• It is v e r y ef f ic ac i ous i n i nv es t i ga t in g n o n - c o- loc at e d us ers ' i n te res ts ,
be h av ior s , e mo t io ns , a nd op i n io ns .
• It is b e ne f ic ia l t o fi n d ou t h o w m a ny p eo p l e i n a s p ec if i ed p op u l at i on

•
si
s up p or t o r op p os e of a p art ic u l ar c ha rac ter is t ic o f t h e pr op os e d mo de l .
B ef or e giv i n g an y s p e c if ic d ir ec t i o n t o t he s y s te m pr oj ec t, i t is us ef u l to
as c er t ai n t h e ov er a l l o p in i on .
er
• It is m or e d e pe n da b l e a nd ens ur es t he a no ny m ity of c o m m en t s a n d
fe e db ac k .
• It is a de q u at e f or s e lec t in g c re d i b le da t a a n d pr ov id i n g s ta t is t ic a l
ev id e nc e t h at c o u l d b e e m ai l e d or m a i le d.
iv

Re vi ew of R ec or ds , P ro ce du re s, and Fo rm s
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A n a na ly s is o f av a i la b l e d at a, me t ho ds , an d f or ma t io n a i ds in ge n era t in g ins i g hts

i nt o a fra m ew or k by a na ly s i ng t h e ex is t i ng s y s t e m's a bi l i ti es , pr oc es s es , or
ac t i ons .

Ben ef its

• It e na b l es c o ns u mer s to ac c es s s o me i n for ma t io n a bo u t t h e org a n iz a t io n or

ity

proc es s es b ef or e i mp o s i ng o n o th ers .
• It a i ds i n t h e d oc um e n ta t io n o f o p era t io n a l p roc es s es in a br i ef s p an of t i m e
bec a us e pr oc es s h an db o ok s an d s tr uc t ur e s c h arac t er is e t he l a y ou t a nd
fe at ur es of t h e ex is t i n g ar r an g e me nt .
m

• It c o u ld pr ov i d e a s o li d k n o wl e dg e o f t h e tr ans ac t i o ns h an d l ed i n th e
org a n is a t io n , as we l l as r ec o g nis e i nf or ma t i on f or c o m pu t at i on a n d ev a l ua te
ef fec t iv e n es s .
• Th is c o u l d as s is t a n an a ly s t i n un d ers t a nd i ng t he s y s te m's pr oc e s s es t h at
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mus t b e e nd or s ed .
• It a dd r es s es t h e s i t u at i on , t h e p arts t ha t are i m pac te d , a n d t h e d es ir ed
ou tc om e.
O bs e rv at i on
(c

It is a w ay o f c o l l ec t i ng d at a t ha t i nv o lv es n ot ic i ng a nd s tu dy in g p eo p le ,
oc c ur re nc es , an d obj e c ts . T he a na ly s t v is i ts t h e or g an is at i o n t o p erc e iv e ho w t he
c urr en t s y s te m w or k s an d t o c o mpr e he n d th e s y s te m's r eq u ir em e n ts .
 Ben ef its
• It is a s t r a i gh tf or war d way t o c o l lec t d at a.

e
• It is us e fu l wh e n t h e a ut h e nt ic ity of th e da ta c o l lec t ed is c a ll e d in to
qu es ti o n, or w h en t he c om p l ex i ty of c ert a in as p ec ts o f t he s y s te m pr ev e nt s
c l ear ex p l an a ti o n by e nd - us ers .

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• It ge n er a t es qu i t e v a li d a nd pr ec is e i nf or ma t i on
• It y i e l ds a ll t h e fac e t o f r ec o rds t h at ar e i ns u ff ic ie n t an d o ut m o de d.

• It pr o duc es a l l th e as p ec t of d oc um e nt a ti o n th at are inc o mp l et e a nd

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ou t da te d .

2. 1. 8 O nl in e me t hod s /t oo ls f o r r equ ir e me n t g ath er ing f rom u se r

Re q ui re m en ts g at her i ng t o ols ar e s im p ly r es o urc es th a t y ou c a n us e t o c o mp l et e

ty
th e re q ui r e m en ts g a th er in g p r oc es s m or e e as ily , m or e q uic k ly , an d m or e
s uc c es s f ul ly . Re m em b er ou r c h e f f ro m th e i ntr o duc to ry gu i de ? S h e w o u ld h av e a
har d t i me p u l li n g of f a s uc c es s f u l w e d di ng rec e pt i on w i th o ut k n ow i ng a b ou t
da n ge ro us f oo d a l le r g i es of t h e g ues ts ?

W hy ar e r e qu ir e me nts ga t her i n g to o ls i m por t an t ?

si
Do y o u rec a l l t he in f a mo us u tt er anc e fr o m t he las t ar t ic l e w h en a proj ec t fa i ls ? T h e
req u ir e me nts w er e no t c l e ar to us . Re q u ire m en ts g at he ri n g to o ls e ns ur e t ha t e ac h
er
s te p o f t h e pr oc es s is on - p o in t, t h oro u gh , a n d c o mp l et e.

Y ou l ear n ed a f ew t h i ngs th at th es e t oo ls wi l l h e l p y o u w it h i n our s te p - by - s t e p

gu i d e, s uc h as :
iv

• De ter m i n in g t he s t oc k ho l d ers ' a i ms a nd o u tc om es

• De ta i l i ng it a l l; t h is is a s i gn i f ic a nt as p ec t t h at is f re q ue nt ly ov er l o ok e d .
• Th e s i gn i f ic a nc e of pr ec is i o n, c lar i ty , a n d th e av oi d anc e o f pr ec o n c ep t io ns
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• Ho w to l is t en , ev e n w h en t h ere is n ot h in g t o s ay
• Th e d is t i nc t i on be tw e e n a g oa l a n d a w is h l is t.
• O bt a i ni n g ex pr es s per m is s i o n a nd af fir m at i o n.
• S urv iv i n g m an o euv r a b l e a nd rec o g nis i n g th at c h a ng es w i ll oc c ur

J us t as e ac h pr oj ec t h as d if f er e nt ne e ds , ea c h pr oj ec t re q ui res di f f er e nt t o ols . T he
br id e's m ot h er , wh o i s a p ar t ic i p a nt i n t he ref err a l g u i de , s pe ak s d if fer e nt ly th a n
ity

th e g ir l w h o w a nts a s w i n g, wh o w as a p art ic i pa nt i n th e prev i o us art ic l e .

Th ere f ore , t h er e is n o c er t a in ty r eg ar d in g th e c o l lec t io n of re qu ir e me n ts . Th is
i nc l u des w or ds a n d b ody l a ng u ag e us e d to ex pr es s th os e r eq u ir e me n ts . L as t wor d
be f ore ge tt i n g i nt o t h e t oo ls : T h es e g o far b ey on d c o m m on t o o l s s uc h as em a i l,
M ic ros o ft Ex c e l an d G oo g l e D oc s . Eac h of t hes e to o ls h as li m i ta t i ons a n d ge n er a l
m

is s ues . Hav e y o u ev e r h ad a n e m ai l s tr i ng w it h a d ep th o f 5 0 an d tr ie d t o f i n d
s om e th i n g s pec i f ic i n i t ? T h is is mor e t h a n fr us tr at i ng an d d es erv es s om e f o ur -
l et ter w or ds .
)A

Th e t o ols j us t m e nt i o ne d ar e b as ic t o o ls . Th e f o l lo w in g to o ls ar e b e tt er s of tw ar e
s y s te ms -

• Ha n dl i n g of p er m its
• Doc u me n t c ha n ges
• Ma n ag e r e l at i o ns a mo ngs t r e qu ir e m en ts
(c

• E l im i n at e u nc er t ai n ty , ex p ec ta t io ns , an d a m b it i o us i nt e ll ec tu a l
• Mak e s ur e a l l r e q ui r e me n ts ar e c l ear , g en u i ne an d s e tt l ed
 G at h er in g r e q ui r e m en ts is a v ery s ig n if ic an t pr oc e d ur e for pr e li m i nary a ne w
proj ec t , s o t he i nd iv i d ua l r e q u ir es t o c h o os e t he bes t to o l f or th at t as k .

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Top 1 0 r equi r em ent g at h er ing t oo l s

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Her e are th e t o p 1 0 r eq u ir em e nts c o l lec t io n t oo ls to c o ns i d er in 20 2 1. Le t's s t ar t
wi t h # 1 0

10 . J a ma S of tw ar e

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Her e is ou r l is t of t h e to p t en r eq u ir e me nt g at h eri n g t oo ls t o c o ns i der i n 2 02 1. Le t's
be g i n wi t h #1 0 .

10 . S oftw ar e by Ja ma
J am a So ft w ar e of fer s an op p or t u n ity t ha t is s u it ab l e f or d ev e l o p in g s of tw ar e. It is a
v i ab l e ap pr o ac h f or p l ay er s w ho a re es t a b l is h i ng in tr ic a te m et h ods a n d
tec h no l og i es . A f ew o f t he pr o d uc t's qu i te s i gn i f ic a nt c har ac ter is ti c s ar e as f o ll o ws :

ty
• I t s h ort e ns i m pl e m en ta t io n t im e a n d i mp rov es pr od uc t iv i ty .
• Les s e ns d up l ic at i on
• G u ara nt e es o pt i mu m pr o duc t io n
• I t h as a us er - fr i e n dly , br o ws er - b as e d fu nc t i on a l ity .

si
Te ams c an us e J a ma' s p l at f or m to al i g n h ar dw ar e, s t ak eh o l ders , an d f ir mw ar e. I t is
ad a pt a bl e e n ou g h to s u p por t a v ar i ety o f dev e l op m en t m et h o do l o gi es . It a ls o
a ll o ws for mo r e ac c ur at e d at a c a pt ur e, in t e rac t i on , pr er eq u is it es , o bj ec t iv es , a n d
er
adv a nc e m e nt .

9. c od eB ea m er A LM
Co d eB e a mer AL M is s i mp l e to us e an d i n c l ud es A PI in te gr at i o ns . It 's a d ec e nt
iv

req u ir e me nts g at h er in g t o o l o u t o f th e box , b u t it a ls o h as s o m e c us t om iz at i o n

op t io ns . T h is p l at for m ex c e ls in t h e fo l l ow i ng ar e as :
• Ris k ad m i nis tr at i on
• Pr od uc t l in e a d m in is t r at i on
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• Ev al u at i n g for Q & A
• Mo n it or i ng in t er r e l a t ed n es s
Co d eB e a mer A LM is a p l at for m f or Ap p l ic a ti o n L if es ty l e Ma n ag e me n t. I ts p l at for m
is s e am l es s , c oo p er a t i v e, a n d a da pt a b le .
ity

8. A c comp a
Ma ny o rg a nis a t io ns pr e f er Ac c o mp a's p l at for m as i t's s i m p l e t o us e a nd
i nc or p ora t e. W h at it l ac k s in a dv a nc ed c ap a b il i t ies , it c o m pe ns at es f or i t i n
us a b i l ity . A nd t h ey d o i mp l e me nt c ha n ges on a re g u lar bas is .
S om e of th e pu r p os es why y o u s h o u ld us e th is r eq u ir e me nt g at h er in g t o o l ar e as
m

fo l l ows :
• Trac ea b i l ity o f r e qu ir e me n ts
• Dis c us s i on b o ar ds
• No t if i es for c o l l a bor at or s
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• P ers o n a liz e d o p in i ons , f i el ds , an d ac c e s s p er m is s i o ns

If y ou r b us i nes s r e qu ir es an o th er m ore s u it ab l e p la tf or m, y ou s h o ul d l ook
s om e wh er e e ls e . H o w ev er , Ac c o mp a s ee ms to h av e e n ou g h be n ef i c i al pr o pe rt i es t o
ac c o m m od at e t he ex p ec t at i o ns of m a ny s m a l l b us i n es s es .
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7. C al ib e r
Ca l i ber is a g oo d r e q u ir e m en ts g at h eri n g t oo l f or s to ry b o ards a nd s im u l at i ons . It
work s w e l l for t es t i n g r o les , pr oc es s es , an d req u ir e me nts . It a ls o has gre at v is u a l
fe at ur es fo r mo d e l in g r eq u ir e me nts . O t her n ot a bl e C a li b er f ea tu re s i nc l ud e:
 • Trac ea b l e r e qu ir e me nt s t oo ls
• It ’s m or e v is ua l ly i nt er ac t iv e

e
• E as y us e r ac c es s c on t r o ls
• A c o l lec t i on o f t he m o s t us e f ul f e at ur es
Ca l i ber us es a dr a g - a n d- dr o p s y s t e m f or re a di n g re q ui re m en ts . As f ar as

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req u ir e me nts g a th er i n g to o ls g o, i t ’s a go o d s t an d al o n e t o o l, a n d it ’s e as ie r t o us e
th a n o th er s . H ow ev er , it d oes n ’t i nt e gr at e we l l w i th o th er r e qu ir em e nts g at h eri n g
to o ls .

6. P e rfo rc e H el ix R M

On
Caliber is an excellent tool for gathering requirements for storyboards and simulations. It is effective
for testing roles, processes, and requirements. It also has excellent visual features for modelling
needs. Caliber also has the following notable features:

• Traceable requirements tools

• It is more visually interactive;

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• It has simple user access controls; and

• It contains a collection of the most useful features.

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Caliber's reading requirements are entered using a drag-and-drop system. It's a good standalone tool
for requirements gathering, and it's easier to use than others. It does not, however, integrate well with
other requirements gathering tools.
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5. Pe a rl s

Pearls is a requirements elicitation tool that excels at providing useful team collaboration features. It is
simple to create user roles and backlogs, and it is adequate for specification management. It's also
reasonably priced and comes with a number of useful features, such as:
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ity
m
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 • It generates Word documents with a single click
• Comments and notification settings for member activity

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• A flexible pricing system
• Easily generates requirements and specifications documents
Pearls is better suited to small businesses, with a free Starter Plan for three or fewer users. For larger

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businesses, it also has a scalable pricing system. It also includes features for managing stakeholders
and defining project goals, as do most requirements gathering tools.

4. R eq Su it e
ReqSuite advertises itself as highly customizable, but it is more accurate to say that it treads a fine

On
line between simplicity and customization. It is simple to define relevant workflows. It also makes it
simple to create use cases and reusable requirements. The benefit further includes-
• Many definable templates
• Visual modelling tools
• Numerous collaboration features
• It's simple to use are just a few of the reasons to use ReqSuite as your requirements gathering tool.

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The ease of use may be the most compelling reason to choose ReqSuite, as it is not overly complex
and the tutorials are genuinely helpful. However, when compared to more robust requirements
gathering tools, it has fewer capabilities.

3. Vi su re

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Visure is an excellent requirements gathering tool, particularly for configuration management. It keeps
track of traceability, verification, and defects with ease. Customers will appreciate the following
popular features:
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• It is user-friendly.
• It is especially useful for traceability management.
• It has a more efficient requirements review process.
• It provides a platform for centralised requirements.
iv

Visure can help with a wide range of lifecycle processes. It is compatible with Microsoft products such
as Word and Excel. Furthermore, this requirements gathering tool provides compliance templates for
a wide range of international safety standards.
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2. O rc ano s
Th is re q u ir e m e nts e l ic it at i on to o l is e x t re me ly b e ne f ic i a l f or r ep or ta g e a n d
v is ua l is at i on . T h e O r c an os p l at for m e n ab l es dev e l op ers t o bu i l d an d c us to m is e
s pec i f ic a t io n d oc um e n ts an d pr o duc t re q uir em e nts , th o u gh c o l l a bor a ti o n f ea tur es
are l im i te d . A mo n g th e r e as ons w hy us ers pr ef er O rc a n os ar e:
• Ex c el l e nt c us t om er s e r v ic e
• G e nu i ne das h bo ar ds
ity

• Nav i ga t io n f unc t io ns t ha t s e em c onv e n ie nt

• It e as i ly tr a d es W or d d oc u m en ts
O rc a nos h as m or e r e por t in g fe at ur es t h an th e o t her r e qu ir e me n t s ga th er i ng to o ls
on t h is l is t, b u t it l ac k s pr e - b u i lt i n te gr at i o ns . Us er ne e ds to e n h anc e th e ir p l an if
m

th ey w an t to us e n e w op t io ns s uc h as c us t o mer d is s at is fac t i on m a na g e me nt ,
qu a l ity s t a nd ar ds , v u l n er a b i l ity as s es s me n ts , a n d s o o n.

1. M ind M an ag er
)A

Th e eas e w it h w h ic h y ou c an c r e a te a c en tr a l d as h b oa rd o f i nf or m a ti o n th a t
v is ua l ly s e g me nts da t a a nd inc l ud es l i nk s a nd at tac h me nt s t o ex p an d o n - pa g e
c on t en t is o n e of t h e r eas o ns m any pe o pl e c ho os e M i nd M an a ger a s t he ir g o - to
req u ir e me nts ga th er i n g to o l. O th er us ef u l M i nd M an a g er fe at ur es i n c l ud e:

• It c a n b e e as i ly s o r t ed us i ng t a gs a nd f i lt ers
•
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Its hi g h ly a da pt a b le l ay o u t fi ts a v ar i ety o f ne e ds
• It e n ab l es s h ar in g a nd c o l l ab or at i on in ac t ua l o n m aps v i a M S T e a m a nd
prov i d es u nr iv a l l ed c u s to m er s u pp or t.
 2. 1. 9 . Aut om at e d d at a co ll ec t ion

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A ut o ma te d d at a c o l l e c ti o n is t he p roc es s of a ut o m at ic al ly c a p t ur in g d at a fr om
pr in te d m at er i a l an d c onv er ti n g th e m to d i g i ta l c o p ies e m p loy i n g s pec i f ic t o o ls an d
ap p l ic a t io ns . th e i nt e gr a t io n o f A I pro gr a m mi n g a nd m ac h in e l ear n i ng e n ab l es

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s of tw ar e t o r a p i d ly r ev ie w a nd tra ns l at e pa p er f i l es a n d i m a ges i nt o r ea d i ly
av a i l ab l e e- f il es .

A ut o ma t ic d at a c ap t ur e h as be e n c r it ic al i n tra ns it i o ni n g fr o m m a n ua l d at a e n try t o
ev e n m or e v ia b l e au to ma t ed pr oc es s es . A m on g ot h er a dv a nt a ge s , a ut o ma te d d at a

On
c o ll ec ti o n s of tw ar e h e l ps e nt er p r is es o pt i m is e th e ir d oc um e nt at i o n.

How Do e s Aut o mat ed D at a C ol le ct ion H el p Bu si ne s se s?

Co m pa n i es th at s h if t t o m or e au t om a ti o n w it h d a ta c a p tur e s y s te ms w i l l r e ap
s ev er a l b e ne f its fr o m au t om at e d d at a c o l l ec ti o n. Am o ng th e e n ha nc e m en ts t o th e ir
bus i n es s pr oc es s es ar e:
Red uc ed Tu rn a roun d Ti me s

ty
P ap er for ms , s uc h as me d ic al c l a i ms , c an t ak e a l on g t i m e t o pr oc es s . O ne m us t
wa i t for d oc u m en ts t o b e pr oc es s e d, pr o ofr e ad , s c a n ne d, an d m a i le d t o t h e
ap pr o pri a te par t ies , o n ly to r ep e at t h e pr o c es s . Au t om at i o n h as t he po t en t ia l t o
red uc e th e t i me it t ak e s t o pr oc es s p a p er c l a i ms fro m d ay s t o m in u t es .

si
S av i n g t i me o n m u nd an e , s l ow pr oc es s es me a ns h av i ng m ore t i me to s p en d on
em p l oy e e tr a i n in g, g e tt i ng m or e work d on e , a nd d ev o t in g mor e en er gy t o d a ta
qu a l ity as s ur a nc e a n d an a ly s is .
er
Re d uc e d re l i anc e o n ma n ua l pr oc es s es
B us i n es s es wi l l b e a b l e to e l i m in a te in ef f ic i en t m an u a l pr oc es s es w it h t he he l p o f
au t om at e d da t a c o l l ec ti o n. P a per f or ms a n d d oc u m en ts ap p ear t o b e d is a pp e ar in g
a lm os t e n tir e ly as tec hn o l ogy a dv anc es a n d ex p a nds . T h e ma n u a l p roc es s in g o f
pa p er fo rms is a t hi n g of t h e pas t.
iv

A ut o ma t io n s h or t e ns t he t i m e i t tak es t o m an u a lly pro c es s d a ta an d re d uc es th e

am o un t of s p ac e r eq u i r ed t o fi l e a nd s t ore p ap er d oc u m e nts . Bec a us e o f au t om at e d
da t a c ap t ur e , t hos e f i l es ar e n ow a l l d i g it a l a n d c an be s t or e d s ec ur e ly f or y e ars
Un

wh i l e r e ma i n in g e as i ly ac c es s ib l e.
E rr or s a r e b e ing r ed u ce d.
Ma n ua l d at a e ntr y e x po s es y o u t o a mu c h - e l ev at e d r is k o f u nav o i da b le us er
m is t ak es . Ev e n w i th me t ic u l o us e du c a t io n a n d ex p er ie nc e, mis tak es c a n oc c ur .
Ho wev er , d ur in g a ut om a te d d at a pr oc es s i ng , ar ti f ic ia l i n te l l i g enc e a n d o pt ic al
c har ac ter r ec o g n it i on c an as s is t i n r e d uc i n g th e s e err ors .
Da ta c o l l ec t i on s o ft w a r e c ou l d e as i ly s c a n t hro u g h r ec or ds a nd e v a lu at e t he m to
ity

ot h er f il es a n d fr a m ew or k s t o g uar a nt e e a l l d at a is c om p l et e a nd s ens i tiv e

doc u me n ts s uc h as na m es a n d da tes o f b irt h ma tc h u p. O C R c a n ev e n r ea d
ha n dwr i tt e n for ms a n d c o nv er t t he m t o t he a ppr o pr ia t e d ig i ta l f or m ats .

Enh an c ed Ef f i ci en cy
m

A no th er ad v a nt a ge o f a ut o ma t ic d at a c o l l ec t i on s y s te ms is t ha t t h ey re d uc e
c om p l ex t as k s to f ew er s t e ps , i nc r eas i n g ef f ic i e nc y in t hos e t a s k s a nd o th er s .
W he n t he ne e d f or ad d it i o na l s t e ps d uri ng ma n ua l proc es s e s is e li m i na t ed ,
)A

bus i n es s es c a n d ev ot e m or e t im e t o ot h er wo rk fl o ws , i nc r e as i n g pr o duc t iv ity .

S av ing s on e xp en se s
(c

A ut o ma t io n c a n s av e y o ur c om p a ny m on e y o n ex tr a l a b our , o ng o i ng tra i n in g ,
eq u i pm e nt ma i n te n anc e, s y s te m u p d at es , an d d oc um e nt s tor a ge . I t m ay a ls o a l l ow
 fu n ds t o b e r ed is tr ib ut ed to o th er de p art m en ts f or t he p ur pos e of i mp rov i ng i nt er n al
proc es s es , u p d at i ng c om p ut er s a n d ot h er m ac h i n es , a n d s o o n.

e
E nt er pris es c o u ld s av e s ig n if ic a nt ly by h ir i ng a n o uts i de or g an is at i on t o ma n ag e
i nf or ma t io n g at h er i n g i ns t e ad of a n i n- h o u s e te a m. Th is is bec om i n g ex tr e me ly
prev a l en t as b us i nes s es r ec og n is e th e tr e m en d ous be n ef i ts of pa y i ng a l ow er ra t e

lin
for t h e s a me , i f no t b e tt er , d a ta a n a ly s is as t hey di d d o i t th e ms elv es .

Num e rou s Te chn iqu e s o f Aut o mat ed D at a Col le ct ion

Da ta c o l lec t io n a ut om at i on is n ot a o n e- s iz e - fi ts - a ll s y s t em . I t c om es in a v ar ie ty o f
for ms a nd m et h ods t h at c a n v a r y d e pe n d in g on t he n e eds o f a b us i nes s . T he ex te n t

On
of c h arac t er r ec o g ni t i on a nd a ut o m at i on c o u ld a lt er an d s at is fy d iv ers e de m a nds .
Her e ar e s o m e of t h e mos t c o m mo n A DC me th o ds y ou w i l l e nc ou nt er.

O pti ca l Ch a ra ct er R e cogn it i on
O pt ic a l c h ar ac t er r ec og n it i o n is a tr i e d- a n d- tr u e tec h no l o gy th a t has lo n g b ee n
us e d as t h e pr i m ar y m et h od of a ut o ma t ed d a ta c a pt ure i n a v ar i ety of i nd us tri es . I t

ty
is Sm ar t D at a So l ut i o ns ' p r e fer r e d me th o d of da t a c a pt ur e. O CR is a tec h no l ogy
th at r e a ds h a nd wr it te n o r ty pe d d oc u m en ts , i m a ges , PDF f i les , or ot her s c a n ne d
doc u me n ts to c r ea te e d it ab l e, s earc h ab l e d i g it a l doc u m en ts .
O CR d if fer s fr o m s i m p ly s c a nn i n g d oc um e n ts i nt o a c o m pu ter i n th at i t r e ads t he

si
c har ac ters i n t h e doc um e nt a nd c o mp ar es th e m t o s p ec i fic t em p l at es an d f or m ats
to e ns ur e ac c ur a t e d at a tr a ns f er , r at h er t ha n s i m ply c o py in g a nd p as t i n g as a
s c an n er w ou l d. O CR i s ex tr em e ly us ef u l i n i nd us tri es t h at d e a l w it h s e ns i t iv e da t a,
s uc h as pa t ie n t i nf or m at i on on m e d ic a l c la i m s . I t res u lts in g re at er prec is i o n an d
er
Re cog nit ion of O pt i c al M a r ks

O pt ic a l m ar k r ec o g ni t i on d oes no t rec o gn iz e c h ar ac t ers , b ut r at h er s c a ns f or ma rk s

iv

s uc h as f i l l ed i n b ub b l es or c h ec k m ar k s . Th is m et ho d is id e a l f or t es ts ,
qu es ti o nn a ir es , s ur v e y s , s y m pt om c he c k l is ts , f a mi ly his t or ies , a nd any t hi n g e ls e
th at nec es s it at es m ak i ng a ma r k on a for m r at h er th a n wr it i ng in in for m at i on .
Un

Cha r a cte r R ec ogn it i o n w it h Int el lig en c e

In te l l i ge nt c har ac ter r ec o gn i ti o n p l ac es a gr e at er e m ph as i s o n h an d wri tt e n

doc u me n ts . A lt h ou g h t he ac c u r ac y may be s l i gh t ly l ow er t h an th at of ot he r m et h ods
of c har ac ter r ec og n it i on , it c an s av e a s ig n if ic a nt am o un t o f t i me w h en pr oc es s i n g
ha n dwr i tt e n f or ms . T h e e qu i pm e nt a n d s of t war e c a n r e ad di ff er e nt f on ts , s ty l es ,
an d ev e n c ur s iv e h an dwr i ti n g us i ng mac h i n e l e arn i ng , w h ic h w i l l v ary i n ac c ur ac y
ity

bu t u lt i m at e ly h el p tr a ns la te da ta muc h f as t e r t ha n m a nu a l d at a e nt ry .
Auto mat ed D at a Col l ect ion Sof t w a r e and Tool s.

B ar c o d e s c a nn er s , p os it i on s c an n ers , RFI D r e ad ers , Q R c od es , a nd ot h er d a ta

c o ll ec ti o n d ev ic es ar e a mo n g th e t oo ls us e d to a ut o m at ic al ly c o l l ec t d at a. T hes e
m

en a b le q u ic k a nd eas y r e a di n g of f or ms a nd d oc um e nts . O nc e da t a is e nt er ed in t o
th e s y s te m , it c a n be qu ic k ly s c a nn e d an d r ea d by th e c o m pu ter b y at t ac h i n g la b e ls
an d b ar c od es to t he d oc u m en ts . Th is r e d uc es m a nu a l da t a e n t ry a nd a l l ows for
muc h f as t er a n d m or e ac c ur a te c o n te n t r etr i e v a l.
)A

No w, t h e s of tw ar e us ed by or ga n is a t i ons t ha t us e a ut o ma te d d at a c o l lec t io n is
fre q ue nt ly t a i lor e d to t he ir s p ec if ic n e eds . S ma rt D at a S o lu t io ns , f or ex a m p le , us es
tec h no l ogy t ha t h as b ee n s pec i f ic a l ly des i g ne d to m ee t t h e n e ed s of o ur c l i e nts
wh i l e a ls o inc or po r a t in g e nh a nc e d A I a nd ma c h in e l e arn i n g c ap a b i li ti es .
(c

S inc e m any or g a nis a t i ons us e a s of tw ar e t ha t fu l fi ls re q ui re m en ts o f au t om a te d

da t a c o l l ec t i on , it is p r es u m e d th at c o ns u m e rs s ho u l d g et m or e, p art ic u lar ly i f t hey
c ho os e e nh a nc e d pr ec is io n a n d ac c u rac y in t he ir a u to m at i on prac t i s es .
 Check Your Understanding

Fill-Ups

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1. The ________________ and the ________________ are two critical components of system

lin
analysis.
2. ________________ and ________________ are two prominent methods for determining
requirements.
3. ________________ is the process of automatically capturing data from printed material and
converting them to digital copies employing specific tools and applications.
4. ________________ has more reporting features than the other information gathering tools.

On
5. Caliber's reading requirements are entered using ________________.

True/False

1. Interviewing is a way of collecting data that involves noticing and studying people,
occurrences, and objects.

ty
2. Closed-ended Questionnaires contain questions which are used when the systems analyst
efficaciously records all mutually exclusive responses.
3. Gap analysis is a technique for analysing performance gaps in a software application to
ascertain whether or not business requirements are met.
4. A flowchart portrays the graphical communication.

si
5. The process of determining requirements entails studying the existing system and gathering
details.
er
Su mm ar y
iv

• A na ly z i ng pr oj ec t r e qu ir e me n ts w h en th ey a re g at he re d, a s we l l as
thr o ug h ou t t he pr oj ec t's l i fec y c l e, is c ri t ic a l f or pr oj ec t s uc c es s . So ft wa re
Re q ui r e m en ts An a ly s i s a i ds in k e ep i ng r e q u ire m en ts in l in e w i th b us i nes s
Un

ne e ds . A g oo d p r oj ec t r eq u ir em e nts an a ly s is proc es s w i l l r es u l t i n a
s of tw ar e ap p l ic at i on t h at m e ets t h e bus i n es s obj ec t iv es .
• A r e qu ir e m en t is a c r it ic a l fe at ur e of a ne w s y s t e m th a t may in c l ud e d at a
proc es s i ng or c ap tu r e , bus i nes s ac tiv i ty c o n t ro l, i nf or ma t io n pro d u c ti o n, an d
ma n ag e m en t s u pp or t.
• De ter m i n in g r e qu ir e m en ts e nt a ils s t u dy in g t he ex is t in g s y s t em a n d ga t her i n g
de t ai ls t o d e ter m i ne wh at t h e re q ui re m en t s ar e , h ow it w ork s , an d w h ere
ity

i mpr ov e me nts s ho u ld be ma d e.
• Re q ui r e m en ts Th e pr o c es s o f d ef i n in g us er ex p ec ta t io ns f or a n a pp l ic at i on
th at is t o b e b u i lt or mo d if i e d is k no wn as a n a ly s is . I t i nc lu d es a l l o f t he
tas k s t h at ar e c ar r i ed ou t i n or d er t o i d e nt ify th e n e eds o f v ar i ous
s tak e ho l de r s . As a r e s u lt , r eq u ir em e nts a n a ly s is re f ers t o t he p roc es s o f
an a ly s in g , d oc um e nt i ng , v a l i da t in g , a n d ma n ag i n g s o ft wa re or s y s t e m
m

req u ir e me nts .
• Th e pr im ar y g oa l o f i nt erv if ac t - f i nd i n g t ec h n i qu es is t o de t er mi n e an
org a n iz a t io n's in f or m a ti o n r e q u ir e me n ts , w h i c h ar e th e n us ed by a na ly s ts to
pre p ar e a pr ec is e SR S t ha t th e us er u n ders t an ds .
)A

• Re q ui r e m en ts g a th er i n g t oo ls ar e s i m p ly res ourc es th at c a n b e us ed to m ak e
th e r eq u ir em e nts g at her i n g pr oc es s e as i e r, f as t er, a nd m or e s uc c es s f ul .
Re m em b er our c h ef fr om t he b e gi n n in g ? Sh e' d h av e a d i ff ic u lt ti m e p l a nn i n g
a s uc c es s f u l we d di n g r ec e p ti o n i f s h e d id n' t k no w a bo u t da n g ero us f oo ds .
• A ut o ma te d da t a c o l l e c ti o n is t he pr oc es s of au t om a tic a l ly c a p t ur in g da ta
fro m p ap er d oc u m en t s a nd c o nv ert i ng t he m t o d i gi t al f i l es us i ng s p ec i al
(c

to o ls a nd s of tw ar e. A c om b i na t io n o f A I pr o gra m m i ng an d m ac hi n e l e arn i n g
en a b les s o ft war e to r ap i d ly r ea d an d tr ans l at e pa p er f i l es an d i ma g es in t o
eas i ly ac c es s ib l e e- f il es k ey .
 Act iv it y

Div i d e th e c l as s in t o tw o gr o ups . D is c u s s a m on gs t th e m pr os a nd c ons o f

e
tra d it i on a l an d a dv an c ed m et ho ds of da t a c o ll ec ti o n. O ne gr ou p w i l l d ef e nd th e
tra d it i on a l m et h od s wh i le ot her wi l l d ef e nd t h e a dv a nc ed me th o ds .

lin
Q ue sti on s & E xe r ci s e

1. De f in e t he R e qu ir e me nts d e fi n it i o n .

On
2. Dis c us s t he D e ter m i n i ng r eq u ir em e nts .
3. Ex pl a i n th e M aj o r ac t i v it i es i n r e q uir e m en t d et er m in at i o n
4. Dis c us s t he R e qu ir e m en t a na ly s is t ec h n i qu e s
5. Dis c us s I nf or ma t io n g at h er i n g t ec h n iq u es ) .
6. Des c r i b e t h e o n li n e m et h ods /t o ols f or re q u ir em e nt g a th er i ng fr o m us er
7. Ex pl a i n th e A u to m at e d d at a c o l l ec t i on

ty
G lo ss a ry

si
A r eq ui r em ent is a c r it ic a l fe at ur e of a n e w s y s t e m t h at m ay i n c l ud e da t a
proc es s i ng or c ap tu r e , bus i nes s ac tiv i ty c o n t ro l, i nf or ma t io n pro d u c ti o n, an d
ma n ag e m en t s u pp or t.
• Th e pr oc es s of de t e r m in i n g re q u ire m e nts en t ai ls s tu dy i ng t h e ex is t in g
er
s y s te m a n d ga t her i n g de t ai ls t o d et er m in e w ha t t he r eq u ir em e nts are , h ow it
work s , a nd w h er e i mpr ov e m en ts s h o ul d b e m ad e .
• Req ui r em ent An al ys i s - T he pr oc es s o f de fi n i ng th e ex pec ta t io n s of u s ers
for a n a pp l ic at i o n t h a t is to b e b u i lt or m o d if i ed is k no wn as r e qu ir e me n ts
iv

an a ly s is . It i nc l ud es a l l of th e tas k s t ha t ar e c arr ie d ou t i n ord er to i d en t ify

th e n ee ds of v a r i o us s tak e ho l de rs . As a res u lt , r eq u ir em e nts a n al y s is r ef ers
to t h e pr oc es s of a n a l y s i ng , d oc u m en t i ng , v a li d at i ng , a n d m an a g i ng s of tw ar e
or s y s te m r e q u ir e m e nt s .
Un

• Info rm at ion G at h er i ng Te chn iqu e s T he pr im ary go a l o f f a c t f in d i ng

tec h ni q ues is to d et er mi n e an org a n iz a t i on 's i nf or ma t io n r e q u ire m en ts ,
wh ic h ar e th e n us e d by an a ly s ts t o pr e par e a pr ec is e SR S t ha t t he us er
un d er s t a nds .
• Re q ui r e m en ts g a th er i n g t oo ls ar e s i m p ly res ourc es th at c a n b e us ed to m ak e
th e r eq u ir em e nts g at her i n g pr oc es s e as i e r, f as t er, a nd m or e s uc c es s f ul .
Re m em b er our c h ef fr om t he b e gi n n in g ? Sh e' d h av e a d i ff ic u lt t i m e p l a nn i n g
ity

a s uc c es s f u l w e d di n g r ec ep t io n i f s h e d id n' t k no w a bo u t t he g u es ts '
da n ge r o us f oo d a l le r g i es .
• Auto mat ed d at a co ll ect ion is t h e a ut o ma te d c a p tur e o f pr i n te d m at er i a l,
c onv er ti n g th e m t o e lec tro n ic i nf or ma t io n w it h t h e he l p of s pec i a l is e d
s y s te m s a n d e qu i p m en t. A i n te gr at i on of AI p ro gr am m i ng an d m ac h i n e
l ear n i ng e na b les s o ft war e t o r a pi d ly r ev ie w an d tra ns l at e p a pe r fi l es an d
m

doc u me n ts i nt o w id e ly o bt a i na b le e- f i l es .
)A

Furt he r R ea din g

1. Ho w to D o Sy s t ems A na ly s is , J oh n E. G ibs o n, W il l i am T . Sc he rer , W i l li a m F.

G i bs o n , M ic h a e l C. S m it h
2. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn Pr in t ed Ac c es s C ard ), H arry J . R os e n b la tt
3. Th e Sy s t ems T h i nk er , A n a ly t ic al Sk i l ls : L ev e l Up Y ou r D ec is i on M ak in g,
(c

Pr ob l e m S o lv i n g, a n d De d uc t i on Sk il ls . No t ic e T h e De t ai ls O t h ers M is s .
4. Mo d er n Sy s t e ms A na ly s is an d D es i g n, J e ffr ey A. H of f er, J o ey G e or ge ,
J os e p h S . V a lac ic h
 5. Mo d e l in g a n d A n aly s is o f Dy na m ic Sy s t e ms , S ec o n d E d it i on , R a mi n S.
Es f a nd i ar i, B ei Lu

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6. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is a n d D es i g n, An O bj ec t - O r i en te d A p pr oac h w it h UM L A l an
De n nis , B ar b a r a W ix o m, D av id T e gar d en
7. Mo d er n Sy s te ms An a l y s is a n d Des i g n, G lo ba l Ed i t io n, J os e p h S Va l ac ic h ,

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J oey F . G e or g e
8. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , Sc ot t T il l ey , H arry J . R os e n bl a tt
9. Sy s t e ms A na ly s is a n d D es i gn i n a C ha n g in g W or ld J o h n W . S atz i n ger ,
Ro b er t B. J ac k s o n, S t ep h en D . B ur d
10 . Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , Sc ot t T il l ey

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11 . B un d l e, Sy s t e ms A n al y s is a n d D es i g n, Lo os e - le af V ers io n , 1 2t h + Mi n dT ap ,
1 ter m Pr in te d Ac c es s Car d, Sc ot t T i l le y
12 . Sy s t ems An a ly s is a nd D es ig n, J IJ U J O H N
13 . Sy s t e ms An a ly s is An d D es ig n A C o m pl e te G u id e 20 2 0 Ed i t io n, G er ard us
B lok dy k

Ans w e r s t o ch ec k yo ur und e rst an din g

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Fil l- U ps
1. Determination of requirements, structuring of requirements
2. JAD, Prototyping

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3. Automated data collection
4. Orcanos
5. Drag-and-drop system
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True/False

1. False
2. True
3. True
iv

4. False
5. True
Un

Unit - 3: Sy st em D e ve l opm ent Too ls

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:
ity

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

• De f in e t he Sy s t e m dev e lo p me n t me t ho d o lo g i es .
• Dis c us s t he Sy s t e m d e v e lo p me n t t o o ls .
• Ex pl a i n th e C om p ut er A id e d S of tw ar e E n gi n e er in g (C A S E) .
m

• Dis c us s t he J oi n t A pp l ic at i on D ev el o p me nt ( J AD )
• Dis c us s R ap i d A p p lic a ti o n Dev e l op m en t ( R A D) .
• Des c r i b e t h e Sy s te m d ev e l o pm e nt li f e c y c l e
• Ex pl a i n th e A g i le S of t war e d ev el o pm e nt
)A

3. 1. 1 Int ro du ct io n

S yst em s D e ve lop me n t Too ls and T ech niq u es

(c

In o rd er t o f ur t h er u nd er s t a nd bus i n es s o per at i ons , s y s t ems an a ly s ts m us t b e a b l e

to s c he d u le i n a t e a m - b as e d env ir o nm en t, wh er e f ee d b ac k fr o m c us to m ers ,
 s up erv is ors , an d IT s ta ff a d ds v a l ue to t he s y s te m d es i gn , u s i ng a v ar ie ty o f
tec h ni q ues s uc h as m o de l l in g , pr ot oty p in g, an d c o mp u ter - a id e d s y s te ms

e
en g i ne er i ng t o ols .

MO D E LLI NG

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Mo d e l in g g e ne r a tes a pic t or i a l de p ic t i on o f a t he ory or pr oc ed ur e, wh ic h s y s t e ms
dev e l op ers c o u l d ev a l ua t e, ex a m in e , a nd al ter . A s y s te m a n a ly s t c an us e a s e t of
bus i n es s , d a ta , o bj ec t , n et wor k , a n d pr oc es s m o d els to des c r i b e an d s im p l ify an
i nf or ma t io n s y s t em .

On
A b us i nes s m od e l, a ls o k n ow n as a r eq u ir e me n ts m o de l , d es c r ib es t he d at a t ha t a
s y s te m mus t pr ov i de . A d a ta m od e l d es c r i be s t h e s tr uc t ur e a n d d e s i gn of da t a. A n
obj ec t m od e l is a d es c r ip t io n of o bj ec ts t h at c om b i ne da t a an d proc es s es . A
ne tw ork m od e l d es c r i bes t he d es i g n a n d p r ot oc ols o f a n et work . A proc es s mo d e l
des c r i b es t h e lo g ic us ed by pr og r a m mers t o c re at e c od e mo d u les . Des p it e th e fac t
th at t h e mo d el s ap p e ar to ov er l ap , th ey a c tu a l ly w ork t og e th er to d es c r i be t h e
s am e e nv ir on m en t fr o m d if fe r e nt pers p ec t iv es .

ty
PR O TO T Y P ING
Pr ot oty p i ng a ll o ws y o u t o t es t s y s te m c on c ep ts a n d ex a m in e in pu t, o ut pu t, a nd
us er i nt er fac es be fo r e mak i n g f i na l dec is i on s . A pr ot oty p e is a w ork in g v ers io n o f
an in fo rm at i o n s y s te m t ha t is i n its ear ly s t a ges . Sy s te ms a na ly s ts b u il d a nd s t u dy

si
i nf or ma t io n s y s t em pr ot oty p es i n th e s a m e way t h at a irc r af t m a nu fac tur ers t es t ne w
des i g ns in w i nd t un n e l s . A pr o to ty pe c a n b e us e d as a n in i ti a l m od e l t o s erv e as a
be nc hm ark f or ev a l u at i ng t he f in is h ed s y s t e m, or i t c an ev o lv e i n t o t h e f i n al v ers i o n
of t he s y s t em . In e i th e r c as e, pr ot o ty p i ng s ig n if ic an t ly ac c e l er at es t he d ev e lo p me nt
er
proc es s .
O n e d is a dv a nt ag e o f p r o to ty pi n g is th at i mp or ta n t d ec is i o ns m ay b e m a de to o
ear ly , be fo r e b us in e s s or IT is s ues ar e t h oro u g hly u n ders to o d. A pr ot oty p e
pre m is ed on de ta i l e d f ac t - f in d i ng an d m o de l l i ng me th o ds , on t h e o th er h a nd , c o u ld
iv

be an inc r e d ib ly r es o u r c ef u l to o l.

CO M P UT E R - A ID E D S Y ST E M E NG I N E ER IN G (C A S E) T O O L S
Co m pu te r - a i d ed s y s t ems en g i ne er i ng ( C A S E), a ls o k no wn a s c o m pu t er - a i d ed
Un

s of tw ar e e n g in e er in g, is a t ec hn i q ue t ha t em p l oy s p o wer f ul s o f tw are k n ow n as
CA S E T oo ls t o as s is t s y s t em a n a ly s ts i n t he d ev e l o p me n t an d ma i nt e n anc e of
i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems . C A S E t oo ls pr ov i d e a g en er a l fr am e w ork fo r s y s te m
dev e l op m en t an d s u pp or t a w id e r an g e of d es i g n m e th o do l og i es , s uc h as
s truc tu re d a na ly s is a n d o bj ec t - or i e nt ed an a l y s is .
B ec a us e C A S E to o ls mak e i t e as i er t o bu i l d a n i nf or ma t io n s y s t em , t h ey inc re as e
pro d uc t iv i ty an d i m pr o v e pr od uc t qu a l ity .
ity

In a d d it i on t o tr a di t io na l C A S E t oo ls , s y s t em dev e l op ers fr e qu e nt ly us e pr oj ec t
ma n ag e m en t t oo ls , s u c h as M ic r os o ft Proj e c t, a n d s p ec i al - p ur pos e c h art i n g t oo ls ,
s uc h as M ic r os o ft Vi s i o, as il l us t ra te d i n Fi gu re 1 - 2 3. V is io c a n b e us e d by a
s y s te m a na ly s t t o c r e at e a v ar ie ty of d i ag r ams , i nc lu d in g b l oc k d i agr a ms V is i o is
des c r i b ed i n gr e at er d et a i l in Par t 2 of t he Sy s t e ms A na ly s t's T o o lk i t for c re a ti n g
p la ns , f or ms a nd c har t s , ma ps , ne tw ork d i a gr ams , a nd org a n is a t io n a l c har ts .
m

S Y ST E M S D EV E LO PM EN T M ET HO D S
Th ere ar e s ev er a l a p p r oac h es t o dev e lo p i ng c om p ut er - bas e d in fo r ma t io n s y s te ms .
Str uc tur e d a na ly s is is th e m os t wi d e ly us ed me t ho d, bu t a ne we r s tra te gy k n o wn as
)A

obj ec t- or i en t ed an a ly s is a n d d es i g n is a ls o w id e ly us ed . Ea c h m et h od has
nu m er ous v ar i at i ons . S om e bus i n es s es d ev e lo p t h e ir o wn a pp ro a c hes , w h i le o th ers
us e me th o ds pr ov id e d by s o ft war e v e n dor s , CA S E t o ol v en d ors , or c o ns u l ta nt s .
Mos t IT ex per ts a gr e e t h at t h er e is n o s i n g le b es t s y s t e m dev e l op m en t s tr at egy .
Ins te a d, a s y s te ms an a ly s t s h o u ld be fa m i l i ar w it h t h e v ar i ous m et h od o lo g i es , as
we l l as t he ir adv a nt ag es a nd d is a dv a nt a g es .
(c

ST RU CTU R ED A NA L Y SI S
 Str uc tur e d a n aly s is is a tr i ed - a nd- tr ue s y s te m d ev el o p me nt tec h n i qu e t h a t is s i m p le
to g ras p. T o p l an , a n a ly s e, d es i gn , i m pl e m e nt , a nd s up p ort an in f or ma t io n s y s t em ,

e
s truc tu re d a na ly s is e m p loy s a s er i es of ph as es k no w n as th e s y s te ms dev e l op m e nt
c y c l e ( S DL C) . Des p it e t h e fac t t h at s tr uc t ur e d a na ly s is ev o lv ed wh en m os t s y s t e ms
wer e b as e d o n ma i nfr am e pr oc es s i n g, i t r e ma i ns a d om i na n t s y s te m d ev e l op m e nt

lin
me t ho d.
Str uc tur e d a na ly s is e mp l oy s a s e t of pr oc es s m od e ls to g ra p hi c a lly d es c r i be a
s y s te m. Str uc t ur ed a na ly s is is r e ferr e d t o as a pr oc es s - c e n t ere d tec h n iq u e
bec a us e i t f oc us es on pr oc es s es th at tr ans f orm d at a in to us ef u l i n for m at i o n.
Str uc tur e d an a ly s is , i n a d d it i on t o pr oc es s mo d e l li n g, i nc lu d es da t a or g an is at i o n

On
an d s tr uc t ur e, r e l a ti o n a l da t ab as e des i g n, a n d us er i nt erf ac e is s ue s .
Pr oc es s m o de l l i ng i d en t if i es t h e da ta f l ow i ng i n to a pr oc es s , th e bus i nes s ru l es
th at tr a ns f or m th e d at a, a n d th e o ut p ut o f t h e pr oc es s .

O BJ E CT –O RI E NT E D AN AL Y SI S
Un l ik e s truc t ur e d a n a ly s is , w h ic h tre ats pr oc es s es a n d d at a s e par a te ly , o bj ec t -
or ie nt e d an a ly s is ( O - O ) c o m bi n es da ta a n d th e pr oc es s es th a t ac t o n th e d at a in t o
obj ec ts . O - O is us ed by s y s te m a na ly s ts to m o de l re a l - w or l d bus i nes s pr oc es s es

ty
an d op er at i ons . As a r es u l t, a s e t o f s of tw a re o bj ec ts r epr es e nt i n g ac tu a l pe o pl e ,
th i ngs , tr a ns ac t io ns , a nd ev e n ts is c r ea t ed . A pr o gr am m er t he n wr i tes t h e c o d e th a t
c rea t es th e o bj ec ts i n an O - O p r o gr am m i ng l an g ua g e.
A n o bj ec t b el o n gs to a c l as s , w h ic h is a g rou p o f s i m i l ar o bj ec t s . O bj ec ts h av e

si
c har ac ter is t ic s k n ow n as pr op er ti es , wh ic h t hey in h er it fr o m th e ir c l as s or h av e on
th e ir ow n .
er
3. 1. 2 S y st em de v el op ment m et h odo log ie s

S uc c es s fu l pr oj ec ts ar e w e ll - m a na g ed . T o e ff ec tiv e ly m an a ge a proj ec t , t h e
ma n ag er or d ev e lo p m en t te a m m us t s e l ec t th e s of tw ar e dev e l op me n t me t ho d ol o gy
iv

th at is b es t s u it e d to t h e pr oj ec t a t h an d. Ev ery m et h od o l ogy h as i ts o wn s et of
adv a nt a ges a n d d is a d v an t ag es , an d i t ex is t s f or a v ar i ety o f r e a s ons . H ere 's an
ov erv i e w o f t h e m os t c om m o nly us ed s o ft wa re d ev e lo p me n t m e th o do l o gi es , as w el l
as why t h ey ex is t .
Un

Me thodo log y f o r ag il e d e ve lop m ent

W he n a dd i ng n ew f un c ti o na l i ty , te a ms us e th e ag i l e dev e lo p m en t m et ho d o lo gy to
red uc e r is k ( s u c h as bu gs , c os t ov err u ns , a n d c h a ng i ng re q ui re me nts ) . T e ams
dev e l op s o ft w ar e in it er a t io ns t ha t i nc lu d e m in i - i nc r em e nts o f n e w f u nc t i o na l ity in
a ll ag i l e m et h ods . T he ag i l e d ev e l o pm e n t m et ho d c o m es i n m a ny f lav o urs ,
ity

i nc l u d in g s c r u m, c r y s ta l , e x tr e me pr o g ra mm i n g ( X P), a n d fe a tur e - dr iv e n
dev e l op m en t ( FD D) .
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ty
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Un

Pr os : T h e ma i n adv a nt ag e of a gi l e s of tw ar e dev e l op m en t is t h at it en a b les s of tw ar e

to be is s ue d in it er at i on s . I te ra t iv e r el e as es i nc r eas e p ro d uc t iv ity by
per m i tt i ng t e ams t o i d en t ify a n d c orr ec t f l aw s w hi l e a ls o a li g n in g e x pec t at i ons e ar ly
on . Th ey als o e n a bl e us er s t o r ea p t he b en e fi ts o f s o ft war e s oo n er, th a nk s to
reg u l ar gr ad u a l ga i ns .
ity

Co ns : B ec a us e a g il e d ev e l o pm e nt me th o ds d ep e nd he av i ly o n c l e a r d i a l og u e, fr es h
c us t o mers r e gu l ar ly de ar th t h e p a per w or k t h ey r e qu ir e t o g et s t ar te d. T h ey
nec es s it a te a s ig n if ic an t t i m e c o m m it me n t fr o m us ers a nd ar e t i m e c o ns um i n g
bec a us e pr o gr am m er s s h ou l d ac t u al ly f i nis h e ac h c h ar ac t er is tic f or us er a p pr ov a l
m

wi t hi n eac h i ter at i o n. A g il e d ev e l op m e nt m et ho ds , lik e r ap i d ap p l ic a t io n

dev e l op m en t ( s ee be l ow) , c o u ld b e i n ad e qu a te i n b i g e nt er pr i s es . Ma n a gers ,
pro gr a mm er s , an d ot h er s O r g an iz at i o ns us ed t o th e tr ad it i o na l w at erf a l l
ap pr o ac h ( s e e b e l ow) m ig ht we l l s tr u gg l e t o ad a pt t o a ni m b le SD L C. As a res u lt , a
)A

hy br i d m o de l fr e qu e nt l y w or k s we l l f or t he m .

Adv ant ag e s o f Agi le De v elo pm ent M etho d olog y

• Cus to m er s at is fac t io n is ac h iev e d t hr ou g h th e r a p id a n d c o n t i nu o us
de l iv er y o f us e f ul s of t war e.
• Hu m an c o nv er s a t io n i s h ig h l ig h te d i ns t ea d of pr oc ed ur e an d te c hn ic a l
(c

r eq u ir e me nts . C us t o me rs , dev e l op ers , a nd tes t ers ar e c ons t an t ly i n

c on t ac t w it h o n e an o th er.
 • A gi l e m et h od o lo gy e m p loy s a dy na m ic s o l ut i on t ha t e na b l es it t o r es p o nd
qu ic k ly t o c h an g in g c u s to m er n ee ds .
•

e
Cl e ar i n ter ac t i o n a n d c o nt i nu o us f ee d ba c k fr o m c us to m er s erv ic e
r ep r es e nt at iv es e l im i n at e a ny r o om f or er ror i n th e s y s t em .

lin
Agi le D e ve lop m ent M et hod olo gy D i sad v an tag es
• It is h ar d t o g a ug e t he w or k i nv o lv e d at t he s t art o f t he s of tw ar e
dev e l op m en t l i fe c y c le f or s o me s o ft w are de l iv er a b les , p art ic u lar ly l ar ge
on es .
• B ec a us e A gi l e c o nc e n tra tes o n w ork in g s o ft war e i ns t e ad o f p ap e rwor k ,

On
th er e m ay be a s c ar c it y o f s uc h doc u m en ts .
• If t he c us t om er r e pr e s en t at iv e is u ns u re o f t he des ir e d en d res u lt , th e
pr oj ec t c an eas i ly d er a il .
• O n ly c h i ef pr o gr a m m e r s s e em to b e c ap a b l e o f un d ert ak in g t he k i nds of
c ho ic es t h at ar e n ee de d dur i n g t he d ev e l op m en t ph as e. As a r es u l t,
un l es s c om b i ne d wi t h ex p er ie nc ed res o u rc es , i t h as no p l a c e f or
i nex p er ie nc ed p r o gr a m mers .

ty
De vO p s de plo ym ent met h odo log y
Dev O ps is a s et of pr a c tis es t ha t e nc o ur a ges a c o rp or at e e nv iro n m en t as w e l l as a
proc es s m od e l li n g. D ev O ps d e pl oy m en t f o c us es o n or g an is at i o n a l tr ans f orm a t i o n
th at i mp rov es c o l l ab or at i on a mo n g d e par t me nts i nv o lv ed i n m u lt i p l e p h as es of th e

si
dev e l op m en t l i fe c y c le , s uc h as gr o wt h , per f or ma nc e me as ur em e nt , an d pr oc es s es .
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iv
Un
ity
m

P ro s: D ev O ps is c onc er n ed w i th r ed u c i ng t i m e to ma rk e t, re d uc in g t he
ma l fu nc ti o n in g , r at e of ne w u p da t es , r ed uc e th e a m o un t o f t i m e b e tw ee n f ix es , a nd
)A

m in i m is in g d is t ur ba nc e w h i le m ax i mis i n g c o ns is t enc y . Dev O ps or ga n is at i ons s tr iv e

to ac h iev e t h is by au to m at i ng c o n ti n uo us de p l oy m e nt t o e ns ur e t ha t ev ery t h in g
runs s e a m les s ly . C o m pa n i es t h at us e Dev O ps me t ho ds b en ef i t f r om re d uc ed t i me
to m ark et , e nh a nc e d c us to m er s at is fac t io n, q u a li ty of pro d uc t s , an d e m pl oy ee
op er at i o na l e ff ic i enc y .
(c

Con: E v e n w it h a l l of i ts adv a nt a ges , Dev O p s h as a f ew d is a dv a nt ag es :

• S o m e c us t o mer s do n ot w a nt t he ir s y s t e ms t o b e c ons t an t ly up d at e d.
 • S om e i nd us t r i es hav e s tric t r eg u l at i ons t ha t nec es s it a te ex t e ns iv e tes t in g
be f or e a pr oj ec t c an p r oc e e d to t h e o per a ti o ns p has e.
•

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W he n v ar i ous de p ar t me n ts us e d i ff er en t env ir o nm e nts , u nrec o gn is e d
c onc er ns m ay e nt er pr od uc ti o n.
• A f ew q u al i ty c h ar ac ter is tic s nec es s it at e s oc ia l c o nt ac t, s l o wi ng t h e

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de l iv er y c h an n e l.

Adv ant ag e s o f De vO ps
• F ast e r P ro ce s s- Mu l t ip l e on g o in g pr o c ed ur es r u n c o nc urr en t ly , m ak in g t he
proc e d ure muc h e as i e r f or c o mp a ni es t o c om p l et e o n t i m e. D e v O ps fac i l it a tes

On
c om p an i es t o t hr iv e e ff ec t iv e i n ac c o mp l is h i ng me as ura b l e c o mp any per f orm a nc e
by a da pt i n g to mar k et s h if ts .
• Pr ov id es Q u ic k D el iv e ri e s - M ic ros erv i c es an d c o nt i nu o us de l iv ery ar e t wo
Dev O ps c om p on e nts th at pr ov i d e c o n ti n u it y of op er at i ons a nd ti m e ly u p da tes .
Dev O ps en a b les b us in es s es t o c o ns t a nt ly c r ea t e a n d pr o m ot e t h ei r s erv ic e , le a d in g
to a n i m pr ov e d s o ft wa r e pr od uc t.
• Con si st en cy - W it h ex p an d in g m o d if ic at i ons an d i nf ras truc t ur a l fac i l it i es , t h e

ty
dev e l op e d p r o d uc ts ar e m or e s ec ur e a n d r el i a bl e , g iv i n g t h em a c o mp e t it iv e
adv a nt a ge ov er t h ei r p eer s .
• Co ll abo r at i on - T h is is a c o l la b ora t iv e p l a tf or m b u il t on s tro n g r es p o ns ib i l ity a nd
pos s es s i on pr i nc ip l es . Th e dev e lo p m en t an d op er at i o ns t e ams ar e bo t h u p to d at e

si
on al l o f t he p r oj ec t's ac t iv it i es .

Di sa dv ant ag e s of D e v O p s
er
• Dev O ps d e ma n ds Cu l t ur a l c h a ng e Yes , th is is tr ue if y o u a do pt D ev O ps i n y our
bus i n es s , i t de m an ds c u lt ur a l c ha n ge a n d b us in es s n ee ds to res t ar t t h e ir
proc es s es i n or de r to gr o w e ff ic i en t ly .
• O rg an iz at i o na l Up gr a da t io n is a no t her i m por t an t f ac t or for c om p an i es t o
iv

up gr a de t he ir b us i nes s fr o m c onv e nt i on a l m et ho ds t o d iv i d i ng i n to
mu l t id is c i p li n ar y tas k s th a t w i l l a l lo w th e m to us e m ul t ip l e s k i l ls at t he s a m e
ti m e.
• S pe e d an d s ec ur ity is no t s o me t hi n g th a t is ac h i ev ed a l l t he t i m e us in g D ev O ps .
Un

For s o me c r it ic al s o ft war e e ng i ne er i ng pr oj ec ts , t h er e a re c o m pa n ies t ha t may

no t as s ur e b ot h in a s i ng l e s t a g e a n d y o u m ay n e ed t o c o ns i der a s ep ar at e p la n
for s ec ur i ty at ev er y s t ag e o f y o ur Dev O ps w ork f l ow .

W at erf a l l d ev e l o pm e nt m et h od
Th e w a ter f al l m e th o d i s w id e ly r e ga rd e d as t he m os t t ra d it i on a l m e th o d of s o ft war e
dev e l op m en t. Th e w at er f a l l m et h o d is a r ig i d l i n ear m od e l c om pr i s ed of s e qu e nt i a l
ity

ph as es ( re q uir e m en ts , d es ig n , i m pl e m en ta t io n, v e ri f ic a t io n , a nd ma i nt en a nc e ) eac h
foc us in g on a s p ec if ic g o a l. Be f or e th e n ex t p h as e c a n b eg i n, e ac h p has e mus t b e
c om p l et e d c o m p le t ely . Th er e is us u a l ly no way t o go b ac k an d c ha n ge t h e p roj ec t
or d ir ec t i on .
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P ro s: T he wa te r f a ll dev e lo p m en t m e th o d's l in e ar n at ur e m a k es i t s im p l e t o
un d ers t a nd a nd m an a ge . T he w at erf a l l m e th od is bes t s ui t ed fo r p roj ec ts w i th c l ea r
obj ec t iv es a nd s t a bl e r e qu ir e m en ts . Th e w at erf a l l d ev e l op m e nt me t ho d o lo gy m ay

si
be n ef i t les s ex p er i e n c ed pr oj ec t m an a gers a nd pr oj ec t te a ms , as w e l l as t e ams
wh os e c o mp os it i on c h an g es fr e q u en t ly .
Con s: B ec a us e of i ts r i gi d s tr uc t ur e an d s tr ic t c o n tro ls , t h e wa t er fa l l d ev e l op m e nt
me t ho d is fr e qu e nt ly s l ow an d c os t ly . Th e s e d is ad v a nt a ges m a y en t ic e wa t erf a l l
er
me t ho d us er s t o i nv es t i ga te al t er n a tiv e s o ft w are dev e l op m en t m et h od o l og i es .

Adv ant ag e s o f t h e W at e rf al l Mo de l
• T he w at er fa l l m od e l is s im p l e an d e as y t o u nd ers ta n d, an d i t em p l oy s
iv

me t ho d o lo gy . T h at is w hy it is a dv an ta g e ous for th e in ex pe ri e nc e d or n ov ic e
dev e l op er .
• B ec a us e o f th e m o d e l's r ig i d ity , pr oj ec t m a na g em e nt is s i m p le . F urt h erm or e, eac h
Un

ph as e h as its ow n s et of d e l iv e r a b les an d re v i ew pr oc es s .
• Th e W at er f a l l d ev e l op m en t me t ho d ol o gy s av es a s i gn i fic a nt a mo u nt of t im e by
proc es s i ng an d c o m pl et i ng al l p h as es at t he s a m e ti m e.
• T h e w at er f a l l m et h od ens ur es t ha t th e r eq u ir e me nts are we l l u n ders t oo d a n d
de f in e d. I t a ls o w or k s we l l f or s m al l er pr oj ec ts .
•Y o u c a n e as i ly p er for m t he tes t in g t h at r ef e rs t o t h e pr ev io us ly d ef i ne d s c en ar i os
i n th e f unc t io n al s pec i fic a ti o n.
ity

Di sa dv ant ag e s of W a t e rf a ll Mod el
• Th e w at er f a l l d ev e lo p me n t m et h o d c a n o n l y be us ed i f t he r e q u ire m en ts are
prec is e a n d av a i l ab l e up fr o nt .
• Th e wa ter f al l m e th o d is i n ap p l ic a b le t o pr oj ec ts t h at re q u ire o n go i n g
m

ma i nt e n anc e.
• Th e ma i n d is adv a nt a ge o f th is m e th o d is t ha t onc e a n a pp l ic at i on is in t h e
tes t in g s ta g e, i t is n ot r ec o mm e nd e d t o g o bac k a n d m ak e an y c h an g es t o
c om p l et e d s of tw ar e be c aus e i t m ay c a us e a l ot o f pr ob l e ms .
)A

• Th ere is n o w ay we c a n d ev e l o p a ny work i n g s o ft wa re un t il it r eac h es th e e n d o f

th e c y c l e.
• Th e c l ie n t's v a lu a b le f ee d bac k c a n no t b e i nc or p ora t ed in to th e o ng o in g
dev e l op m en t p has e .
• Th e w a ter fa l l d ev e l o p me n t me th o d do es n ot a l lo w y ou t o k no w th e f in a l ou tc om e
of t h e en t ir e pr oj ec t .
(c

• I f y our re q ui r e m en ts ar e no t w e l l - de f in e d an d c l ea r, th is m o de l wi l l n ot wo rk . It
work s w e l l for lo n g - t er m pr oj ec ts .
 • D oc u me nt a ti o n tak e s u p a l ot o f t im e f o r d ev el o pe rs an d t es t ers i n wa te rf a ll
me t ho d o lo gy .

e
lin
Rap id a ppl ic at ion d e ve lop me nt

Ra p id a p pl ic at i o n dev e lo p me n t ( R A D) is a s tre a m li n ed d ev el o p m en t proc es s th a t

res u l ts i n a h ig h - qu a l it y s y s t e m at a l o w i nv e s tm e nt c os t. " T h is R A D pr oc es s a ll o ws
our dev e l op er s t o q u ic k ly a dj us t to s hi ft i n g r e qu ir e me n ts i n a fas t - p ac ed an d

On
c ons t an t ly c h an g in g ma r k e t," s a i d Sc o tt St i ner , C EO a n d pres i d en t o f U M
Tec hn o l og i es , i n Fo r b es . T he a b i l ity t o adj u s t qu ic k ly is w h at a l lo ws f or s uc h a l o w
i nv es tm e nt c os t.

Th e r eq u ir e me nts p l an n i ng , us er des i g n, c o ns tr uc ti o n, a n d c ut ov er ph as es
c om pr is e t h e r a p id ap p l ic a t io n dev e l op m en t me th o d. T h e us er d es i gn a nd
c ons tr uc t i on p h as es a r e r ep e at e d u n ti l t he us er is s a t is f i ed t ha t t he pr o duc t me e ts

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a ll s pec i f ic a t io ns .

si
er
iv
Un

P ro s: R ap i d a pp l ic at i on dev e l op m en t is m os t e ff ec ti v e f or pr oj ec ts t h at h av e a
we l l- de f in e d b us in es s o bj ec t iv e an d a w e ll - d ef i n ed us er gro up bu t ar e n ot
c om p ut at i o na l ly c o mp l ex . R AD is es pec i a l ly us e f ul f or ti m e- s e ns it iv e s ma l l to
me d i um - s iz e d pr oj ec ts .

Con s: R a p id a p pl ic at i on d ev el o p me nt n ec e s s it a tes a s ta b l e t e a m c om p os it i on o f
h ig h ly s k i ll e d d ev e lo p er s a n d us ers w ho ar e i nt i ma t ely f am i l i ar w i t h t h e a p p lic a ti o n
ity

do m a in . I n a c on d ens ed d ev el o pm e nt t i me l i ne th a t r eq u ir es a p p rov a l a ft er eac h

c ons tr uc t i on p has e, e x te ns iv e k n ow l ed g e i s r eq u ir ed . O r ga n iz at i ons th at d o n ot
me e t th es e c r i ter i a w i l l m os t lik e ly n ot be n ef i t f ro m R AD .

Adv ant ag e s o f t h e R AD mod e l

• Th e r a pi d ap p l ic at i o n d ev e lo p me n t m o de l red uc es t h e r is k a n d r eq u ir ed e ff ort o n
m

th e pa rt of t he s o ft w ar e d ev e lo p er, a nd it a ls o a l l ows c l i e nts t o c on d uc t q u ic k

proj ec t r ev ie ws .
• T h is me th o do l o gy e nc o ur ag es c us to m er fe e db ac k , w h ic h a lw ay s pr ov id es
)A

op p ort u n it i es for im pr o v em e nt in a ny s o ft w ar e d ev e l op m e nt pr oj e c t .
• T h ere is a p os s ib i l ity o f fe w er de f ec ts as a res u l t of pro t oty p in g i n n at ur e.
• E ac h p h as e of R A D pr ov i d es th e c l i e nt w it h th e h i gh es t pr ior i ty f unc t io n a li ty .

Di sa dv ant ag e s RA D mod el
(c

• T h is m od e l r e l ies o n s tr on g t ea m a n d in d i v i du a l p erf or ma nc es t o c l ear ly id e nt ify

th e ex ac t r e qu ir e me n t s of t h e bus i nes s . • It c an o n ly b e us e d to b u il d s y s t ems t ha t
c an be m o d ul ar iz ed .
 • Th is s tra t egy n ec es s it a tes h ig h ly s k i ll e d dev e l op ers an d a d es i gn te a m, wh ic h
may no t b e fe as i bl e f o r ev er y or g an is at i o n.

e
• T his m et h o d is n ot s u it ab l e for us e by d ev e lo p ers o n s m a ll b u dg et pr oj ec ts du e to
th e h i gh c os t o f m od e l l in g a n d au t om a te d c o de ge n era t io n .

lin
• Pr o gres s an d p r o b l ems ar e d if f ic u l t t o t rac k as t h ere is n o doc u me n ta t io n t o
de m ons tr at e w ha t h as be e n d on e.

Wh ic h soft w a r e d e ve l opm ent m ethod olo gy sh oul d I u s e?

Th es e fo ur s of tw ar e d ev e l o pm e nt me t ho d o lo g ies are by f ar t h e m o s t w id e ly us e d i n

On
th e i nd us tr y . E ac h ha s i ts ow n s et o f pros a nd c o ns , a n d eac h wo rk s w e l l i n a
v ar ie ty of s it u at i ons . Co ns id er i n te gr at i n g t he c om p on e nts o f ev e ry t ec h n i qu e t ha t
per f orm gr e a t for y our t ea m a n d c urr en t pr o j ec t w he n s e l ec t i n g y our dev e l op m en t
me t ho d o lo gy . As a r e s u lt , y o u c a n c r ea t e a hy br id d ev el o p me nt me t ho d o lo gy th at
wi l l g et y ou t o pr o duc t i on in a s ec ur e a n d ef f ic ie n t ma n n e r .

ty
3. 1. 3 . S y st em de v elo pme nt t ool s

A s y s t e m d ev e lo p me n t p l an i nv o lv es s ev er a l p h as e s , inc l u d in g f e as ib i l ity s tu d i es ,
req u ir e me nts a n a ly s is , s o ft w ar e d es i gn , s o ftw ar e c o di n g, t es t i ng a nd d e bu g g in g,

si
i ns t a ll a ti o n, a n d p r es er v a t io n . A ll o f th es e proc es s es c an b e m an a ge d us in g
v ar io us t oo ls .

Lis t of Sy st em D e ve l opm ent Too ls:

er
1. En g in e Yar d
2. D ev D oc s
3. Pu b l ic A p is
4. D iv i de . io
iv

5. C o des h ip
6. C o de fres h
7. N o de
8. Werc k er
Un

9. St a mp ly
10 . G i t hu b
11 . C od ek it

Eng in e Y a rd
E ng i n e Y ar d is a fr am ew or k as a n e tw ork o p er a t or th a t s tre a m li n es , c us t o mis es ,
an d s e ts u p c l ou d - bas ed ap p l ic a t io ns . E ng i n e Y ar d wi l l i ns ta l l a n d ma i nt a i n th e ir
ity

ap ps i n t he c lo u d, a l l o wi n g th e m to f oc us o n wh at t h ey d o bes t. c r e at i ng v is u a l ly
ap p ea l i ng ap ps
W ebs i te : ww w. e ng i n ey ar d .c om
Pr ic in g m o de l : P a id

De vD oc s
m

Dev e lo p er d oc u m e nt at i on s e ar c h e ng i n e th at is f as t , o ff l i ne , a nd fr ee . D ev d oc s . i o
is a us er - fr i e n dly an d qu ic k r e f er e nc e m an u a l a ggr e g at or fo r po p u l ar fr on t - e n d
l an g ua g es an d li br ar ie s .
W ebs i te : ww w. d ev d oc s .i o /
)A

Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e

Pub li c Ap is
P ub l ic A P Is A c o ll ec t i on o f f r e e J SO N A P Is f or w eb d ev el o p m en t. Ap p l ic a t io n
pro gr a mm i n g i nt er fac e s ( A PIs ) ar e gr ou ps of t ec hn o l og i es t ha t a l l o w a pp l ic at i ons to
c om m u nic a te w it h o n e an ot h er . Wh e n y ou th i nk of AP Is , y o u pro b a bly t h ink o f
(c

pu b l ic A PIs , b ut t hes e ar e on ly a s ma l l por t io n of th e A P Is av a i l ab l e on th e

i nt ern e t.
Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e
 Di vid e io

e
Cre at e a b ac k e nd f or y our mo b i le ap p q u ic k l y . Div i d e. i o is a b ac k e nd l ibr ary t ha t is
op e n s o urc e . It 's s i mp l e, s a f e, a n d ef fec t iv e . De p loy w h er ev er y ou wa nt . M a in ta i n
c on tr ol ov er y our da ta . V is i t us o n G i th u b. I t i s fr ee an d o p en s o urc e.

lin
W ebs i te : ww w. d iv id e . i o/
Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e

Cod es hip
Co d e s h ip a l l ows s o ft war e t o be r el e as e d q u ic k ly , a ut o ma t ic a l ly , an d m u lt i p le t i m es

On
per day . It s ho r t ens dev e l op m en t c y c l es , l ow er i ng t h e l ik el i h oo d of de f ec ts a n d
ex p a nd i n g tec h no l o gy .
W ebs i te :w ww .c od es h i p.c o m/
Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e

Cod ef re sh
Co d efr es h is a c on ti n uo us d e liv ery a nd c o l la b ora t io n p l at fo rm for D oc k er.
Co d efr es h h e lps ag i l e t ea ms im pr ov e q ua l ity an d i nc r e as e s p e ed - t o- m ark et by

ty
fac i l it at i n g r a pi d f ee d b ac k a nd t es t i n g c y c l es .
W ebs i te : ww w.c o de fr e s h. i o
Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e

Nod ej s
si
No d e.j s is li g ht we i g ht an d e ff ic i en t b ec a us e i t em p l oy s an ev e n t - dr i v en , n on -
b loc k i ng I /O m o de l . T h e No d e.j s p ac k ag e ec o s y s te m, np m , is t he w or ld 's l arg es t
er
ec os y s t em o f o p en s o ur c e l ibr ar i es .
W ebs i te : ww w. n od ej s . or g
Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e
iv

W er c ke r
W erc k e r is a fr a me wo r k a n d ap p f or d ev e l o pi ng , b u il d i ng , a nd de p l oy in g
c on t ai n er iz e d a p pl ic at i ons an d m ic r os e rv ic es i n t he mo d ern c lo u d. Th is p la tf or m
was c re a te d t o m ak e d ev e l o per s ' l iv es eas i er by a l l ow i ng t h e m to m ov e qu ic k ly a nd
Un

c rea t e th i n gs .
W ebs i te : h tt p: // ww w. w er c k e r .c om /
Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e

St amp l y
St a m pl ay is an A PI - b a s ed dev e lo p m en t p la tf or m th at al l ows w e b d ev e l o pers t o
c rea t e an d d e p loy f u l l - fe at ur ed w e b a pps . S t am p l ay is a lo w - c o d e p la tf or m th a t
ity

en a b les b us i nes s es t o c r e at e h i g h - v a l ue bus i nes s pr oc es s es th at s pa n m u lt i p le

c l ou d s erv ic es .
W ebs i te : ww w.s t am p l a y .c o m
Pr ic in g M o de l : P a id

G ithub
m

G it H ub is a w ebs i te t h at h os ts G i t v ers io n c o ntr o l r e pos i to ri es . It is pr i m ari ly us e d

i n c om p ut er c o d e. I t pr ov id es a l l of G it h ub 's d is tr i bu t ed v ers i o n c o ntr o l a nd s ourc e
c od e m a na g em e nt f u n c ti o na l i ty
W ebs i te : ww w. g it h ub .c om
)A

Pr ic in g M o de l : P a id

Cod ek it
Co d ek i t is li tt l e m or e t ha n a c o m p l ier f or L es s a n d S as s c o mp i l er. I t a ls o c o l l at es
J av a Sc r i pt , M ar k do wn , a n d ot h er l an g ua g es , an d i t c o ns t a nt ly m o ni t ors fo r f i l e
c ha n ges . M o di f ie d f i le s ar e a ut o ma t ic a l ly ac c um u l at e d, a n d th e s e arc h en g i ne is
(c

re lo a de d . Co d ek i t is w e ll - d oc um e nt e d an d e a s y t o us e.
W ebs i te : h tt ps : //c o dek it a pp .c om /
Pr ic in g m o de l : F r e e
 3. 1. 4 . Co mput e r Aid ed S of t w ar e E ngi ne e r ing (C A SE )

e
Co m pu te r a id e d s of tw ar e en g i ne er i ng (C A S E) is t h e us e of c o m pu t er - a i d ed t o ols

lin
an d m et h ods i n t he d e v e lo p me n t o f s of tw ar e . C A S E is us ed t o e ns ure t h at s of tw ar e
is of hi g h q ua l ity an d fr ee of f la ws . C A S E e ns u res a me th o d ic a l a nd d is c i p l in e d
ap pr o ac h a nd a l l ows des i g ner s , dev e l op ers , t es t ers , m a na g ers , a nd o th ers to s e e
proj ec t m il es to n es as t hey pr o gr es s .

CA S E c a n a ls o s er v e as a r e p os it ory f o r proj ec t - re l at e d d oc um e nts s uc h as

On
bus i n es s p l a ns , r e qu ir em e nts , a n d des i gn s pec i f ic a t io ns . O n e of th e pr i mary
be n ef i ts of us i n g C A S E is t h e d el iv ery o f t h e f in a l pr od uc t, w h ic h is mor e lik e ly t o
me e t r e a l- w or ld r e qu ir em e nts bec a us e it k e eps c us t o mers i nv o lv e d th ro u gh o ut t h e
proc es s .

CA S E d e p ic ts a div er s e s et of l a bo r - s av i n g t oo ls us e d i n s o ft war e d ev e l op m e nt . It
ge n er at es a fr a m ew or k for pr oj ec t or g a n is a t io n a nd is us e f u l in inc r e as in g

ty
pro d uc t iv i ty . T h er e w a s mo r e i nt er es t i n t he c onc e pt of C A S E t oo l s y ears a go , bu t
l es s s o t o d ay , as t he t oo ls h av e ev o lv e d i nt o d if f ere n t f u nc t i ons , o f te n i n r es po ns e
to t h e ne e ds o f s of tw a r e d ev e l o pers . A ft er i t s re l e as e , th e C A S E c onc e pt w as a ls o
he av i ly c r i t ic is e d.
Ca s e T ool s

si
Th e f u nd a me nt a l i de a be h i nd C A S E t oo ls is t ha t bu i lt - i n pr ogr a m me s c an a i d in th e
an a ly s is of d ev e l o pi n g s y s t e ms i n or d er t o im pr ov e q u a l ity a n d prov i d e b e tt er
er
res u l ts . T hr o ug h ou t t he 1 99 0s , C A S E t oo l s bec a me p art of th e s of tw ar e l ex ic o n ,
an d lar g e c or p or a t io n s s uc h as I BM us e d t hes e t o ols to as s is t i n t he c r ea t io n of
s of tw ar e.
CA S E i nc lu d es a n u mb er of t oo ls , r ef err e d t o as C A S E to o ls , th at ar e us e d to
iv

s up p ort v a r i o us s ta g es a n d m il es to n es i n th e s o ft war e d ev e lo p me nt l i fe c y c le .

CA S E Too l Cat eg or ie s:
Un

1. Di a gr am m i ng To o ls : Th es e t oo ls a i d i n t he d i a gra m m at ic a nd g r ap h ic a l
rep r es e nt at i on o f d at a a n d s y s t e m pr oc e s s es . It gra p h ic a l ly rep res e nts
s y s te m e l em e nts , c o ntr o l f lo w, a n d d at a f lo w a m on g v ar i ous s o ft war e
c om p on e nts a n d s y s te m s truc t ure . F or ex a m p le , F l ow C h art M ak er is a t oo l
for c r ea t in g c u tt i ng - e d ge f l owc h art s .
2. Co m pu te r D is pl ay an d R e po rt G e ner at ors : T hes e a id i n c o m pre h e nd i n g t he
da t a r eq u ir e me nts an d t he r el a ti o ns hi ps i nv o lv ed .
3. A na ly tic a l T oo ls : It f o c us es on t h e d i agr a m 's an d d at a f l ow's i nc ons is te n t
ity

an d i nc or r ec t s p ec if ic at i ons . It a i ds i n t he c o l l ec t i on o f r e qu ir e me n ts by
au t om at ic a l ly c h ec k i n g for a ny i rre g u lar i t ie s , i mpr ec is io n i n d i ag ra ms , a n d
da t a r ed u n da nc ies . Fo r ex a mp l e,
• Ac c ep t 3 60 , Ac c o mp a , C as e C om p l et e for r eq u ire m en t a na ly s is .
• V is ib l e A n aly s t f or to t a l an a ly s is .
m

4. Ce ntr a l R e pos i tor y : It s er v es as a c e ntr a l is ed s tor a ge l oc a t io n f o r p roj ec t -

re la te d d a ta d i a gr a ms , r e p orts , a nd d oc u me n ts .
5. Doc u me n ta t io n G e ner at or s : I t ai ds i n t h e g en er at i o n o f us e r a n d tec h n ic a l
doc u me n ta t io n i n ac c or d a nc e w i th s t a nd ar ds . It ge n era t es doc um e nts f or
)A

bo t h t ec h nic a l a nd en d us ers . F or d oc um e nt at i o n, c o ns i der D ox y g e n,

Dr Ex p l a in , a nd Ad o be Ro b oH e lp .
6. Co d e G e n er a t or s : It a s s is ts i n t h e a ut o ma t i c ge n era t io n of c o de , inc l u d in g
de f in i t io ns , us i n g d es i gns , d oc u m e nts , an d d i agr a ms .
Adv ant ag e s o f Ca s e Me t hod s:
• B ec a us e s pec i a l e mp has is is p lac e d on r e des i g n an d t es t i ng , a pr o duc t's
(c

s erv ic i n g c os t ov er its ex p ec te d l i fe t im e is s i gn i f ic a nt ly r ed uc ed .
• As a n or g an is e d a pp r oac h is tak e n d ur in g t he dev e l op m e nt pr o c es s , t h e
ov er a l l q ua l i ty of t h e p r od uc t i mpr ov es .
 • A c o m pu te r - a i d ed s o f tw ar e en g i ne er i ng ap pro ac h i nc r eas es t h e l ik e l ih o od
an d e as e of m e et i n g r ea l - w orl d re q u ire m en t s .
•

e
CA S E i nd ir ec t ly pr ov i des a c o m p et it iv e a d v an t ag e t o a n org a n i s at i on by
as s is t i ng in t h e dev e l o pm e nt o f h i gh - q ua l i ty pro d uc ts .

lin
Di sa dv ant ag e s of t h e C AS E app ro ac h
• Cos t: Us in g a c as e t o o l is ex t re m e ly ex p en s iv e. Mos t s ma l l - s c a le s of tw ar e
dev e l op m en t f ir ms d o no t i nv es t i n C A S E to o ls b ec aus e t h ey b e li ev e t ha t t he
be n ef i ts of C A S E ar e on ly j us t if i ab l e i n t he dev e l op m en t o f l arg e s y s te ms .
• Le ar n in g C ur v e: I n m os t c as es , pr o gra m m e r p ro d uc t iv ity may s uf fer dur i n g

On
th e in i ti a l p h as e of i mp l e me n ta t io n, as us ers re q u ire t im e t o l ear n t h e
tec h no l ogy . M a ny c o n s u lt an ts pr ov i de tra i n i ng an d on - s i te s erv ic es , w h ic h
c an he l p t o ac c el er at e th e le ar n in g c urv e as we l l as th e d ev el o pm e nt an d
us e of s o ft war e .
• To ol M ix : It is c r it ic a l to c r e at e a n a p pr opr i a te s e lec t io n t o o l m ix i n or d er t o
ga i n a c os t a dv a nt a g e. CA S E i nt eg ra t io n an d da ta i nt e gra t io n ac ros s a l l
p la tf or ms ar e c r i tic a l.

ty
3. 1. 5 . Jo int Ap pl ic at i on D e v elo pm ent (J A D)

si
JA D, o r Jo int Ap pl ic at i on D ev e lopm ent , is t he proc es s o f d es ig n i ng an d
dev e l op i ng c o mp u ter - bas e d s y s t ems /s ol u ti o ns . I t g a th ers r eq u ir e me n ts s i d e by s id e
as pe r bus i n es s ne e d s w h il e d ev el o p in g n e w in f or ma t io n s y s t ems f or a c o mp a ny ,
i mp ly i ng t ha t J AD i nv o lv es t he c l i en t or en d- us ers i n th e des i g n an d d ev e l op m e nt
er
proc es s . It a ls o i nc lu des ap pr oac h es for i mp rov i ng s pec i fic a ti o n q u al i ty a nd us er
par t ic ip a ti o n t hr o u gh a s er i es o f c o l l ab or at i v e w ork s h o ps k n ow n as J A D s es s i o ns .
B ec a us e th e c li e nt is i nv o lv ed thr o ug h ou t t he dev e l op m en t pr oc e s s , dev e l op m e nt
ti m es ar e s h or t e ne d a nd c l ie nt s at is f ac ti o n i s h i gh er .
iv

Hi sto ry of J oin t Appl ic at i on D ev el opm ent:

Chr is M orr is a n d T o ny Cr a wf or d c r ea t ed J o i nt A p pl ic at i o n D ev el o pm e nt i n t h e la t e
19 7 0s wi t h t h e go a l o f im pr ov in g c l i en t s at i s fac t io n. T hey h e ld v a ri ous w ork s ho ps
Un

to prov e t h e pr oj ec t i n t he 19 8 0s , a n d i t h as s i nc e b ee n a p p li e d i n a v ar ie ty o f
i nd us try s ec t or s , pr o d uc in g ex c e ll e nt p ro d uc ts .
P art i cip ant s in J AD :
1. Th e J A D Pr oc es s i nv o lv es a l arg e nu m be r o f k ey s tak e ho l de rs . T h ey ar e as
fo l l ows :
2. 1. Ex ec u t io n Pr oc es s : T h is pr oc es s is fr om t h e c us to m er's p ers p ec t iv e a n d
i nc l u des t h e Pr oj ec t Ma n ag er , CIO , C EO , or CI SO w ho h as th e au t hor i ty t o
ity

mak e pr oj ec t d ec is io n s .
3. 2. F ac i li t at or : T h i s p e r s on is in c h arg e o f c rea t in g , m a na g in g , a n d c arry i n g
ou t th e J A D ac t iv i t ies , as w e l l as m i ni m is i ng d is a gre e m en ts , e n c our a g in g
en d- us er i nv o lv e me nt , m a in t ai n i ng f oc us , a n d tak i n g an un b ias e d a ppr o ac h.
4. IT R e pr es e nt at iv es : T h is i n d iv i d ua l fo r g iv i ng tec h n ic a l a dv ic e a nd to h e lp
th e t ea m t o d ev e lo p t ec hn ic a l m od e ls a n d t o b ui l d h e pro to ty pe of en d
m

res u l t. Th ey mus t ap pr o ac h an d s up p ort th e c us t om ers i n t ur n in g t h e ir

v is ua l iz at i ons i nt o mo d e ls as per th e re q uir e m en ts , de v e lo p a n
un d er s t a nd i n g o f t h e en d - us e r b us in es s g oa ls , re pr es en t in IT f u nc t i o ns ,
ren d er e nd s ol u ti o ns w h ic h ar e a ff or da b l e i n na t ure e tc .
)A

5. E n d- Us er : T h is c on c er n e d i nd iv i du a l is u s ua l ly t he pr i m ary foc us of J A D. T hey

prov i d e ap pr op r i a te b us in es s k n ow l ed g e an d s t ra te gy , de p ic t a l l k ey us er gr o u ps
af fec t ed by dev e lo p m e nt , a nd r e pr es en t m u lt i p le lev e ls w it h in t h e or ga n is at i on .
6. Sc r ib e : Th is p er s o n is in c h arg e o f pr e c is ely an d ef fec t iv e ly d oc u me nt i n g th e
J AD pr oc es s an d J A D s es s io ns . T h ey us u a l ly ac t as a f ac i l i ta to r' s p art n er in e ac h
(c

J AD s es s i o n a nd pr ov i de r ef er enc es f or th e r ev ie w.
 7. O bs erv er : T he o bs e r v er wi l l o bs erv e e ac h J A D s es s io n a nd g at h er k no w le d g e f or
en d- us er n ee ds a n d J AD s es s i o n d ec is i ons , as w e l l as in t erac t w it h J AD

e
par t ic ip a nts o n ly o uts i de of J A D s es s i ons .
The di ag r am b elo w d epi ct s t he va ri ou s st ag es of J AD .

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On
ty
si
er
iv
Un

JA D S es s ion s:
• Th e o bj ec t iv es an d a ge n da i te ms f or t h e J AD s es s io ns mus t b e c l e ar ly
de f in e d. I t mus t b e ens ur e d t h at k ey p er s on n e l f ro m t he t ec h n ic a l a nd
bus i n es s wor l ds , as w e ll as th os e wh o t ak e no t es , ar e pr es en t.
• Q u es t i ons a n d it e ms ar e t h e es s e nc e of th e d is c us s i o n f or dr iv i n g th e
me e ti n g, a n d w e s h o u ld n ot ex p ec t q u ic k a ns w ers . We s h o u ld a ls o as k
ity

qu es ti o ns , k e e p tr ac k of im p ort a nt d et a i ls , a nd as s i g n ac t i o n it e ms .
• Th e go a l of J AD s es s i ons is t o s t i mu l at e c rea t iv e t h i nk i n g, w h ic h l ea ds t o
c o ll a bo r a t iv e d is c us s i ons t h at re q u ire ex p er tis e fr o m mu l t ip l e d ep art m en ts .
• Te ams s h o ul d as s is t o ne a no t her i n m ak i ng d ec is i o ns . If t h e te a ms a re
un a b le t o r e ac h an a gr e e m en t, w e m us t c on d uc t s c h e du l e d J A D s es s io ns
m

k no w n as J A D wor k s h ops .
• W e ar e aw ar e t ha t t h e m aj or ity of J A D s es s i ons ar e s c h e du l e d dur i n g t he
dev e l op m en t p h as e ; ho wev er , t h is m a y oc c ur d ur in g t h e proj ec t 's
req u ir e me nts .
)A

Adv ant ag e s o f Joi nt Appl i cat ion D e ve lop ment :

Th es e a re s o m e o f t h e pr i m ar y adv a nt a ges o f J AD :
1. Cr e at e a d es ig n fr o m th e c us to m er's p o i nt o f v i ew .
2. C o l la b or a t io n b et w e en t h e c o mp a ny a nd t h e c l i en t h el ps t o e l im i n at e a l l r is k s .
(c

3. Bec a us e o f t he c los e i nt er ac t i ons , pr og res s is ac c e l er at ed .

4. J AD a i ds i n th e ac c e ler at i o n of des i gn w h i l e a ls o im pr ov in g q u al i ty .
 5. J AD e nc o ur a ges th e t ea m t o pus h eac h o th er, wh ic h le a ds t o f a s ter work a nd o n -
ti m e d el iv er y .

e
Joi nt App li c at io n De ve lop me nt Ch al le ng e s:

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1. T ea m m e m ber s ' o p i ni o ns m ay d if f er at ti mes , f i nd i ng it c ha l l e ng i n g to c oi nc i de
obj ec t iv es a nd ac h i ev e foc us .
2. D ep e nd i n g o n th e s iz e of th e pr oj ec t, p eo p le i n J A D may hav e to s p e nd a
s i gn i fic a nt p er i od of t i me .

On
J o in t A pp l ic at i o n Dev e l op m en t ( J A D) m ay n o t be t h e s o lu t io n t ha t t he org a n is a t io n
req u ir es , b u t it pr ov i d es a m or e i nc l us iv e a n d f lu i d e nv i ro n me n t t h an ot hers . J A D is
a tec h n iq u e us e d i n t h e e ar ly s t a g es of a s y s te ms d ev e l o pm e nt p roj ec t t o d ev e l o p
bus i n es s s y s te m r e q u i r e me nts . O n e o f th e g oa ls o f J A D is t o br i ng M I S a nd e n d
us ers t o ge t her in a s tr uc t ur ed w or k s ho p , wh i c h is ac c o mp l is he d by ex p er i enc e d
J AD f ac i l it at or s a n d c u s to m is e d , s c h ed u le ag en d as to as s is t p art ic i pa n ts i n

ty
c om p l et i ng hi g h q ua l it y r e q ui r e m en ts . I t c a n a ls o b e s e e n th at t h e J AD proc es s
red uc es d ev e l o pm e nt t i me , c os ts , a nd err ors .

si
3. 1. 6 . R api d App li c at ion D ev e lo pm ent ( RA D)

Y ou c a n't c h an g e t h e des i g n o f a s k y s c r a per h a lf way th ro u gh c ons tr uc t i on . Yo u

er
mus t s t ic k to t h e or i gi na l p a th fr o m b eg i n ni n g to en d.

Th at is no t t h e c as e wh e n d ev e lo p in g s of t war e. Y o u c an c h an g e t h e d es i gn , a d d
fu nc t i o na l ity , a nd r e mov e f ea t ur es y ou do n' t wa n t w it ho u t a ff ec t i ng t h e f in a l
pro d uc t .
iv

Th at is on e of t he p r i mar y r e as ons w hy s of tw ar e n e eds ex c e l l en t d ev e lo p me n t

s tra te g i es t o b e pr o duc t iv e fr o m c on f ig u rat i on t o l au nc h. R ap i d a pp l ic at i on
Un

dev e l op m en t was c r ea te d for t h is p urp os e – t o qu ic k ly c re at e pr ot o ty p es for t es ti n g

fu nc t i o ns an d f ea t ur e s w it h ou t w orry in g a bo u t ho w t he f i n is h e d pr od uc t w i l l b e
i mp ac t e d.

B ut h ow di d r a p id ap p l ic a t io n d ev el o p me nt c om e t o b e? Wh at are th e b en e fi ts of a
rap i d ap p l ic a t io n dev e lo p me n t m o de l ? H o w d oes o ne g o a b ou t dev e lo p i ng r a p id
ap p l ic a t io n d ev e lo p me nt s o ft w ar e ? An d h o w d id it c om e t o b e t he s ta n dar d m e th o d
ity

for d ev e lo p i ng s o ft w ar e?

Wh at i s Ra pid A ppl ic at i on De v el opm ent (R AD)?

Ra p id Ap p l ic at i on D ev e lo p me n t ( RA D) is a t er m t h at r ef ers to t h e d ev el o pm e nt o f
s of tw ar e ap p l ic at i ons i n a s h or t p er i od of
m

Ra p id A p p lic a ti o n D ev e lo p me n t ( R A D) is a d ev e l o pm e nt m od e l t h at pr ior i t is es r a p id
pro t oty p in g a n d i m me d ia te f e e db ac k ov er l e ng t hy d ev e l op m e nt a n d tes t in g c y c les .
)A

Dev e lo p ers c a n us e r ap i d a p p l ic a t io n d ev e l op m en t t o mak e mu l t i p le it er at i o ns a n d

up d at es to s o ft war e wi t ho ut s t art i n g a d ev e l o pm e nt p i pe l i ne fro m c o nc e pt t o
c om p l et i on eac h t im e .

RA D is a d ev e l o pm en t m od e l th at a ros e w h e n dev e lo p ers rea l is e d t h at t he

tra d it i on a l w at er f a l l m od e l o f dev e l op m en t w as i ne ff ec tiv e .
(c

A m aj or f l aw in t he w at er f a l l m od e l is t ha t onc e t he pr o gr am m e i s i n th e t es t i ng
ph as e, c h an g i ng t he c or e f unc t io ns a nd f ea t ures o f t h e s o ft w are b ec o m es di ff ic u lt .
 Th is e ff ec tiv e ly l eav es y ou w it h s of tw ar e t ha t m ay or m ay no t me e t y o ur c ha n gi n g
ne e ds .

e
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On
ty
si
Ra p id A pp l ic at i on D ev e lo p me n t ( R AD) w as i nv e n te d i n t he 19 8 0s , s o i t is n ot a ne w
er
c onc e pt . Ho w ev er , u n l ik e t h e wa t erf a ll mo d e l, i t is n ot un i qu e . It is a c on t in u ous
ev o l ut i o n of d ev e lo p m en t p h il os op h i es i n r es po ns e to t h e n ee ds o f th e t im e .

In i ti a l ly , B ar r y Bo e h m, J am es Mar t in , an d ot hers r ec o gn is ed th a t s of tw ar e w as n o t
iv

l im i te d to tr ad i t io n al en g i ne er i ng m et h od s . I t w as n 't a on e - ti me res o urc e t ha t

nec es s it a te d a r ig i d s t r uc t ur e. I t c o ul d b e s h ap e d to me et t h e n ee d s o f th e us er.
Un

O ri g in a l ly , r a p i d ap p l i c at i on d ev e lo p m en t t ook t h e for m o f th e S pi ra l m o de l , i n
wh ic h o ne o r mo r e d ev e lo p me n t mo d e ls wer e us e d to w ork o n a s p e c if ic pr oj ec t .

Ra p id a pp l ic at i on dev e lo p me n t ev olv e d ov er t i m e. I t m or ph e d t o m ee t t he d em a nds

of t h e t i m e wh i l e a dh e r i ng t o s o m e fu n da m e nt a l d ev e l op m e nt pr i nc i pl es .

Rap id Ap pl ic at ion D e ve lop me nt P ro c edu r e s

ity

A lt h ou g h R A D h as e v o lv e d ov er t im e, t h es e fo ur b as ic s te ps hav e r em a i ne d
c ons is te n t.

1. De f in e t he r eq u ir e m e n ts
m

2. Pr ot oty p e
3. Rec e iv e F e ed b ac k
4. Fi na l iz e S of tw ar e
)A

1. D efi ne t h e R equ ir e ment s

Ra p id a p p lic a ti o n d ev e l o pm e nt d is t i n gu i s hes i ts el f fro m tr a d it i on a l s of tw ar e

dev e l op m en t mo d e ls f r o m t he s t art . I t d o es no t nec es s it at e m ee t i ng w it h en d us e rs
to o bt a in a d et a i le d l i s t o f s pec i f ic a t io ns ; in s te a d, i t r eq u es ts a br oa d r e qu ir e me n t.
Th e br oa d na tu r e of t he r e qu ir e me nts a l lo w s y o u t o p rov i de s p ec if ic r eq u ir em e nts
(c

at v ar i o us s ta g es of t h e d ev e l op m e nt c y c l e .

2. C r eat e a p rot ot yp e
 Th is is w he r e th e ac t u a l d ev el o p me nt oc c urs . I ns t ea d of a dh er i ng t o a s tr ic t s et o f
req u ir e me nts , d ev e l op e r s c r e at e pro t oty pes wi t h v ari o us fe at ur es an d fu nc t io ns as

e
qu ic k ly as pos s i b le . T hes e pr o to ty p es ar e t he n s h o wn t o c l i e nts , wh o d ec id e w h at
th ey l ik e a nd d is l ik e.

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Mos t o f t h e t im e , t hes e pr ot o ty p es ar e rus h ed t o c o mp l et i on in o rd er t o
de m ons tr at e s p ec if ic f ea t ur es w i th o ut pr o pe r p o l is h . T h is is n or m a l, a n d t h e f in a l
pro d uc t is o nly c r ea t e d d ur i n g t he f i na l is at i on s t a ge , w he n b ot h t he c l ie nt an d t he
dev e l op er a gr ee on t h e f in a l pr od uc t.
3. O bt ai n F e edb a ck

On
Fe ed b ac k o n w ha t's g oo d , w ha t's n o t, w h at w ork s a n d w h at d o e s n't is s h ar e d a t
th is s ta g e. F ee d bac k is g iv e n n ot o n ly on fu nc t i o na l ity , b ut a ls o o n v is u a ls a nd
i nt erf ac es .
Pr ot oty p i ng w il l c on t in ue w it h t h is f ee d bac k i n m i nd . T hes e t w o s t eps ar e re p ea t ed
un t i l a f i n a l pr o d uc t t ha t m ee ts th e n ee ds of b ot h t he d ev e lo p er s a nd t h e c l ie n t is
c rea t ed .
4. Fi na liz e S of t w ar e

ty
Her e, t he c l i e nt a nd t he s o ft war e's f ea t ure s , f unc t i ons , aes th e ti c s , a n d in t erf ac e
are fi n a lis e d. Be f or e d e liv er i ng t o t h e c l ie n t, s t ab i l ity , us a bi l i ty , a n d m a in ta i n ab i l ity
mus t b e pr i or it is ed .

si
Rap id Ap pl ic at ion D e ve lop me nt ' s Be nef it s an d Dr aw ba c ks (R A D)
er
W it h t h es e s t eps , it m ay a p pe ar th a t a p pl ic a ti o n d ev e lo p me n t is a go o d id e a f or al l
proj ec ts , b ut t h at's a b it o f a s tr etc h. R A D s of tw ar e is i d ea l f or s ma l l t ea ms a n d
s hor t- ter m pr oj ec ts . H ow ev er , i t is n ot a pa nac e a for al l pr o b le m s . H er e ar e s o me
of t h e be n ef i ts an d dr a wb ac k s o f us in g ra p id ap p l ic a t io n d ev e lo p me nt .
iv

Adv ant ag e s o f RA D Di sa dv ant ag e s of R A D

Re q ui re m en ts c a n b e c ha n ge d a t a ny Ne e ds s tro n g te a m c o l l ab or at i on
Un

ti m e

E nc o ur ag es a n d pr io r i t i es c us t o mer Ca n no t wo rk wi t h l arg e te a ms
fe e db ac k

Rev i ews a r e q u ic k Ne e ds h ig h ly s k i l l ed d ev e l o pers

ity

Dev e lo p m en t t im e is d r as t ic a ll y Ne e ds us e r r eq u ir e me nt t hr ou g ho u t t h e l i fe c y c l e of
r ed uc e d th e pr od uc t

Mo re pr o d uc t iv ity w i th fe wer pe o p le O n ly s u it a bl e f or pr oj e c ts wh ic h h av e a s ma l l
dev e l op m en t t im e
m

Ti m e be tw e en pr o t oty p es a nd Mo re c o m p lex t o m a na ge w h en c om p are d t o ot h er

it er at i on s is s h or t mo d e ls

In te gr at i o n is n’ t a pr o b le m, s inc e it O n ly s y s te ms w h ic h c a n b e mo d u lar is e d c a n be
)A

i nt egr a tes fr o m pr oj ec t i nc ep t io n dev e l op e d us in g R ap i d a p pl ic at i o n dev e l op m en t.

O the r D ev el opm ent M ode ls vs . Ra pid A ppl i cat ion D e ve lop m ent
(c

O nc e c om p ar ed t o o th er s o ft wa re d e v e lo p me n t mo d e ls , rap i d a p pl ic at i o n
dev e l op m en t d i ff er s s i gn i fic a nt ly . Th e gl ar i ng d is t i nc t i on is th at rap i d ap p l ic a t io n
dev e l op m en t c o nc en tr at es o n s pe e d, as o p pos e d t o o th er m od e l s , w hic h ty p ic a lly
foc us o n d el iv er i ng a wor k i n g pr o d uc t t o t he c us to m er.
 A no th er t hi n g t o k ee p i n m i n d is t h at r a pi d a pp l ic at i on d ev el o p me n t pr e fers a s i ng l e
te a m w i th a s ma l l n um ber o f m em b ers . T his a ll o ws f or q u ic k c om m un ic at i o n as w e l l

e
as q u ic k m e et i ngs for i nf or ma t io n tr a ns f er. O th er dev e l op m en t m od e ls s uc h as t he
wa ter f al l m o de l gr ea tly pr ef er h i gh ly c o h es iv e gr o ups s e par a t ed i n to v ar i ous
s pec i a l is a t io ns .

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B ec a us e th e R AD f r a m ew or k is f oc us e d o n s pe e d, d ev e lo p me n t ti m e is s h ort er t h an
i n ot h er m od e ls . H ow e v er , t h e d if fer e nc e is u s ua l ly m i n or bec a us e r ap i d a pp l ic at i o n
dev e l op m en t pr ef er s t o pr od uc e a l ar ge nu m ber of pr o to ty p es b ef o re th e f i na l is ed
pro d uc t .

On
Ra p id ap p l ic a t io n d ev e lo p me n t is a ls o he av i ly f oc us e d on inv o lv i n g th e e n d us e r at
ev ery s t a ge of t he dev e lo p me n t pr oc es s . O th er m od e ls ty pic a l ly o n l y rec e iv e us er
i np ut at t he s t ar t an d en d o f th e d ev el o p me n t c y c l e.

3. 1. 7 . S y st em de v elo pme nt lif e c yc l e

ty
A n e ff ic ac io us Sy s t e m D ev el o p me nt L if e Cy c l e ( S DL C) mus t c on tr ib u te to a h ig h
s o lu t io n t ha t i nc lu d es c us to m er r e qu ir e m en ts , is c o m p le t ed w i th i n ti m e a nd c os t
es t i ma t es , an d ef f ic ie nc y o f t h e o p er at i ons i n ex is ti n g a n d p l a n ne d i nf or ma t io n

si
tec h no l ogy in fr as tr u c t ur e .
Th e Sy s t em Dev e l op me n t L i fe Cy c le ( S DL C) is a c onc e pt ua l m od e l t h at i nc l u des
po l ic i es a nd pr oc e d ur es f or d ev e lo p in g an d mo d ify i n g s y s t ems th r ou g ho u t t he ir l if e
c y c l es .
er
A na ly s ts us e SD LC t o c r e a te a n i nf or m at i on s y s te m . SD LC ac t i v it i es inc l u de th e
fo l l ow i ng :
• req u ir e me nts
• des i g n
iv

• i mp l e me nt a ti o n
• tes t in g
• de p l oy m e nt
• op er at i o ns
Un

• ma i nt e n anc e

Ph a se s of S DLC
Th e Sy s te ms D ev e l o p me n t L if e Cy c le is a s y s te m at ic a p pro ac h th at ex p l ic it ly
bre ak s d o wn t h e wor k r eq u ir ed t o i m p le m e nt a n ew or mo d if i ed I n fo rm at i on Sy s t e m
i nt o p has es .
ity
m
)A
(c
 Fe as ib ili ty St ud y or Pl an nin g
• S pec i fy th e pr o bl e m an d t he s c op e o f th e e x is t i n g s y s te m.

e
• Ex am i n e th e n ew s y s te m a nd de te rm i n e its go a ls .
• Co nf ir m t he f e as ib i l it y o f th e pr oj ec t a n d c r ea t e th e pr oj ec t s c h ed u le .
• T hr ea ts , c o ns tr a i nts , s y s t e m i nt e gra t io n , an d s ec ur ity a re a l l c ons i d ere d d ur in g

lin
th is p h as e .
• At t h e e nd o f t his ph as e , a f eas i b i li ty re p or t f or t h e en t ir e proj ec t is c r e at e d.

Sp e cif ic at ion an d an al y si s

On
• G at h er, a n a ly s e , a nd v a l i da te t h e d at a.
• De f in e t he s y s t e m's r eq u ir em e nts a n d pr ot o ty p es .
• As s es s th e o pt i o ns a nd pr i or i tis e t he r eq u ir em e nts .
• Ex am i n e th e e nd - i n fo r m at i on us er's ne e ds an d i m pr ov e t h e s y s te m g oa l .
• At t h e en d o f t h is p has e , a S of tw ar e R e q u ire m en t S p ec i f ic a t io n (S R S) d oc u m e nt
is p re p are d t h at s p ec i f i es t he s y s te m's s of tw are , har dw ar e, fu nc t io na l , a n d n et w ork
req u ir e me nts .

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S yst em De si gn
• Th is i nc l ud es t he d es i gn of a p p l ic a t io n, ne t work , a n d d at ab as e i nt erf ac es ,

si
as we l l as us er a n d s y s te m i nt er fac es .
• Co nv er t th e S R S d oc u me n t in to a l o gic a l s tr uc t u r e c o n ta i n in g a de ta i l ed a nd
c om pr e he ns iv e s e t of s pec i f ic a t io ns t h a t c a n b e i mp l e me nt ed i n a
pro gr a mm i n g l an g ua g e.
er
• Cre at e a p l a n for c on t i ng e nc y , tr a i ni n g, m a i n te n anc e, an d o pe ra t io n.
• Ex am i n e t h e pr op os e d des i g n. As s ur e t h at t he f i n al des i gn me e ts th e
req u ir e me nts ou t li n ed i n th e S R S d oc u m en t.
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• Fi na l ly , c r e at e a d es i gn d oc um e nt t h at w i l l be us e d i n th e s u bs e q ue n t
ph as es .
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Imp le me nt a t io n

• Co d in g is us e d t o tr a n s l at e th e d es ig n i n to s ourc e c o d e.
• Co m bi n e a l l o f t h e m od u l es t o c r e at e a tr a in i ng e nv ir o n me nt c ap a b le of
de t ec t i ng e r r or s an d d ef ec ts .
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• A t es t r e p or t w it h er r or s is c r ea te d us in g a t es t p l an t ha t inc l u des t es t -
re la te d t as k s s uc h a s tes t c as e g e ner a ti o n, t es t i ng c ri t eri a , an d t es ti n g
res o ur c e a l loc a ti o n.
• Ins ta l l t h e n ew s y s te m a ft er in t eg r at i n g t he i nf or ma t io n s y s t e m i n to its
env ir o nm e nt .
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Ma int en an ce / S uppo r t

•
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Inc l ud e a l l ac t iv it i es s uc h as p h on e s up p ort or p hy s ic a l o n - s i t e s up p ort f or

us er s t h at a r e r e q u ir e d af t er th e s y s t em is i ns t a l le d.
• It als o inc l u des h an d l i ng r es i du a l err ors an d r es o l v i ng a ny is s u es th at m ay
ex is t i n th e s y s te m a ft er th e tes t in g p has e, a s we l l as i m pl e m en t in g any n ew
req u ir e me nts th a t m ay ar is e af t er t he s o ft wa re is d e pl oy ed a t t he c us t o mer
l oc a t io n.
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• Ma i nt e n anc e a nd s u p por t m ay be r eq u ir ed f or a l on g er per i o d of t i me f or

l arg er s y s t e ms an d f or a s h or ter per i o d of t i me f or s m a l l er s y s te m s .
 S yst em Ana l ys is and D es ign L if e C y cl e
Th e d ia gr a m be l ow de p ic ts t he s y s t e m's e nt ir e l if e c y c l e d ur i ng t h e a na ly s is a nd

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des i g n ph as es .

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S yst em Ana l yst 's Ro l e
Th e s y s t e m an a ly s t is s o me o ne w ho is w e l l - v ers e d i n th e s y s te m an d wh o g u id es
th e s y s t e m d ev el o p m en t p r oj ec t by pr ov i d i ng c l ea r i ns t ruc t io ns . He is an ex p er t
wi t h t h e tec h n ic a l a n d i nt er p er s o n a l s k i l ls r e qu ir e d to c ar ry ou t d e v e lo p me n t t as k s
at e ac h s ta g e.

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He s t riv es t o a l i gn t he i nf or ma t io n s y s t e m's o bj ec t iv es w it h t he or ga n iz a t io n's
go a ls .

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P rin c ip al Fun ct i on s

• D ef i n in g an d c om pr eh e nd i n g t he us er's r eq u ir em e nts us in g v a ri ous fac t - fi n d in g

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tec h ni q ues .

• O bt a i ni n g us er c o ns e ns us t o pr i or it i es r e qu i re me nts .

• G at h er in g f ac ts or in for m at i on an d s o l ic it i n g us er fe e db ac k .
m

• Co nt i n ues t o a na ly s e a n d ev a l u at e i n or de r to c re a te a mor e us er - fri e nd ly s y s t e m.

• Pr ov i des n um er ous fl ex i bl e a lt ern a tiv e s o l ut i ons , s e l ec ts th e b es t s o lu t io n, a nd

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qu a nt i fi es c os t a nd b e ne f its .

• Cr ea te pr ec is e an d de t ai l e d s p ec if ic at i ons t h at are eas i ly un d e rs to o d by us ers

an d pr o gra m m er s .
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• I m p le m e nt ed t h e s y s te m's lo g ic a l d es i gn , w h ic h m us t be mo d u lar .
 • Es t ab l is h a s c he d ul e f or ev al u at i n g t h e s y s te m af te r it h as b ee n i n us e f or a
wh i l e, a n d m od i fy it as n e ed e d.

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Cha r a cte r ist i cs of a S yst em s An a ly st
Th e fo l l ow i ng di a gr am de p ic ts t h e q ua l it i es t ha t a s y s t ems an a ly s t s ho u l d hav e –

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• I n ter p ers on a l a bi l i t ie s

Co m mu n ic at e w it h us e r s a n d pr ogr a m mers .

• F ac i li t at e gr ou p d is c us s io ns a nd le a d s m a l l er te a ms .

On
• Co ntr o l l in g ex p ec t at i ons .

• Ex c el l e nt c o m pr eh e n s i on , c o mm u n ic a t io n, s e ll i n g, a n d te ac h in g s k i l ls .

• A m ot iv at or w h o is s e lf - as s u r e d i n t he ir a b i l ity t o s o lv e pr ob l ems .

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A bi l i ty to An a ly z e

• A n un d er s t a nd i n g of th e s y s t em as w e l l as org a n is a t io n a l k no w l e dg e

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• I d e nt if ic at i o n, a n aly s is , an d r es o lu t io n o f pr ob l e ms

• Mak es p er fec t s e ns e
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• T h e ab i l i ty t o m ak e t r ad e - of fs

• An ea g er n es s to le ar n ab o ut a ne w o rg a nis a ti o n
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ity
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 Ma na ge me nt Ca pa bi li t ie s

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• Le ar n th e j ar g on a n d pr ac t is es o f y ou r us e r s .

• Ma n ag e m en t of r es o ur c es an d pr oj ec ts .

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• Ma n ag e m en t of c ha n ge an d r is k .

• T h oro u gh ly u n d er s t a nd t h e m an a ge m en t f u nc t i ons .

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Te chn ic al C ap ab il it i e s

• Co m pu te r an d s o ft wa r e k n ow l ed g e

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• St ay u p t o da t e on c ur r en t ev en ts .

• B e fa m i l iar w i th s y s t em des i g n t o o ls .

• Ex t e ns iv e k n o w le d ge o f n ew t ec h n o lo g i es .

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3. 1. 8 . Soft w a r e d e ve l opm ent t ha t i s a gi le

A gi l e me a ns " q u ic k " or " v er s at i l e." T h e t e rm " Ag i l e pr oc es s m o de l" r ef ers t o an

iv

it er at iv e s o ft w ar e d ev e lo p me n t a ppr o ac h. A g il e me t ho ds d iv i de t as k s i n to s m al l er
it er at i on s or par ts a nd d o n ot i nv o lv e lo ng - t erm pl a nn i n g d ire c tly . T h e pr oj ec t
s c op e a n d r e qu ir e m en ts ar e es t a b lis h ed at th e s t art o f t he dev e l op m en t pr oc es s .
Th e n um b er o f i t er a t i ons , d ur at i on , a n d s c op e o f e ac h i te ra t io n ar e al l c l ear ly
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de f in e d i n a dv a nc e.

In t h e A g i l e pr oc es s mo d el , e ac h i te ra t io n is c ons i d ere d a s h ort t i m e " fr am e ,"

ty p ic a lly las t in g o n e t o fo ur w eek s . Th e d iv is io n o f th e e nt ir e pr o j ec t i n to s m a l le r
par ts a i ds i n r ed uc i ng pr oj ec t r is k a n d ov er a ll pr oj ec t d el iv ery t i me r e qu ir e me n ts .
E ac h i ter a ti o n en ta i ls a t e am g o in g thr o ug h t h e e nt ir e s of tw ar e dev e l op m en t l if e
c y c l e, inc l ud i n g p l an n in g, r e qu ir e me nts a na ly s is , d es i g n, c od i ng , a n d tes t i ng ,
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 be f ore pr es e nt i n g a w ork i n g p ro d uc t to the c l i e nt .

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Ph a se s of Agi l e Mod el:

Fo l lo w in g ar e t he ph as es i n th e A g i l e mo d e l are as fo l l ows :
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1. Re q ui r e m en ts g at h er i n g
2. Des i gn t h e r e qu ir e me n ts
3. Co ns tr uc ti o n/ it er at i on
4. Tes t i n g/ Q u a l ity a s s ur anc e
5. De p loy m e nt
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6. Fe ed b ac k

1. G a the r ing r eq ui r e ment s: D ur in g t h is ph as e , y o u m us t d ef i n e t he r eq u ir em e nts .

Y ou s ho u l d ex p la i n bus i n es s o pp or tu n it i e s a n d es t im at e t h e ti m e a n d ef f ort
req u ir ed t o c o m pl e te t he pr oj ec t . Y ou c a n as s es s t h e tec h n ic a l an d ec on o m ic
fe as ib i l ity bas e d o n t h i s i n for m at i on .
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2. C r e ate t h e r eq ui r em ent s: Aft er y ou 'v e id e nt if i e d th e proj ec t , c o l la b ora t e w it h

s tak e ho l de r s t o de f in e t h e r e q u ir e m e nts . Y ou c a n us e a us er f l ow d ia gr a m or a
h ig h- l ev e l U M L d ia gr a m to de m ons tr at e t he f unc t io n a li ty o f ne w f ea t ures a n d h ow
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th ey w i ll in t er a c t w it h y our ex is t i ng s y s t e m.

3. De v elo pm ent /it e r at i on: T he w ork b eg i ns w h en t he t e am d ef i n es t he

req u ir e me nts . D es i g ne r s a n d d ev e l op ers b e g i n work on t h ei r pr oj ec t, w h ic h a i ms t o
de l iv er a f un c t i on a l pr o d uc t . T he pr o duc t wi l l g o t hr ou g h s e v era l s t ag es of
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dev e l op m en t, s o it w i l l h av e s i mp l e, mi n i ma l fu nc t i o na l ity .

4. T e stin g: Th e Q ua l i ty As s ur anc e t e am ev a lu at es t h e p erf or m an c e o f th e pro d uc t

an d l o ok s fo r bu gs d ur i ng t h is p has e.
 5. D ep lo ym ent : D ur i ng t h is p h as e , t he t e am r e le as es a pr o du c t for t h e us er's
work p l ac e .

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6. F e edb ac k: T h e f i n a l s t ep af te r re l eas i n g t he pr od uc t is fe e d bac k . T he te a m
rec e iv es a n d wor k s t hr ou g h pr od uc t fe e db ac k i n t h is proc es s .

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Agi le T e st in g M et hod s:

o Sc r um
o

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Cry s t a l
o Dy n a mi c S of tw ar e Dev e lo p me n t Me t ho d (D S DM)
o Fe at ur e Dr iv e n D ev e l o pm e nt (F DD)
o Le a n S of tw ar e Dev e l o pm e nt
o e Xtr e me Pr o gr a mm i n g ( X P )

S cr um

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SC RU M is a n ag i l e gr ow th m et h o do l ogy t ha t re l i es on t as k ma n a ge m en t i n t e am -
bas e d d ev e l op m e nt e n v ir on m en ts .
It h as th re e r o l es , a n d t he ir r es p o ns i b i l it i es are as fo l l ows :

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o Sc r u m M as ter : Th e s c r um c an for m t h e mas t er t ea m , or ga n is e m e et i ngs , a n d
re mov e r o a db l oc k s to th e pr oc es s .
o Pr o duc t o wn er : T h e pr o duc t o wn er c re a t es th e pr o duc t b ac k lo g, p ri or it is es t he
de l ay , an d is in c h ar g e of dis tr ib u ti n g f unc t i on a l ity o n e ac h r e pe t it i on .
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o Sc ru m T e a m: T h e t e am m a na g es a n d or g a n is es i ts w ork in or d er to c o mp l et e th e
s pr in t or c y c l e .

e Xtr e me Pr og ra mm in g ( X P)
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Th is m et h od o l ogy is us e d wh e n c us to m ers ' d e ma n ds or r e qu ir e me n ts ar e

c ons t an t ly c ha n g in g , o r w he n t hey are uns ur e a bo ut t h e s y s te m's p erf or ma nc e.
Cry s t a l:
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Th is m et h od is c o mpr i s ed of t hr e e c o nc ep ts :
1. C h art er in g : T h is ph as e i nc lu d es a v a ri ety o f ac tiv i t ies s u c h as f orm i n g a
dev e l op m en t t ea m, c o nd uc ti n g fe as i bi l i ty a n a ly s is , d ev e l o pi n g p l a ns , a n d s o o n.
2. Cy c l ic d e liv er y : th is i nc l ud es tw o m or e c y c l es , w h ic h a re as f o l l ows :
o T h e te a m r ev is es th e r e le as e s c h ed u l e.
o A n i nt e gr a t ed p r o d u c t pr ov i d es s erv ic es t o us ers .
3. Co nc l ud i ng : D e pe n d i ng o n t he us er e nv ir on me n t, t h is ph as e p er fo rms d e p loy m en t
ity

an d p os t - d e pl oy m en t.

Dyn a mi c Sof t w a r e D e ve lop me nt M etho d ( D SD M):

DS D M is a r ap i d a p pl ic at i on d ev e lo p m en t s tra te gy t h at pr ov i des an ag i l e pr oj ec t
d is tr i bu t io n s tr uc t ur e f or s o ft war e d ev e lo p m en t. T h e k ey f ea t ures of D S D M ar e th a t
m

us ers mus t be ac t iv e l y c o nn ec te d, a n d te a ms hav e b ee n g iv en dec is i on - m ak i ng

au t hor i ty . D S DM em p l oy s th e f o ll o wi n g tec h n iq u es :

1. Ti m e B ox i n g
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2. Mo S C o W Ru l es
3. Pr ot oty p i ng

The D S DM p ro je ct co nt a ins se v en st ag es :
1. Pr e- p r oj ec t
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2. Fe as i b i l ity St udy
3. B us i n es s S tu dy
 4. Fu nc t i on a l M od e l It er a ti o n
5. Des i gn an d b u i ld I ter a ti o n

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6. Im p le m e nt at i on
7. P os t- pr oj ec t

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Fe atu re D r iv en D e ve l opm ent ( FD D):

Th is m e th o d e m ph as i s es " D es ig n in g an d B ui l d i ng" fe at ur es . U n lik e ot h er s m ar t

me t ho ds , F DD des c r i b es th e s m a l l s t eps o f work t h at s h o u ld be ob ta i ne d s e p ara t ely

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for e ac h fu nc ti o n.

Le an S oftw ar e D ev e l opm ent

Th e l ea n s of tw ar e dev e l op m en t me t ho d o lo gy ad h er es t o t h e " j us t in t i me
pro d uc t i o n" pr i nc ip l e. Th e le a n m e th o d d e n ot es inc re as in g th e s pe e d o f s of tw ar e
dev e l op m en t wh i l e d e c r eas i n g c os ts . L e an dev e l op m en t c an b e d iv id e d in t o s ev e n

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s ta g es .

1. R e duc i ng w as te ;

2. En h anc i n g l ear n i ng ; a n d

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3. Pos tp o n in g c o m m it me n t ( d ec i d i ng as l at e as p os s i bl e)
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4. Pro m pt d e l iv er y

5. Em p ow er i ng t h e te a m; 6 . Es ta b l is hi n g In t e gr ity
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7. O pt i miz e t he en t ir e s y s te m
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Wh en s hou ld t he A gi l e Mod e l b e us ed ?

• W he n t her e i s a n ee d f or fr eq u en t c h an g es .
• W he n a t e am o f h i gh ly q u al i f ie d a nd ex p er i e nc e d pr of es s i on a ls is av a i l ab l e.
• W he n a c us t om er is al way s w i l l in g t o m ee t w it h a s o ft w are t e am .
• W he n t he pr oj ec t is s ma l l .
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Th e fo l l ow i ng ar e t h e adv a nt a ges ( be n ef its ) of t h e A gi l e M et h od :

1. C o ns is t en t De l iv er y
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2. F ac e- t o- F ac e C o mm un ic at i o n wi t h Cus t om ers

3. Ef fic i e nt d es i gn t h at m e ets b us in es s re q u ir em e nts .

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4. Any t im e c h a ng es ar e p er m i tt e d.

5. I t s ho rt ens t h e to t al d ev el o p me nt t i m e.

Th e fo l l ow i ng ar e t h e d is a dv an ta g es (c o ns ) of t h e A gi l e M o de l :
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1. Du e t o a l ac k o f for ma l d oc u m e nts , t h ere is c on f us i o n, a n d c r i tic a l

dec is i ons m ad e at v ar i ous s ta g es c a n b e m is in t erpr e te d a t a ny t i me
by d if fer e nt t e am me m bers .
 2. D u e to a lac k of pr o per doc u me n ta t io n, on c e th e pr oj ec t is c om p l et e d an d t he
dev e l op e rs ar e as s i gn ed t o a n ot he r proj ec t , ma i nt a i n in g t he c o m p l et e d proj ec t c an

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be di ff ic u lt .

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Che c k Yo ur U nd er st a nding

Fil l- U ps

1. __ _ __ _ _ is t he f ir s t s t ep in SD L C f ra m ew ork .

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2. __ _ __ _ __ _ is n ot c or re c t mo d e l i n S of tw ar e D ev e l o pm e nt Par a d ig m .
3. B ui l d & F ix M o de l is s u it ab l e f or pr ogr a m mi n g ex erc is es o f
__ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ LO C ( Li ne of C od e) .
4. W at er f a l l m od e l is n o t s u it ab l e f or _ __ _ __ _ _.
5. __ _ __ _ __ _ _ is a f u nc t i on a l r e q uir e m en t.

Tru e/ Fa l se

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1. RA D s t an ds f or Ra p i d A pp l ic at i on D is p os i t io n.
2. Un d er In te gr at i o n tes t i ng , i n t he m a i nt e na nc e p has e t he p ro d uc t m us t b e
tes te d a g ai ns t pr ev i o u s t es t c as es .
3. A pr oc es s mo d e l d es c r i bes t h e l og ic us e d by pro gr a mm ers t o c r e at e c o d e
mo d u les .

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4. Pr ot oty p i ng a l l ows y ou t o tes t s y s te m c o nc ep ts an d ex a mi n e i n pu t, ou t pu t,
an d us er i n ter fac es b e for e m ak in g f i na l d ec is i ons .
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5. B ot to m- up - tes t in g ty p e of in t egr at i o n tes t in g us es s t ubs .

Su mm ar y
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• Mo d e l in g g e ne r a tes a gr a p h ic a l r epr es e nt a ti o n o f a c on c e pt or proc es s ,

wh ic h s y s te ms d ev el o per s c an a n a ly s e , tes t, a nd mo d ify . A s y s t em an a ly s t
c an us e a s et of b us i nes s , d at a, obj ec t , n et work , a n d pr oc es s mo d e ls to
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des c r i b e a nd s im p l ify an in f orm a ti o n s y s te m .

• A bus i n es s m o de l , als o k n o wn as a r eq u ir e me n ts m o de l , des c r i b es t h e d a ta
th at a s y s t e m mus t p r ov id e. A d at a m o d el d es c r ib es t h e s tr uc tur e an d des i g n
of d at a. A n o bj ec t mo de l is a d es c r ip t io n of o bj ec ts t h at c o mb i n e d at a an d
proc es s es . A ne tw or k mo d e l is a r e pr es e nt a ti o n of t he des i gn an d pr ot oc o ls
of te l ec om m u nic a ti o ns l i nk s . A pr oc es s m o de l d es c r ib es th e l og i c us ed by
pro gr a mm er s t o c r e a t e c o de mo d u les . D e s p it e th e f ac t t h at t he mo d e ls
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ap p ea r t o ov er l ap , t hey ac t ua l ly w ork t og e th er t o des c ri b e t he s a m e

env ir o nm e nt fr o m d if fe r en t p ers pec t iv es .
• Pr ot oty p i ng a l l ows y o u to t es t s y s t e m c o nc ep ts a nd ex a m in e i n p ut , ou t pu t,
an d us e r i n ter fac es b ef or e m ak i ng f in a l de c is io ns . A pr ot o ty p e i s a w ork i ng
v ers io n of an i nf or ma t i on s y s te m t h at is in i ts ear ly s t a g es . Sy s t e ms an a ly s ts
bu i l d an d s t udy in for m at i on s y s t e m pro t oty p es i n t h e s a me w ay th at a irc r af t
m

ma n uf ac t ur er s tes t ne w d es i gns i n w in d tu n ne ls . A pro t oty pe c a n be us e d as

an i n it i a l m o de l t o s er v e as a b e nc h m ark f or ev a l ua t i ng th e f i n is h e d s y s t e m,
or it c a n ev o lv e i nt o t h e f i n al v ers i o n of t he s y s t em . In e i th er c as e,
pro t oty p in g s i g n if ic an t ly ac c e ler a tes t h e dev e lo p me n t proc es s .
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• O n e d is a dv an ta g e of pr o t oty p in g is t h at im por t an t d ec is i o ns m ay b e m ad e
to o e ar ly , b ef or e b us i nes s or I T is s u es ar e th or ou g h ly u nd ers to o d . H ow ev er ,
a pr ot oty p e b as e d o n c ar e f ul f ac t - f i nd i n g an d m od e l l in g t ec h n iq u e s
• Co m pu te r - a i d ed s y s te ms e n gi n ee ri n g (C A S E ), a ls o k n ow n as c o mp ut er - a id e d
s of tw ar e en g i ne er i ng , is a pr oc es s th at ut i l i z es p ow erf u l s of tw ar e k n ow n as
CA S E T oo ls t o as s is t s y s te m a n aly s ts i n t h e d ev e l o pm e nt a n d m a in te n anc e
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of i nf or m at i on s y s t e m s . C A S E to o ls pr ov id e a n ov er a l l f ra m ew ork for s y s t em
dev e l op m en t a nd s up por t a w i de r an g e o f des i g n m et ho d o lo g i es , i nc l ud i n g
s truc tu r e d a n a ly s is a nd o bj ec t - or i e nt e d a n a ly s is . • CA S E to o ls inc r e as e
 pro d uc t iv i ty a nd i m pr ov e th e qu a l ity of th e f i nis h ed pr o duc t by mak i n g i t
eas i er t o b ui l d a n i nf or ma t io n s y s t e m.

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Act iv it y

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G et div i d ed in to gr o u p o f 5 a nd pr e p are a pr es e n ta t io n o n A g i le t e s ti n g m et ho ds .

Q ue sti on s & E xe r ci s e

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1. De f in e t he Sy s t e m dev e lo p me n t me t ho d o lo g i es .
2. Dis c us s t he Sy s t e m d e v e lo p me n t t o o ls .
3. Ex pl a i n th e C om p ut er A id e d S of tw ar e E n gi n e er in g (C A S E) .
4. Dis c us s t he J oi n t A pp l ic at i on D ev el o p me nt ( J AD )
5. Dis c us s R ap i d A p p lic a ti o n Dev e l op m en t ( R A D) .
6. Des c r i b e t h e Sy s te m d ev e l o pm e nt li f e c y c l e
7. Ex pl a i n th e A g i le S of t war e d ev el o pm e nt

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G lo ss a ry

•
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Agi le d e ve lop me nt met h odo log y: W h en ad d i ng n e w fu nc t i o na l ity , te a ms
us e th e a g i le d ev e l op me n t m et h od o lo gy t o red uc e ris k (s uc h as bu gs , c os t
ov er r u ns , an d c h a ng i n g r e qu ir e me n ts ). T ea ms d ev e l o p s of tw ar e i n i ter a ti o ns
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th at inc l u de mi n i - i nc r em e nts o f n ew f u nc t i on a l ity in a l l a g i le me th o ds . Th e
ag i l e dev e lo p m en t me t ho d c o mes i n m any f la v ours , i nc l u d in g s c r u m , c ry s t a l,
ex tr e me pr o gr a mm i n g ( X P) , an d f ea t ure - dr iv en dev e lo p m en t ( FD D) .
• De vO p s dep lo ym ent me thodo log y : D e v O ps is m or e t h a n j us t a
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dev e l op m en t m et h od o l ogy ; i t is als o a s et o f pr ac t is es th a t he l p t o s u pp or t

an or g an is at i on a l c u l tur e. D ev O ps d e pl oy me n t f oc us es o n or g an is at i o na l
c ha n ge th at i m pr ov e s c o l l ab or at i o n a mo n g d ep ar tm e nts r es po ns ib l e f or
v ar io us s t ag es o f t he dev e l op m en t l i fe c y c l e, s uc h as dev e l op m e nt , q ua l i ty
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as s ur a nc e, a n d op er at i ons .

• The w at erf a ll d ev e l opm ent m etho d is wi d e ly r e g ard e d as th e m os t

tra d it i on a l s of tw ar e d ev e l o pm e nt m et ho d . Th e w at erf a l l me th o d is a r i g i d
l in e ar mo d el c o m pr i s ed o f s e q ue nt i a l ph as es (r eq u ir em e nt s , d es ig n ,
i mp l e me nt a ti o n, v er if i c at i on , a n d m a in te n an c e) e ac h foc us i ng on a s p ec if ic
ity

go a l. Be for e t he n ex t p h as e c a n b eg i n, eac h p has e m us t b e c o mp l et e d

c om p l et e ly . T her e is us u a l ly n o way t o g o bac k an d c h a ng e t he proj ec t or
d irec t io n .
• Rap id ap pl ic at ion de ve lop me nt ( RA D) is a c o nd e ns e d d ev e l o pm e nt
proc es s t ha t r es ul ts i n a h i g h - q u a l ity s y s t em w i th l o w inv es tm en t c os ts .
m

" Th is R AD pr oc es s a ll o ws ou r dev e l op er s t o qu ic k ly a dj us t t o s h if t in g
req u ir e me nts i n a f as t - p ac ed an d c o ns t a nt l y c h a ng i n g m ark e t," s a id Sc o tt
St i n er , C EO a n d pr es i de nt of U M T ec h no l o g ies , i n F or b es . T h e ab i l ity t o
qu ic k ly a d ap t is w h at a ll o ws for s uc h a lo w c os t .
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• Th e r e q ui r e m en ts p l a nn i n g, us er d es ig n, c ons tr uc t i on , a n d c u to v er p h as es
c om pr is e t he r ap i d a pp l ic at i on dev e l op m en t m et ho d . T h e us er d es ig n a n d
c ons tr uc t i on ph as es a r e r e p ea te d u n ti l t h e us er is s a t is f i ed t h at t he pro d uc t
me e ts a ll s pec i f ic a t io n s .
• Th er e a r e s ev er a l p has es t o a s y s te m dev e l op m en t pr oj ec t, i nc l ud i ng
fe as ib i l ity a n aly s is , r e qu ir e me n ts a n a ly s is , s of tw ar e d es i gn , s oft w a re c od i ng ,
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tes t in g an d d eb u gg i n g, i ns t a l la t io n a nd m a i nt en a nc e . T o k e ep tr ac k of th e
en t ir e pr oc es s , v ar io u s t oo ls c a n b e us ed .
• JA D, or jo int app li c at i on d e ve lop me nt, i s th e pr oc es s o f des i gn i n g a n d
dev e l op i ng c o mp u ter - bas e d s y s t ems /s ol u t io ns . I t c o l l ec ts r e qu ir e me n ts s i d e
 by s id e i n ac c o r d a nc e w i th b us i nes s re q u ir em e n ts w h il e d ev e l op i n g n e w
i nf or ma t io n s y s t ems f o r a c om p any , w hic h m ea ns J AD i nc or por at es t he c l ie nt

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or e n d- us er s i nt o t h e des i g n a n d d ev el o p me n t pr oc es s es . I t al s o inc l ud es
ap pr o ac h es fo r i mpr ov i ng s p ec if ic at i o n qu a l it y a nd us er p ar t ic i p at i o n thr o ug h
a s er ies o f c o ll a bo r a t iv e w ork s ho ps k n ow n as J A D s es s i o ns . Be c aus e t he

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c l ie n t is i nv o lv e d t hr o ug h ou t t h e dev e lo p m en t proc es s , d ev el o p me n t t i mes
are s hor t en e d an d c li e nt s a t is f ac t i o n is h i gh e r.

Furt he r R ea din g

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1. Ho w t o D o Sy s t e ms A na ly s is , J o hn E . G i bs o n , W i l l i am T. Sc her er ,
W i l li a m F. G ibs o n, M ic ha e l C. S mi t h
2. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn Pr in t ed Ac c es s C ard ), H arry J . R os e n b la tt
3. Th e Sy s t e ms T h ink er , A n aly t ic a l Sk i l ls : L ev e l U p Y ou r D ec is io n Mak i n g,
Pr ob l e m S o lv i n g, a n d De d uc t i on Sk il ls . No t ic e T h e De t ai ls O t h ers M is s .
4. Mo d er n Sy s te ms An a l y s is a n d Des i g n, J e ff rey A . H of fer , J o ey G eor g e,

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J os e p h S . V a lac ic h
5. Mo d e l in g an d A na ly s i s of Dy n a m ic Sy s t e m s , S ec on d E d it i on , R am i n S.
Es f a nd i ar i, B ei Lu
6. Sy s t e ms A n a ly s is a nd D es ig n , A n O bj ec t - O ri en te d Ap pr o ac h w i th U M L

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A la n D e nn is , B ar b ar a W ix om , Dav i d Te g ar de n
7. Mo d er n Sy s t ems A n al y s is a n d D es ig n , G lo b a l E d it i o n, J os e p h S V a lac ic h,
J oey F . G e or g e
8. Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , Sc ot t T il l ey , H arry J . R os e n bl a tt
er
9. Sy s t e ms A na ly s is a nd Des i g n in a C h an g in g W or ld J o h n W. Sa t z i ng er,
Ro b er t B. J ac k s o n, S t ep h en D . B ur d
10 . Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d Des i gn , Sc ot t T il l ey
11 . B un d l e, Sy s t ems A n a ly s is an d D es ig n , Lo os e - le a f V ers io n , 12 t h +
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M in dT a p, 1 t er m Pr i nt ed Ac c es s C ar d, Sc ot t T il l ey
12 . Sy s t e ms A n aly s is an d D es i gn , J IJ U J O HN
13 . Sy s t e ms A na ly s is A n d D es i g n A Co m p le t e G u id e 2 02 0 E d it i on , G e rar dus
B lok dy k c h ec k
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Ans w e r to Ch ec k You r Und e rst an din g

Fil l- U ps

1. Co m mu n ic at i on
2. P m o de l
3. 10 0- 2 00
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4. Ac c om m od a t in g c h an g es
5. B us i n es s n ee ds

Tru e/ Fa l se
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1. Fa ls e
2. Fa ls e
3. Tru e
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4. Tru e
5. Fa ls e
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Module III: Feasibility Study and Negotiation

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Unit - 1: Int r odu ct io n t o F ea s ibi lit y St ud y

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

On
• De f in e t he in tr od uc t i o n to t h e fe as i bi l i ty s tu dy .
• Dis c us s t he ne e d of f e as ib i l ity s t u dy .
• Ex pl a i n th e i m po r t anc e of f e as ib i l ity s t u dy .
• Dis c us s t he k ey c ons i der a ti o ns i n f eas i b il i ty s t udy .
• Dis c us s t he s t e ps fo r a fe as i bi l i ty s tu dy .
• Ex pl a i n th e ty pes of f e as ib i l ity s t u dy .

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Int rodu ct ion

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er
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In t h is u ni t w e wi l l s t u dy a bo ut t h e fe as i bi l i t y s t udy an d i t ’s v ar io u s as p ec ts .

O n e of t h e mos t c r uc i a l s t ag es i n t he c r ea t io n of s oft w are is th e f e as ib i l ity s t u dy .

Th is s ta g e is c o n duc t e d o nc e t h e dev e l op ers h av e ga t her e d a l l of t he c us t om er's
req u ir e me nts . A l l o f th es e r eq u ir em e nts ar e ex a m i ne d , an d t he n a fi n a l l is t is
m

c rea t ed . B ec aus e t he c l ie n t may or m ay n ot be a tec h nic a l p ers on , t hey may

prov i d e i nc o ns is t e nt o r a m b ig u ous n e e ds . A s a res u lt , i t's c ri t ic a l t o as s es s th e
req u ir e me nts an d u nd er t ak e a fe as i b il i ty a n a ly s is .
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The importance of Feasibility Analysis to businesses when deciding on the viability of a proposed
business venture including the development or enhancement of an information system is examined in
this subject.

1.1.1 Introduction
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In software engineering, a feasibility study evaluates the feasibility of a proposed project or system.
One of the four critical stages of the Software Project Management Process is the feasibility study.
As the name implies, a feasibility study is a measurement of a software product in terms of how
useful product development will be for the business from a practical standpoint. Feasibility studies
 are conducted for a variety of reasons, including determining whether a software product is
appropriate in terms of development, implementation, and project value to the business.

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An examination and assessment of a proposed project to see if —

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• It is technically doable, within the predicted cost range, and financially viable.
• When considerable sums of money are at stake, feasibility studies are nearly often done.
Also known as a feasibility study.

Feasibility studies are broken down into four stages. Production, interview/focus group, full report

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preparation, and report presentation are the steps involved.

General Objectives of Feasibility Study

The examination of feasibility determines whether or not a project is worthwhile. A feasibility study is
the procedure used to arrive at this conclusion. The feasibility study's principal goal is to plan ahead of
time.

1) The project description

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2) Benefits and Costs Analysis

3) Construct a Feasibility Report.

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The project specification contains all of the project's details and serves as a guideline for the project. It
provides valuable information to management regarding the type of expenditure required to complete
a project, as well as labour, hardware, software, and other aspects.
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A cost-benefit analysis is a method for determining the net benefit of a new system's development
and implementation. In a nutshell, it shows the organization whether or not they are financially
prepared to take on the project.
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Various feasibility studies are included in the Feasibility Report, including:

• Technical Feasibility
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• Economic Feasibility
• Operational Feasibility
• Social Feasibility
• Time Feasibility
• Management Feasibility
• And Legal Feasibility.
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A feasibility study is a preliminary evaluation that helps management determine whether or not a
system is viable for development.

• It acknowledges the potential for improving an existing system, developing a new system, and
revising estimates for continuing system development.
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• It's used to draw out the problem and see if there's a feasible or acceptable answer.
• A feasibility study's main purpose is to confirm the problem's size rather than to solve it.
• A feasibility study results in a formal system proposal that serves as a decision document and
explains the proposed system's whole nature and scope.
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Example of Feasibility Study

If you follow a feasibility study example for any project, there's a good chance you'll be able to cover
all of the necessary components and learn what you need to know. This is critical since a large
number of aspects of a project are dependent on this study in order for it to gain the partners'
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approval.
 Every feasibility study example is unique, and these variations should be considered. The sections of
the sample will be highly useful as a reference, but the information for your record should be

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exceptional.

The desired interest audience is one zone that might be comparable to your example of feasibility

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study and the report you're writing. A business's income stream might come from a wide range of
socioeconomic and age categories. As a result, the method by which they receive a favourable
response should be imitated or almost copied in the hopes of receiving a comparable positive
response.

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The coordinations of offering the desired interest group are another piece of knowledge that may be
gleaned from a feasibility study example. In the event that the target audience is local, the costs are
minimal. If the audience is in a different place, the cost of providing the deliverable should be factored
into the overall financial cost of the project. One of the goals of this type of research is to determine
the venture's profitability. This must be kept in mind.

The concerns that arose throughout your case feasibility research should be understood and
analysed. If the challenges or obstructions cannot be overcome in a practical manner, then a different

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approach should be sought. Regardless of the information's outcome, it should all be archived so that
no questions arise throughout the study's audit process.

These are just a few of the benefits of doing a case feasibility study. The way you apply what you've

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learned will determine whether your agreement is accepted or rejected.

Feasibility studies include the following:

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Operational feasibility
it is measure of, how well the solution will work in the organization. it is also the measure of ,
what people feel about the project/system
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Technical feasibility
it is the measure of the practicality of a specific technical solution and the availability of
technical resource and expertise.
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Schedule feasibility
it is a measure of , how reasonable the project timetable is.
Economic feasibility
it is measure of cost effectiveness of the system/project and its solution it is often called cost
benefit analysis.
Cultural Feasibility
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What will be the impact of particular thing on both local and general cultures? How they will
respond to that. What type of implications does the feasibility study have?
Legal/Ethical Feasibility
it is a measure of legal implications on the project, ethical considerations. We need to make
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sure that project undertaken will meet all legal and ethical requirements.
Resource Feasibility
Do we have enough resources, what resources and facilities will be required for the project,
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etc.
Marketing Feasibility
Will anyone want the product once its done? What is the target demographic? Should there be
a test run? Is there enough buzz that can be created for the product?
Real Estate Feasibility
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What kind of land or property will be required to undertake the project? What is the market
like? What are the zoning laws? How will the business impact the area?
 Managerial Feasibility Study
Managerial feasibility is measured by certain key elements like employee involvement,

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demonstrated management availability & capability and commitment.
Financial Feasibility Study

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Validating that a project is possible within your financial constraints. For example, a
construction project that uses reference class forecasting as a sanity check for project budget.

1.1.2 Need of Feasibility Study

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Feasibility research is an important stage in the Software Project Management Process because it
determines whether to proceed with the proposed project because it is practically possible, or to halt
the proposed project because it is not right/feasible to develop or think/analyze about it again.

Feasibility studies also aid in identifying risk factors associated with developing and deploying
systems, as well as risk analysis planning. Feasibility studies also help to narrow business

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alternatives and improve success rates by analysing various parameters associated with proposed
project development.
A feasibility study is carried out to determine the project's success and to reduce the project's risks.
Only once it has been determined that a certain project can be completed profitably can it be

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executed. The feasibility study is more than just a project analysis; it's also a framework or strategy
for establishing and running a long-term firm. Market research, financial research, management
research, schedule determination, and technical research are all vital components of a feasibility
study.
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• Marketing study: Marketing research is carried out to see if the project is appropriate for
the current and future corporate culture. The consultants will search for data on the overall
impact on the business structure, workers, and organization during this process. One of the
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most important aspects of market research is forecasting sales. The primary goal of
marketing research is to identify target consumers, understand their needs, comprehend
market features, and assess the elements that have a significant impact on purchasing
decisions.
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• Financial study: Financial planning is critical for managing the organization's various
operations while staying within budget constraints. Financial research examines overall
capital requirements, sales and pricing, break-even outputs, and the quantity of sales
required to achieve profit in a corporation. It aids entrepreneurs in determining how much
money is required to effectively complete a company initiative.
• Management study: A management study is undertaken to assess the total resources
required to complete the project successfully. Some projects, such as manufacturing, will
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necessitate more physical resources, whilst some IT initiatives will necessitate a large
number of human resources. Make a study schedule. The schedule feasibility study is done
to see how much time and resources are needed to complete the project on time. Because
feasibility research is so important to the project's success, it's worth mentioning. To acquire
the proper and effective report, you should contact experienced management consulting
firms. Gulf Resources is a leading business management consulting organization in the UAE
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that conducts feasibility studies for customers in a variety of industries, including healthcare,
food, engineering, cosmetics, and body care.
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1.1.3 Importance of Feasibility Study

The process of describing, identifying, and evaluating the proposed system, as well as selecting the
optimal system for proper operation, is referred to as feasibility. A feasibility study is carried out in
order to determine whether the system can be developed or not. Technical feasibility, economic
feasibility, and behavioural feasibility are the three categories of feasibility studies.Studying all of
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these aspects aids the user and developer in determining the foundations on which their system will
be built and the features that can be included in the software. The major goal of the feasibility study
is to determine why it is necessary to design software that is acceptable to all users and can be
 easily updated to meet their needs (KENTON, 2018). The following are some of the feasibility
study's objectives:

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• To see if the newly produced software can be merged with other software already on the market.

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• Determine whether the programme has the potential to be deployed using current technology and
within the time and budget constraints.

• To establish whether the programme can meet the needs of the company or a specific user.

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The following are some of the advantages of performing a feasibility study:
1. Improves the project team's concentration
2. Assists in the identification of fresh opportunities
3. Provides useful data for decision-making
4. Narrows the range of business options
5. Improves the rate of success by examining a variety of factors (Mukund, 2017).

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The value of a feasibility study stems from the goal of an organization to "get it right" before investing
resources, time, or money. A feasibility study may unearth fresh ideas that totally alter the scope of a
project. It's preferable to make these decisions ahead of time rather than rushing into a project only
to discover that it won't work. A feasibility study is usually advantageous to a project since it provides

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you and other stakeholders with a clear picture of what is being proposed.

The following are some of the most important advantages of doing a feasibility study:
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• Improves the attention of project teams
• Discovers fresh possibilities
• Provides useful data for making a "go/no-go" judgement.
• Reduces the number of business options
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• Identifies a compelling reason for pursuing the project.

• By examining several parameters, it improves the success rate.
• Assists in project decision-making
•
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Determines why it's not a good idea to go ahead.

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Aside from the approaches to feasibility research outlined above, some projects also necessitate the
examination of other limitations –
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• Internal Project Constraints: Technical, Technology, Budget, Resource, etc.

• Internal Corporate Constraints: Financial, Marketing, Export, etc.
• External Constraints: Logistics, Environment, Laws, and Regulations, etc.
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1.1.4 Key Consideration in Feasibility Study si
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In this phase, the project's feasibility is assessed, and a business proposal is presented, along with a
very generic project plan and some cost estimates. A feasibility study of the proposed system is to
be carried out during system analysis. This is to ensure that the planned system will not cause the
organization any problems. A basic understanding of the system's primary requirements is required
iv

for feasibility analysis.

Three Key Considerations Involved in the Feasibility Analysis Are:

1. Economic feasibility
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2. Technical feasibility
3. Social feasibility

Economic Feasibility
This research is being carried out to determine the system's economic impact on the organization.
The amount of money the corporation has to invest in the system's research and development is
limited. It is necessary to justify the spending. As a result, the produced system came in under
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budget, which was made possible by the fact that the majority of the technologies used were freely
available. The customized products were the only ones that needed to be acquired.

Technical Feasibility
This research is being carried out to determine the technological viability of the system, i.e. the
system's technical requirements. Any system that is created should not place a large burden on the
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available technical resources. As a result, the client will be subjected to severe demands. Because
very minor or no changes are necessary to implement this system, the designed system must have
a low requirement.
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Social Feasibility
The purpose of the study is to determine the level of user acceptance of the system. This includes
the process of instructing users on how to effectively use the system. Users must accept the system
as a need rather than feeling threatened by it. The approaches used to educate and familiarize users
with the system determine the amount of adoption by the users. Their self-esteem must be boosted
so that they can offer constructive criticism, which is encouraged because they are the system's final
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users.
 When should you conduct research?
The relevance of a feasibility study stems from the company's goal to "get it right" before investing

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time, money, and resources. A feasibility study may unearth fresh ideas that totally alter the scope of
a project. It is important not to take the choice to perform a feasibility study carelessly. It is a costly
and time-consuming procedure. However, failing to undertake a feasibility study can be much more

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costly in terms of the poor decisions you may make as a result of failing to do so.

To get the most out of a feasibility study, you must be far enough along in the development of your
business idea. You'll need a well-defined overview of one or more potential business models or
scenarios that you'd like to investigate. And you'll want to have done enough preliminary research on

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these options to see if they have the potential to be viable. You don't want to waste your feasibility
money on ideas that you can quickly decide aren't possible by making a few phone calls.

This means that before you plan a full-fledged study, you'll need to have done a lot of preliminary
research and inquiry on your business idea. Members of your committee or a consultant can conduct
this preliminary study or pre-feasibility analysis. You may begin by conducting a marketing analysis
to see if the business concept is viable in the marketplace. If it doesn't, you've saved yourself time
and money by not conducting a thorough feasibility study. You can proceed with the feasibility

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analysis and use the market analysis in the feasibility study if the proposal has market viability.

1.1.5 Steps for a Feasibility Study

• Assemble a project team and name a project leader.

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When doing a feasibility analysis, the stages listed below should be followed:
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• Create flowcharts for the system.

• Determine the shortcomings of the current system and define objectives.

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• Compile a list of alternative solutions or potential candidate systems to satisfy your objectives.

• Determine the feasibility of each option in terms of technical, operational, and other factors.
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• Each proposed system's performance and cost effectiveness are weighed.

• Compare the other options and choose the best candidate system.

• Prepare a system proposal for the final project directive for approval by management.
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Form a project team and appoint a project leader

 Forming a project team is the first stage. Analysts and user support staff make up the team. Until the

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task is finished, an outside consultant and an information specialist are frequently added to the team.

Projects are scheduled for a specific period of time, ranging from a few weeks to several months. In

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most cases, the project leader is a senior systems analyst. The appointment is only for the duration
of the project. Regular meetings are held to keep the momentum going and to ensure that the
mission – the selection of the best candidate system – is completed. The progress made in each
meeting is recorded.

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Prepare system flowcharts

Preparing generalized system flowcharts for the system is the next phase in the feasibility study. At
this point, the original investigation's information-oriented charts and data flow diagrams are reviewed.
The diagram emphasizes the significance of inputs, outputs, and data flow as crucial points in the
current system.

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Enumerate potential candidate systems.

The candidate systems capable of providing the outputs included in the generalized flowcharts are
identified in this step. This necessitates the conversion of logical to physical system models. Another

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component of this process is to think about the hardware that will be needed to meet the overall
system requirements.
Describe and identify characteristics of candidate system.
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The analysis in this step is mostly focused on what each potential system can and cannot perform.
Technical knowledge and skill in the hardware/software field are required to determine this.

Determine and evaluate performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate system.
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The analyst must now determine and evaluate the proposed system's performance and cost. This is
where design and implementation evaluations are carried out. It entails user training, improving
physical facilities, and documenting, among other things.
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Weight system performance and cost data

Each system alternative is given a certain amount of weight based on the candidate system's
performance and cost. Following that, the candidate system with the greatest overall score is
chosen.
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The weighting technique for candidate systems is as follows:

1. Assign a weighting factor to each evaluation criterion depending on the criterion's impact on the
system's success.
2. Give each criterion's qualitative evaluation a numerical rating.
3 .To get the score, multiply the weight assigned to each category by the respective rating.
4 .For each potential system, add the score columns.
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Select the best candidate system.

The system with the highest overall score is considered the best. This presupposes that the
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weighting factors are reasonable and that each evaluation criterion's rating is correct.

Feasibility report

Following the feasibility research, a feasibility report is generated and sent to the management. The
report is a formal document for management; it should be concise and nontechnical enough to be
(c

understood.

The portions of the report are as follows.

 1. Cover letter—it introduces the report and informs management about its purpose, overall results,

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and recommendations.

2. Table of Contents—defines the order in which the main sections of the report are presented.

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3. Overview- a narrative description of the project's objective and scope, the rationale for
conducting the feasibility study, and the departments involved or affected by the candidate
system.

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4. Explain the procedures employed in the current system in detail. The effectiveness and
efficiency of the System, as well as its operational expenses, are highlighted. This part also
includes a description of the prospective system's aims and general operations.

5. Economic justification- includes point-by-point cost comparisons and preliminary cost projections
for the candidate system's development and operation.

6. Recommendations and conclusions—advise management on the most cost-effective and

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beneficial system. They are just written as a suggestion, not a demand. Any study conclusions
may be presented after the suggestions have been followed.

7. Appendixes - all memoranda and data gathered during the investigation are documented in the

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appendices. They are included at the end of the report as a source of information.
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Oral presentation

The project leader or analyst is expected to provide the end user an oral presentation.
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1. Communication skills and knowledge about the candidate system that can be translated into user-
friendly language,
2. Ability to answer questions, clarify issues, maintain credibility, and pick up on any new ideas or
suggestions are the most important requirements for the analyst who gives the oral presentation.
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1.1.6 Types of Feasibility Study

The feasibility study is primarily focused on the five topics listed below. The most significant aspect
of the feasibility analysis is the economic feasibility study, while the legal feasibility study is less
crucial.
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The many forms of feasibility studies are as follows:

• Economic Feasibility
• Technical Feasibility
• Operational Feasibility/Behavioral Feasibility
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• Schedule Feasibility
• Legal Feasibility
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Economic Feasibility

The project's cost and benefit are examined in an Economic Feasibility study. That is, a detailed
examination of the project's development costs is carried out as part of this feasibility study, which
includes all required costs for final development, such as hardware and software resources, design
(c

and development costs, and operational costs, among other things. After that, it is determined
whether the initiative will be financially beneficial to the organization.
 The potential of the required software to generate financial rewards for a corporation is determined
by its economic feasibility.

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The cost of the software development team, the cost of the study needed in completing a feasibility
study, and the estimated cost of software and hardware are all factors to consider in this type of

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research.

Only if software addresses the following issues will it be considered viable:

• The cost of training, assembling a development team, purchasing software, and purchasing

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hardware.
• The price of conducting software research tasks like requirements analysis and elicitation.
• The cost of building software that will benefit a corporation in the long run.
• It's also looked at if the programme can be developed within the budget constraints.
• Because some customers want a lot of features in their programme but are unwilling to
spend the money to get it.

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The cost of doing a full systems research (including the time of personnel you will be working with),
the cost of firm employee time, the estimated cost of hardware, and the projected cost of software or
software development are the primary resources to consider.

Before committing to a complete systems analysis, the company in question must be able to
comprehend the value of the investment.

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The system is not commercially feasible, and the project is cancelled, if the short-term costs are not
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compensated by long-term benefits, or if there is no immediate reduction in operating costs.

Importance of Economic Feasibility

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• It uses a cost-benefit analysis approach to evaluate the efficacy of a potential system.

• It shows the candidate system's net benefit in terms of organizational benefits and costs.
• The primary purpose of an Economic Feasibility Study is to assess a candidate system's
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economic needs before committing resources to a project.

• It chooses the option that optimises the organization's net worth by repaying cash as quickly
as feasible and with the least degree of risk associated with the candidate system's
construction.

Technical Feasibility
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Current resources, both hardware and software, as well as required technologies, are
analyzed/assessed in Technical Feasibility in order to construct a project. This technical feasibility
analysis determines whether the necessary resources and technology are available for the project's
development. In addition, a feasibility study examines the technical skills and capabilities of the
technical team, whether existing technology can be used or not, whether maintenance and up-
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gradation of the chosen technology is simple or not, and so on.

Technical feasibility assists in acquiring access to existing resources as well as technology required
to fulfil the user's needs in the programme while staying within budget and time restrictions.
)A

The following tasks are completed in the technical feasibility phase:

• Aids in the evaluation of the technology's stability.

• Is the necessary technology on hand?
• Is it possible to integrate the requested functionalities with current/available technology?
(c

• Examine the technical skills and abilities of individuals of the software development team.
 Given the current technological resources, the analyst must decide whether the new system can be
constructed.

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If not, is it possible to adapt or expand the system so that it satisfies the current request?

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If existing systems cannot be expanded or updated, the next step is to see if technology that meets
the criteria is available.

At the same time, the analyst can check to see if the company has people who are technically
competent of reaching the goals.

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If not, they must decide whether to hire additional programmers, testers, specialists, or people with
programming skills other than their own, or whether to outsource the job.

Another factor to examine is whether there are software packages that can help them reach their
objectives or if the programme must be customised for the company.

It examines each implementation option's technical viability.

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Importance of technical feasibility

•
•

•
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It investigates and evaluates if the solution is supported by current technology.
To satisfy the new needs, the analyst determines if existing technology resources should be
updated or new ones deployed.
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It ensures that the candidate system responds suitably to the technical upgrade to the extent
that it is capable of supporting it.

Operational Feasibility/ Behavioral Feasibility

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The degree of service to requirements is evaluated in Operational Feasibility, as well as how easy
the product will be to operate and maintain after deployment. Other operational scopes include
determining product usability, determining whether a software development team's offered solution is
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acceptable, and so on.

The behavioural feasibility is assessed to see if the people or employees of the company will use it.

Operational feasibility is determined by human resources and decides whether or not a programme
will operate after it has been properly developed.
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The operational feasibility is responsible for the following:

• The operational feasibility aids in determining whether or not the software development
team's solution is acceptable.
• Operational feasibility also helps determine whether the concerns identified in the user
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requirements are of high priority.

• It establishes whether or not a programme is user-friendly.
• Its user interface should be basic enough for anyone to use.
• Assists in establishing whether the software development team's alternative solutions are
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satisfactory to the organization.

Let's suppose for a moment that both technological and economic resources are sufficient.

The project's operational viability must still be examined by the systems analyst.
(c

The operational feasibility of a project is decided by the project's human resources, and it comprises
assessing whether or not the system will run and be used once it is developed.
 If people are essentially wed to the current system, see no flaws in it, and are not participating in the
demand for a new system in general, there will be strong opposition to installing the new system.

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It has a minimal likelihood of ever becoming operational.

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If, on the other hand, users have expressed a desire for a system that is operational more of the
time, in a more efficient and accessible manner, the likelihood of that system being used is higher.

A big part of the art of analysing operational feasibility is determining which user interfaces to use.

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Importance of operational feasibility

• It determines whether or not the system is operational after it has been created and
implemented.
• It guarantees that management will support the proposed system and operate within a
modern organizational framework.
• It determines if users will be affected and whether they will accept changed or new business
processes that affect the system's potential benefits.

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• It also ensures that the computational resources and network architecture of the candidate
system are operational.

Importance of behavioral feasibility

•
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It evaluates and forecasts user attitudes and behaviours in relation to the development of a
new system.
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It helps determine whether the system requires more work to educate, retrain, transfer, or
adjust employee employment status in order to implement new business processes.

Schedule Feasibility
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In a Schedule Feasibility Study, the proposed project's timelines/deadlines are assessed, which
includes how many times teams will take to complete the final product, which has a significant
impact on the organization because the project's goal may be lost if it is not completed on time.
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It is the most important research for assessing whether or not the project will succeed.

All of the projects will fail if they are not completed by the deadline.

Through scheduling feasibility, a company can estimate how long it will take to finish a project.
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Based on the criteria, the time required to create the system is computed.

When all of these elements are in place, manpower is assigned to their responsibilities, and every
attempt is made to finish the assignment before the deadline.
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Importance of Schedule feasibility

• It ensures that the project is completed within the stated time period or timeline.
• It also assesses and certifies whether the project's deadlines are realistic.
)A

Legal Feasibility

The project is examined from a legal standpoint in the Legal Feasibility study. This includes
(c

examining legal impediments to project implementation, such as data protection regulations or social
media legislation, project certificate, licensing, and copyright, among other things. Overall, a Legal
Feasibility Research is a study to determine whether a proposed project complies with legal and
ethical criteria.
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si
er
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Advantages of Conducting a Feasibility Study

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• Improves the focus of the project team

• Assists in the discovery of new opportunities
• Provides critical information for making decisions Narrows business options
)A

• By examining a range of parameters, it improves the chances of success.

Feasibility Study Process

(c

During the feasibility analysis, the stages listed below are followed.

• Information assessment
• Information collection
 • Report writing
• General information

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Check your Understanding

1. A _________ is a preliminary evaluation that helps management determine whether or not a

system is viable for development.
2. _________ is the measure of cost effectiveness of the system/project and its solution it is
often called cost benefit analysis.

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3. Economic feasibility it is the measure of the practicality of a specific technical solution and
the availability of technical resource and expertise. State true or false.
4. _________ feasibility it is measure of, how well the solution will work in the organization. it is
also the measure of , what people feel about the project/system.
5. _________ feasibility is measured by certain key elements like employee involvement,
demonstrated management availability & capability and commitment.
6. In managerial feasibility the purpose of the study is to determine the level of user acceptance

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of the system. This includes the process of instructing users on how to effectively use the
system. Users must accept the system as a need rather than feeling threatened by it. State
true or false.
7. The system with the highest overall score is considered the best. This presupposes that the

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weighting factors are reasonable and that each evaluation criterion's rating is correct. State
true or false.
8. Current resources, both hardware and software, as well as required technologies, are
analyzed/assessed in Technical Feasibility in order to construct a project. State true or false.
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Summary

•
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In software engineering, a feasibility study evaluates the feasibility of a proposed project or

system. One of the four critical stages of the Software Project Management Process is the
feasibility study. As the name implies, a feasibility study is a measurement of a software product
in terms of how useful product development will be for the business from a practical standpoint.
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Feasibility studies are conducted for a variety of reasons, including determining whether a
software product is appropriate in terms of development, implementation, and project value to the
business.
• Feasibility research is an important stage in the Software Project Management Process because
it determines whether to proceed with the proposed project because it is practically possible, or to
halt the proposed project because it is not right/feasible to develop or think/analyze about it again.
• The process of describing, identifying, and evaluating the proposed system, as well as selecting
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the optimal system for proper operation, is referred to as feasibility. A feasibility study is carried
out in order to determine whether the system can be developed or not. Technical feasibility,
economic feasibility, and behavioral feasibility are the three categories of feasibility
studies.Studying all of these aspects aids the user and developer in determining the foundations
on which their system will be built and the features that can be included in the software. The
major goal of the feasibility study is to determine why it is necessary to design software that is
m

acceptable to all users and can be easily updated to meet their needs (KENTON, 2018).
• When doing a feasibility analysis, the stages listed below should be followed:

i. Assemble a project team and name a project leader.

)A

ii. Create flowcharts for the system.

iii. Determine the shortcomings of the current system and define objectives.

iv. Compile a list of alternative solutions or potential candidate systems to satisfy yo

(c

ur objectives.
 v. Determine the feasibility of each option in terms of technical, operational, and ot
her factors.

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vi. Each proposed system's performance and cost effectiveness are weighed.

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vii. Compare the other options and choose the best candidate system.

viii. Prepare a system proposal for the final project directive for approval by manage
ment.

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• The feasibility study is primarily focused on the five topics listed below. The most significant aspect
of the feasibility analysis is the economic feasibility study, while the legal feasibility study is less
crucial.
The many forms of feasibility studies are as follows:

✓ Economic Feasibility
✓ Technical Feasibility

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✓ Operational Feasibility/Behavioral Feasibility
✓ Schedule Feasibility
✓ Legal Feasibility

•
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A feasibility study aids the user and developer in deciding the foundation upon which their system
will be constructed and the features that will be included.
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• The fundamental purpose of a feasibility study is to discover why a system should be developed
that is acceptable to all users and can easily be upgraded to meet their demands.

• A well-designed feasibility study should include information on the company's or project's history,
iv

a description of the product or service, accounting statements, operational and management

details, marketing research and policies, financial statistics, legal needs, and tax duties.
Feasibility studies are usually conducted before technical development and project
implementation. Because a feasibility study assesses a project's chances of success, perceived
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objectivity is a crucial aspect in the research's credibility with possible investors and lenders. As a
result, it must be conducted objectively and unbiasedly in order to produce information on which
judgments can be made.

Activity

1. “Feasibility study” this is a vital aspect of system analysis and design. Comment.
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Questions & Exercises

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1. What is the general objectives of the feasibility study?

2. What considerations are involved in feasibility study in system analysis and design which
consideration do you think most crucial and why?
3. What best characterizes the factors involved in cost befit in analysis?
)A

4. State examples of feasibility studies?

5. Briefly discuss the various phases of feasibility study?
6. Why do feasibility studies?
Write the benefits of conducting a feasibility study.
7. Briefly discuss the various steps in Feasibility Analysis.
8. What is Feasibility Study? Explain five common factors for Feasibility study?
(c

9. Discuss the feasibility study factors for Online Examination System in detail.
10. State the key considerations in feasibility study.
 Glossary

1. Fe as i b i l ity s t u dy : A f eas i b i li ty s t udy de ter m in es i f a pr oj ec t or s y s t em is

e
fe as ib l e. A f e as ib i l ity s t udy tr i es t o o bj ec tiv e ly a nd l o g ic a l ly i de n ti fy th e
s tre n gt hs a n d we ak ne s s es o f a c urr e nt bus i nes s or n ew en t erpr is e, as we l l

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as t h e p os s i bi l i ti es a nd r is k s t ha t ex is t i n t h e n at ur a l env ir o n me n t, th e
res o ur c es ne e d ed t o c ar r y ou t th e pr oj ec t, a nd t he l ik e l ih o od o f s uc c es s . In
its m os t bas ic f or m, t he t wo f ac t ors f or d et er m in i ng f e as ib i l i ty are t h e
req u ir ed c os t a n d th e v a lu e t o be ob ta i n ed .
2. Tec hn ic a l F e as ib i l ity : C ur r en t r es o urc es , bo t h har d war e a n d s of tw ar e, as

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we l l as r e qu ir e d t ec h no l o gi es , are a n a ly z e d/ as s es s e d to b u i ld a pr oj ec t i n
Tec hn ic a l F eas i b i l ity . Th is t ec h nic a l fe as i bi l ity a n aly s is d et er m in e s wh e th er
th e n ec es s ar y r es ou r c es an d t ec h n ol o gy are av a i l ab l e for t he pr oj ec t's
dev e l op m en t. In ad d it i on , a f e as i b i l ity s t u d y ex a m in es t he tec h n ic al s k i l ls
an d c a p ab i l it i es of t h e tec h n ic a l t ea m , wh e th er ex is t i n g tec h no l o gy c an be
us e d or n o t, w h et h er m a i nt e na nc e a n d up - gr a da t io n of t h e c h os en
tec h no l ogy is s i m pl e o r n ot , a nd s o on .
3. O p er a t io n a l F e as i b i l it y : T h e de gr ee of s u p p ly i n g s erv ic e t o re q u ir em e nts is

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ev a l u at ed , as we l l as ho w e as y t h e pr od uc t wi l l b e to o p era t e an d m a in ta i n
af ter de p l oy m e nt . O t her o per at i o na l s c op es i nc lu d e d et er m in i ng pr od uc t
us a b i l ity , de t er m i n in g w he th e r a s o ft w ar e dev e l op m en t t ea m 's o ff er ed
s o lu t io n is ac c e pt a b le , a n d s o o n.

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4. Ec on o m ic F e as i b i l ity : I n an Ec o n om ic F ea s i bi l i ty s t u dy , t h e pro j ec t's c os t
an d b en e fi t ar e as s es s ed . T h at is , a d et a il ed ex a m in at i o n of t he pr oj ec t's
dev e l op m en t c os ts is c ar r i e d o u t as p ar t of t h is fe as i b il i ty s tu dy , w h ic h
i nc l u des a l l r e qu ir e d c os ts f or f i n al d ev e lo pm e nt , s uc h as h ar d war e a nd
er
s of tw ar e r es o ur c es , d es ig n a n d d ev e lo p me nt c os ts , a n d o p era t i on a l c os ts ,
am o ng o th er t hi n gs . A ft er t h at , it is d et er m i ne d wh e th er th e i n it i at iv e w i l l be
fi n anc i a l ly be n ef ic i a l t o th e or g an iz at i o n.
5. Le g a l F eas i b i li ty : Th e le g a li ty of a s t u dy pr oj ec t is ex a m in e d i n L e ga l
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Fe as i b i l ity . T h is i n c l ud es ex am i n i ng l eg a l i m pe d i me nts t o pr oj ec t
i mp l e me nt a ti o n, s uc h as d at a pr ot ec t i o n re g ul a ti o ns or s oc i a l me d i a
l eg is l at i on , pr oj ec t c er ti f ic a t e, l ic e ns i n g, a n d c o py r ig h t, a m on g o th er th i n gs .
O v er al l , a Le g a l F ea s i bi l i ty R es earc h is a s tu dy t o d e ter m i ne wh et h er a
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pro p os ed pr oj ec t c o m p l ies w i th le g a l a nd e t hi c a l c r it er i a.
6. Sc he d u le F eas i b i l ity : I n a Sc h e du l e Fe a s i b il i ty S tu dy , th e pr o pos e d pr oj ec t's
ti m e li n es / d ea d l in es ar e a na ly z e d, inc l u di n g ho w m a ny t i mes t e a m s w i l l t ak e
to c o m p le te t h e f i n a l pr oj ec t, w h ic h h as a s i g ni f ic an t i mp ac t on t he
org a n iz a t io n b ec aus e th e pr oj ec t's g o al may b e l os t if i t is n o t c o mp l et e d o n
ti m e.
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Further Readings

1. Diab, N. (2016). What are the main components of a feasibility study? - Bayt.com Specialties.
Retrieved from https://specialties.bayt.com/en/specialties/q/277098/what-are-the-main-
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components-of-a-feasibility-study/
2. KENTON, W. (2018). Feasibility Study. Retrieved from
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/feasibility-study.asp
3. (2017). Why a Feasibility Study is Important in Project Management. Retrieved from
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https://www.simplilearn.com/feasibility-study-article
4. Palvia, P., & Palvia, S. (2004). The feasibility study in information systems: an analysis of
criteria and contents. Information & Management, 14(5), 211-224. doi: 10.1016/0378-
7206(88)90009-2
5. THAKUR, D. (2016). What is Feasibility Study? Types of Feasibility. Explain Feasibility Study
Process. Retrieved from http://ecomputernotes.com/software-engineering/feasibilitystudy.
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6. Kurt Lewin, “Frontiers in Group Dynamics,” Human Relations, 1947, 1:5–41; and Kurt Lewin,
“Group Decision and Social Change” in E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley,
eds., Readings in Social Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958, pp. 197–
211.
 7. Christopher Koch, “When Bad Things Happen to Good Projects,” CIO Magazine, December
1, 2004.

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8. Altschuld, J. W., & Zheng, H. Y. (1995). Assessing the effectiveness of research
organizations. Evaluation Review, 19(2), 197-216.
9. An, J. Y., Yom, Y. H., & Ruggiero, J. S. (2011). Organizational culture, quality of work life, and

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organizational effectiveness in Korean university hospitals. Journal of Transcultural Nursing,
22(1), 22-30.
10. Anderson, J. A. (2000). Explanatory roles of mission and culture: Organizational effectiveness
in Tennessee's community colleges. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Mephis.
11. Baker, K., & Branch, K. M. (2002). Concepts underlying organizational effectiveness: Trends

On
in the organization and management science literature. Management Benchmark Study. USA:
Office of Planning & Analysis, Department of Energy
12. Cameron, K. (1978). Measuring organizational effectiveness in institutions of higher
education. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 604-632.
13. Cameron, K. (1981). Domains of organizational effectiveness in colleges and universities.
Academy of Management Journal, 24 (1), 25-47.
14. Cameron, K. (1986). A study of organizational effectiveness and its predictors. Management
Science, 32(1), 87-112.

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15. Dalton, T., & Dalton, L. (1988). The politics of measuring public sector performance.
Promoting Productivity in the Public Sector (Macmillan).
16. Federman, M. (2006). Essay: Towards an effect-ive theory of organizational effectiveness.
17. McCann, J. (2004). Organizational effectiveness: Changing concepts for changing

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environments. Human Resource Planning, 27(1).
18. Mullins, L. J. (2008). Essentials of organizational behaviour: Pearson Education.
19. Pounder, J. (1999). Organizational effectiveness in higher education. Educational
Management Administration & Leadership, 27(4), 389-400.
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20. Yildirim, V. and Kuşakcı, A.O., 2018. The critical success factors of erp selection and
implementation: A case study in logistics sector. Journal of International Trade, Logistics and
Law, 4(1), pp.138-146.
21. Osman, N., 2018. A software requirement engineering framework to enhance critical success
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factors for erp implementation. International Journal of Computer Applications, 180(10),

pp.pp32.
22. Vicedo, P., Gil, H., Oltra-Badenes, R. and Merigó, J.M., 2018, January. Critical Success
Factors on ERP Implementations: A Bibliometric Analysis. In International Conference on
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Modelling and Simulation in Management Sciences (pp. 169-181). Springer, Cham.

23. Barth, C. and Koch, S., 2019. Critical success factors in ERP upgrade projects. Industrial
Management & Data Systems.
24. Hentschel, R., Leyh, C. and Baumhauer, T., 2019, January. Critical success factors for the
implementation and adoption of cloud services in SMEs. In Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences.
25. Wolters, J., Eseryel, U.Y. and Eseryel, D., 2018. Identifying the Critical Success Factors for
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Low Customized ERP System Implementations in SMEs.

Check your Understanding – Answers

m

1. feasibility study
2. Economic feasibility
3. False
4. Operational
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5. Managerial
6. False
7. True
8. True
(c
 Unit-2: Und er st and ing Fe as ib ili t y A sp e cts

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

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Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

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• De f in e t he ec o no m ic f eas i b i li ty s t udy .
• Dis c us s t he c os t a n d b en e fi t a na ly s is .
• Ex pl a i n th e m ar k et a n a ly s is .
• Dis c us s t he t ec hn ic a l f eas i b i li ty a na ly s is .
•

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Dis c us s t he i mp or t a nc e of t ec hn ic a l a na ly s is .
• Ex pl a i n as s es s i n g th e tec h nic a l f eas i b i li ty .
• Ex pl a i n th e o p er a t io n a l f eas i b il i ty s tu dy .
• Le ar n a bo u t th e u nd er s ta n di n g th e s y s t e m p erf or ma nc e as pec ts .

Int rodu ct ion

A f eas i b i li ty s t udy is a r ev i ew o f a p l a n to s e e h ow d i ff ic ul t i t wo u l d b e t o c arry o ut

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a s p ec i f ic ac t iv i ty . Te c hn ic a l d ev e l o pm e nt a n d pr oj ec t i mp l e me n ta t i on are us u a l ly
prec e d ed by a fe as ib i l i ty s t u dy . I n o th er w or d s , a fe as i bi l i ty s tu dy is a n as s es s m e nt
or a na ly s is o f a pr op o s ed pr oj ec t 's pos s i b l e i mp ac t .

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Wh y do Fe a sib il it y St udy?

• T o f in d a c os t - ef fec t i v e s o lu t io n fr o m a b us i nes s s t a nd p oi n t.
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• T o c o m e up w i th a w e ll - k n ow n s o l ut i on .

• T o d et er m in e t he po t en t ia l m ar k et f or t h e p rod uc ts .

• De ter m i ne t h e o pp or t un i t ies a n d h az ar ds p o s ed by th e e nv iro n me n t.

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• T o f ig ur e o ut h o w m u c h m on ey t he proj ec t wi l l m ak e i n th e l o ng r un .

• T o d e mo ns tr a te t h e pr oj ec t 's p ot en t ia l c o n tri b ut i on s t o s oc i ety , a mo n g ot h er

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th i ngs .

Ben ef its of C ondu ct i ng a F e as ib il ity Stud y

• L im i ts th e n u mb er o f c om p any op t io ns .
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• Pr ov id es a d i ff er en t ou t l in e a nd mor e f oc u s f or pr oj ec t te a ms .

• I d e nt if i es a c o m pe l l i ng c as e f or p urs ui n g t he proj ec t .

• I nc r e as es t h e s uc c es s r a te by as s es s i n g v a ri ous v a ri a b les .
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• As s is ts in p r oj ec t d e c is io n - m ak i n g.

The feasibility study is primarily focused on the five topics listed below. The most significant aspect
of the feasibility analysis is the economic feasibility study, while the legal feasibility study is less
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crucial.

The many forms of feasibility studies are as follows:

• Economic Feasibility
• Technical Feasibility
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• Operational Feasibility/Behavioral Feasibility

• Schedule Feasibility
• Legal Feasibility
 2.1.1 Economic Feasibility Study

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The most common method for evaluating the effectiveness of a new system is economic analysis.
The method is more frequently known as cost/benefit analysis, and it involves determining the

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predicted advantages and savings from a prospective system and comparing them to the expenses.
If the advantages outweigh the costs, the decision to develop and deploy the system is made.
Before taking action, an entrepreneur must carefully balance the costs and advantages.

The project's cost and benefit are examined in an Economic Feasibility study. That is, a detailed

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examination of the project's development costs is carried out as part of this feasibility study, which
includes all required costs for final development, such as hardware and software resources, design
and development costs, and operational costs, among other things. After that, it is determined
whether the initiative will be financially beneficial to the organization.

The potential of the required software to generate financial rewards for a corporation is determined
by its economic feasibility.

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The cost of the software development team, the cost of the study needed in completing a feasibility
study, and the estimated cost of software and hardware are all factors to consider in this type of
research.

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Only if software addresses the following issues will it be considered viable:

• The cost of training, assembling a development team, purchasing software, and purchasing
hardware.
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• The price of conducting software research tasks like requirements analysis and elicitation.
• The cost of building software that will benefit a corporation in the long run.
• It's also looked at if the programme can be developed within the budget constraints.
• Because some customers want a lot of features in their programme but are unwilling to
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spend the money to get it.

The cost of doing a full systems research (including the time of personnel you will be working with),
the cost of firm employee time, the estimated cost of hardware, and the projected cost of software or
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software development are the primary resources to consider.

Before committing to a complete systems analysis, the company in question must be able to
comprehend the value of the investment.

The system is not commercially feasible, and the project is cancelled, if the short-term costs are not
compensated by long-term benefits, or if there is no immediate reduction in operating costs.
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Importance of Economic Feasibility

• It uses a cost-benefit analysis approach to evaluate the efficacy of a potential system.

•
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It shows the candidate system's net benefit in terms of organizational benefits and costs.
• The primary purpose of an Economic Feasibility Study is to assess a candidate system's
economic needs before committing resources to a project.
• It chooses the option that optimizes the organization's net worth by repaying cash as quickly
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as feasible and with the least degree of risk associated with the candidate system's
construction.

Cost/benefit analysis is another term for economic analysis. It is the most common way for
determining a new system's effectiveness. The procedure in economic analysis is to evaluate the
projected advantages and savings from a prospective system and compare them to the costs. If the
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advantages outweigh the costs, the decision to develop and deploy the system is made. Before
taking action, an entrepreneur must carefully balance the costs and advantages.

Economic study may raise the following questions:

 • Is the system cost effective?
• Do benefits outweigh costs?

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• The cost of doing full system study
• The cost of business employee time
• Estimated cost of hardware

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• Estimated cost of software/software development
• Is the project possible, given the resource constraints?
• What are the savings that will result from the system?
• Cost of employees' time for study
• Cost of packaged software/software development

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• Selection among alternative financing arrangements (rent/lease/purchase)

Before committing to a comprehensive system study, the concerned company must be able to
assess the benefit of the investment it is considering. If short-term costs aren't outweighed by long-
term benefits or don't result in an immediate decrease in running costs, the system isn't
economically viable, and the project should be abandoned. The system is considered economically
feasible if the predicted benefits equal or surpass the expenses. The suggested system's

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effectiveness is assessed using economic analysis.The project's economic feasibility will look at the
predicted costs to see if they are within budget or if the project has a good return on investment. The
predicted expenditures will only be a preliminary estimate at this time. To evaluate economic
feasibility, exact costs are not required. It is simply necessary to establish whether the project

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expenditures will be able to stay within the goal budget or return on investment. To establish if the
systems project can be completed within the required timeframe, a rough estimate of the project
timeline is required. The organization would have to determine the required timescale.
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Identifying & Forecasting Costs & Benefits

Since the costs and advantages of the proposed computer system are interrelated and often
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interdependent, they must always be considered together. Despite the fact that the systems analyst
is attempting to suggest a system that meets a variety of information requirements, the choice to
proceed with the proposed system will be based on a cost-benefit analysis rather than on
information requirements. Benefits are quantified in numerous ways by costs, as will be seen in the
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next section.

Forecasting
Before submitting a proposal to a client, systems analysts must predict some crucial variables. A
systems analyst will use a what-if analysis to some extent, such as "What if labour expenses climb
just 5% per year for the next three years, rather than 10%?" If the proposal is to be credible,
significant, and beneficial, the systems analyst must recognise that he or she cannot rely on what-if
analysis for everything.
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Many forecasting models are available to the systems analyst. The availability of historical data is
the most important consideration when selecting a model. If they aren't available, the analyst must
rely on one of the following judgement methods: sales force estimations, consumer demand surveys,
Delphi studies (a consensus forecast generated independently by a group of specialists through a
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number of iterations), scenario creation, or historical comparisons.

The second distinction between groups of approaches is whether the forecast is conditional or
unconditional, assuming historical data is available. Conditional suggests that there is a link between
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the model's variables or that a causal relationship exists. Correlation, regression, leading indicators,
econometrics, and input/output models are all common strategies in this group.

The analyst is not obliged to find or identify any causal linkages when using unconditioned
forecasting. As a result, systems analysts discover that these methods are low-cost and simple to
deploy. Graphical judgement, moving averages, and time-series data analysis are all part of this
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category. The remainder of this section concentrates on these procedures since they are
straightforward, dependable, and cost-effective.

Estimation of Trends
 Trends can be calculated in a variety of methods. A moving average is one method of estimating

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trends. Because some seasonal, cyclical, or random patterns can be smoothed out, leaving the
trend pattern, this method is valuable. Moving averages work by calculating the arithmetic mean of
data over a set number of periods; for example, a three-month moving average is just the average of

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the previous three months. The average sales for January, February, and March, for example, are
used to forecast sales for April. The average sales for February, March, and April are then used to
forecast sales for May and subsequent months.

When the data is graphed, it is clear that the highly erratic data has been smoothed. The moving

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average method is useful for smoothing data, but it also has a number of drawbacks. Extreme
values have a greater impact on moving averages than they do on graphical judgment or other
estimation methods like least squares. Forecasting is a skill that the analyst should master because
it frequently gives information that is useful in justifying the overall endeavor.

Identifying Benefits and Costs

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There are two types of benefits and costs: tangible and intangible. When considering systems, both
tangible and intangible advantages and costs must be evaluated.

Tangible Benefits

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Tangible benefits are monetary advantages that accrue to the organization as a result of the
information system's utilisation. Increased processing speed, access to previously inaccessible
information, access to information on a timelier basis than was previously possible, the advantage of
the computer's superior calculating power, and reductions in the amount of employee time required
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to complete specific tasks are examples of tangible benefits. There are a few more. Although
quantifying concrete benefits is not always straightforward, they can be measured in terms of dollars,
resources, or time saved.
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Intangible Benefits
Some of the benefits that accrue to the organization as a result of the information system's utilisation
are difficult to quantify, but they are nonetheless significant. Intangible advantages are what they're
called.
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Intangible benefits include improving decision-making, increasing accuracy, improving customer

service, preserving a positive corporate image, and increasing employee work satisfaction by
removing boring chores. Intangible benefits are incredibly significant and can have far-reaching
repercussions for the business in terms of individuals both inside and beyond the organization, as
you can see from the list provided.
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Even though intangible benefits of an information system must be considered when considering
whether or not to proceed with a system, a system developed exclusively for its intangible benefits
would fail. In your proposal, you must address both concrete and intangible benefits, because
presenting both will assist corporate decision-makers to make an informed conclusion regarding the
suggested solution.
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Tangible Costs
The concepts of tangible and intangible expenses are conceptually similar to the previously stated
tangible and intangible benefits. The costs that can be correctly forecasted by the systems analyst
and the business's accounting staff are known as tangible costs.
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The cost of equipment such as computers and terminals, the cost of resources, the cost of systems
analysts' time, the cost of programmers' time, and the pay of other staff are all included in tangible
expenses. These are the costs that will need a monetary spend from the firm and are usually well
established or easily recognized.
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Intangible Costs
Intangible expenses are difficult to calculate and are often unknown. They include losing a
competitive advantage, losing a reputation for being the first with an innovation or a field leader,
 worsening business image due to rising consumer unhappiness, and ineffective decision making due
to delayed or inaccessible data. As you may expect, correctly projecting a dollar value for intangible

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costs is nearly impossible. You must incorporate intangible costs, even if they are not quantifiable, to
assist decision-makers who want to analyse the proposed system and all of its ramifications.

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2.1.2 Cost and Benefit Analysis

In most cases, there are multiple solutions to a problem.

Before making a final recommendation, the costs and advantages of each technique are compared

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to those of alternative approaches. The end product is a proposal for a project. The analysis'
conclusions are reported, and the design is suggested.

Data Analysis
Cost/benefit analysis requires data analysis as a prerequisite. An evaluation of current discoveries is
the result of system inquiry and data collection. The system design requirements are identified as a
result of the investigation, which could include:
1. Improving client service

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2. Information retrieval that is quicker
3. More timely reports
4. It takes less time.
5. Precision

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6. Eliminate data duplication
7. Increased employee productivity
8. Processing and operating costs are reduced.
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Several choices must be explored to meet these design objectives; there is rarely only one option.
The analyst chooses those that are financially, technically, and operationally feasible. Each method
has advantages and disadvantages. The decision procedure is guided by a cost-benefit analysis of
each option.
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Cost and Benefit Categories

We must consider various cost aspects when producing cost estimates for a system:
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• Hardware Costs
• Personnel Costs
• Facility Costs
• Operating Costs
• Supply Costs
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Procedure for Cost/Benefit Determination

There is a distinction to be made between spending and investing. We spend money to achieve
what we want, but we invest to get a return on our money. Building a computer-based system is a
significant financial expenditure. Costs are incurred over the course of the product's life cycle.
Reduced operational costs, a better business image, increased employee efficiency, and increased
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revenues are all examples of benefits. The function of cost/benefit analysis is to determine whether
the benefits outweigh the expenses.

A cost-benefit analysis is a method of determining the various costs, benefits, and rules connected
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with a system. The steps for calculating costs and benefits are as follows:

1. Determine the costs and advantages associated with a specific project.

Some costs and advantages are easier to identify than others. Direct costs, such as the cost of a hard
disc, can be easily determined using corporate invoice payments or cancelled checks, for example.
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Direct benefits are frequently linked to direct costs, particularly savings from cost reductions in the
activity in question. Other direct costs and benefits, on the other hand, may be difficult to identify since
they are projected costs or benefits with some uncertainty. A reserve for bad debt is an example of
such costs. It is a discernible real expense, while the exact amount is not known right away.
 Opportunity costs and benefits are a type of expense or benefit that is difficult to distinguish. These

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are the expenses or benefits that are foregone when one option is chosen over another. They are
difficult to identify because they do not appear in the organization's finances.

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2. Sort the costs and benefits into categories for examination.

The classification of costs and benefits is the next step in cost and benefit analysis. They can be real
or virtual, direct or indirect, fixed or changing.

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3. Decide on an evaluation approach.

The analyst must choose an evaluation approach when all financial data has been discovered and
broken down into cost categories. There are several evaluation systems to choose from, each with its
own set of advantages and disadvantages. The following are some of the most prevalent methods:

• Net benefit analysis

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• Present value analysis
• Net Present value
• Payback analysis
• Break- even analysis
• Cash-flow analysis

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4. Analyze the results and interpret them.
The outcomes of the project evaluation must be analysed once it is completed. This requires
comparing actual results to a benchmark or the outcome of a different investment. The interpretation
phase, as well as the choice phase that follows, are both subjective and need judgement and intuition.
The analyst may be presented with a single known value or a range of values, depending on the level
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of uncertainty.Simpler methods, such as net benefit analysis, are easier to calculate and present than
other metrics in any instance, even though they do not discount future cash flows. The net benefit
approach would be analogous to the net present value method if it could be updated to include the
time worth of money. Complex measurements like net present value account for the temporal value of
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money, but they are more difficult to evaluate and display.

The analyst's or end user's trust in the predicted costs and benefits, as well as the scale of the
investment, can all influence the choice to choose an alternate candidate system.

In conclusion, cost-benefit analysis is a tool for analysing initiatives rather than a decision-maker
replacement. When making a decision between options in real-life business scenarios, cost/benefit
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analysis is a useful tool. However, it, like every tool, has flaws:
(i) Issues with valuation: It's difficult to quantify intangible costs and benefits, and tangible
expenses are usually more pronounced than tangible advantages. In most
circumstances, a project must have significant intangible advantages in order to be
approved.
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(ii) Cost-benefit analysis distortion: There are two ways to distort the results of a cost-benefit
analysis. One is the deliberate political partiality of one alternative over another. The
second is when the data in the analysis is incomplete or missing.
(iii) Completeness issues: Occasionally, an alternative is overlooked, compromising the final
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choice's quality.
Furthermore, the expenses of doing a cost-benefit analysis may be excessive, or there
may not be enough costs to conduct a thorough study. In either situation, the final
decision's reliability is questioned.

5. Make a decision.
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Following a cost-benefit analysis, the user's final decision is to choose the most cost-effective and
helpful system. The analysts write a feasibility report based on the primary findings and
recommendations at this time. It lays out the possibilities and makes suggestions. It is presented to
 management in order for them to decide whether or not a candidate system should be developed.
Effective reports are formatted in a way that management can comprehend and evaluate them

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without having to read the entire document.

Everyone should perform a cost-benefit analysis in order to come up with a powerful or efficient

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system. However, in performing a cost-benefit analysis, we must also consider the elements that
have a direct impact on the system's benefits and costs. Some cost elements must be considered
when producing cost estimates for a system. Hardware, staff, facility, operating, and supply costs
are some of them. The cost factors are as follows:

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Hardware cost: Hardware costs include the cost of the computer itself as well as peripherals
(external devices) that are attached to it. For instance, a printer, a hard drive, and so on. Actually,
determining the true cost of hardware is more challenging, especially when the system is used by
multiple users as opposed to a dedicated stand-alone system. In certain cases, the best course of
action is to treat it as an operating expense.

Personnel costs: Personnel costs include EDP employee salary and benefits, as well as
compensation for those involved in the system development process. Charges incurred during the

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creation of a system are one-time costs known as development costs. Once a system is installed,
the cost of operating and maintaining it becomes a recurring expense that must be paid on a regular
basis depending on the requirements.

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Facility cost: Facility cost is the amount of money spent on preparing a physical facility where an
application or computer will be used. Wiring, flooring, lighting, and air conditioning are all included.
These expenses are classified as one-time expenses and are factored into the candidate system's
overall cost estimate.
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Operating costs: These are the costs connected with the system's day-to-day (daily) operation, and
the amount varies depending on the number of shifts and the type of the applications. Operating
costs can be covered in a variety of ways. One strategy is to see running costs as an expense.
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Another option is to charge each authorised user money for the amount of processing they need
from the system. The amount charged is determined by the amount of time spent on the computer or
on the system, the time spent by the employees, and the volume of output produced.
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Supply costs: Supply costs are variable costs that rise as the amount of paper, discs, and other
materials used increases. They should be estimated and factored into the system's overall cost.

It is also believed that a system will give health benefits. To perform a cost-benefit analysis, the first
step is to identify each benefit and assign a value to it. Benefits might be direct or indirect, concrete
or intangible.
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Improving system performance and lowering system processing costs are two important
advantages. The accuracy of or access to information is improved, and authorised users have easier
access to the system, according to the performance category. Cost-cutting through an efficient
system – error control or staff reduction – is a benefit that should be quantified and factored into a
cost-benefit analysis.
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The steps for determining costs and benefits are as follows:

• Determine the costs and advantages associated with a specific project.

• For analysis, categorise the various costs and advantages.
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• Choose an evaluation technique.

• Interpret the findings of the investigation.
• Make a move.
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2.1.3 Market Analysis

 Market System Analyses strive to figure out why markets underperform and why they aren't more
inclusive of employees. The Lab provides examples of underlying structural constraints and methods

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for more and better jobs in agriculture, construction, tourism, and the garment industry.

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The degree to which market systems in different geographical locations are connected is measured
by market integration. Critical products or food kinds of stuff will flow more freely from excess areas
to deficiency areas, from producers to consumers, and from ports and border crossings into more
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remote places, when markets are integrated.

When marketplaces are fragmented, however, moving commodities becomes difficult or expensive,
and prices vary greatly between regions and seasons.
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For EMMA's examination of appropriate actions, the degree of market integration is critical.
• In the baseline condition, a local market system that was strongly linked with wider markets is
considerably more likely to be able to expand trade to fulfil emergency needs.
• Critical commodities, services, or food are more easily available and pricing are more stable if local
markets are well integrated with bigger markets.
• Market integration, which will allow necessary commodities or food to flow from other excess
regions, is critical for local procurement and cash-based initiatives.
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• Prices tend to be more volatile in fragmented local markets that are poorly integrated with bigger
markets. Higher prices (lower income) will be experienced by target groups more frequently.

A market analysis is an evaluation that allows you to decide whether or not a given market is
appropriate for your industry. Market analysis can be used to assess your current market or to
investigate new markets.
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A market analysis can assist you assess the desirability of a market, whether you're a startup,
wanting to grow, or reevaluating your current market. It also detects existing and prospective
dangers associated with operating in that area.
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Market analysis gives you a comprehensive, or all-encompassing, picture of the markets you want to
work in. Several evaluation tools are included in the report, as well as a discussion of your industry
and its market forecast. It also does a competitive analysis and discovers cultural and legal
regulations, as well as analysing the target market.
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When you undertake a market study, you will examine a number of characteristics of the market you
want to penetrate. You'll also figure out if your industry is a good fit for the market.
 Industry Description and Outlook
Return to the coffee shop. You should perform an in-depth examination of your business and

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analyse what the future of your sector looks like when preparing to expand. What does the coffee
shop sector look like, for example, and how big is the coffee industry? You should also consider the
industry's growth rate and the expected rate of growth over the following few years.

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In a nutshell, the industry description and outlook take into account the following factors:

• Your industry's definition (what do you offer)

• Your industry's size

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• Average annual growth rate
• Potential for expansion
• Industry developments
• Industry long-term viability
• These metrics give you a broad picture of your industry's growth and profitability potential.

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Target Market

You'll want to determine your target market once you've got a general idea of what your sector looks
like and what it can do. The target market is the demographic to which you intend to promote your

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goods.

• To whom do you wish to sell?

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• What age group do you wish to target with your product?

• What is the average income level of your target market?

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• What is the location of your target market?

You should delve into the nuances of who your target market is and what they want from the things
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you're selling.

• Do your clients prefer dark chocolate mochas or black coffee?

• Do they have 20 or 30 minutes each morning to drink their coffee or do they have fast-paced
lives?
• What is the location of your target market?
• What is the size of their population?
•
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When doing a target market analysis, you will want to learn as much about your target market
as possible.

2.1.4 Technical Feasibility Analysis

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Current resources, both hardware and software, as well as required technologies, are
analyzed/assessed in Technical Feasibility in order to construct a project. This technical feasibility
analysis determines whether the necessary resources and technology are available for the project's
development. In addition, a feasibility study examines the technical skills and capabilities of the
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technical team, whether existing technology can be used or not, whether maintenance and up-
gradation of the chosen technology is simple or not, and so on.

Technical feasibility assists in acquiring access to existing resources as well as technology required
to fulfil the user's needs in the programme while staying within budget and time restrictions.
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The following tasks are completed in the technical feasibility phase:

• Aids in the evaluation of the technology's stability.

 • Is the necessary technology on hand?
• Is it possible to integrate the requested functionalities with current/available technology?

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• Examine the technical skills and abilities of individuals of the software development team.

Given the current technological resources, the analyst must decide whether the new system can be

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constructed.

If not, is it possible to adapt or expand the system so that it satisfies the current request?

If existing systems cannot be expanded or updated, the next step is to see if technology that meets

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the criteria is available.

At the same time, the analyst can check to see if the company has people who are technically
competent of reaching the goals.

If not, they must decide whether to hire additional programmers, testers, specialists, or people with
programming skills other than their own, or whether to outsource the job.

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Another factor to examine is whether there are software packages that can help them reach their
objectives or if the programme must be customised for the company.

It examines each implementation option's technical viability.

•
•
•
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It looks at the technical feasibility of each option for execution.
It examines the solution and assesses whether it can be supported by current technology.
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The analyst decides if existing technological resources should be updated or new ones
introduced to meet the new needs.
• It assures that the candidate system responds appropriately to the technical enhancement to
the extent that it is capable of doing so.
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Technical Feasibility – Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs

Examining the capabilities of computer hardware and software to handle workloads adequately is
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part of determining technological feasibility. The procedures taken by a systems analyst to determine
hardware and software requirements are depicted in the diagram below. To begin, the organization's
current computer gear must be inventoried to determine what is on hand and what is serviceable.

The systems analyst must collaborate with users to establish the hardware requirements. Only in
conjunction with determining human information requirements can hardware decisions be made. In
making hardware decisions, understanding the organizational structure and how users interact with
technology in an organizational setting can be beneficial. Hardware alternatives can only be
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evaluated if systems analysts, users, and management have a comprehensive understanding of the
types of jobs that must be completed.
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Steps in Acquiring Computer Hardware and Software

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Inventorying Computer Hardware

Begin with taking inventory of the existing computer hardware in the company. As will become clear,
several of the hardware alternatives require expanding or recycling existing hardware, so knowing
what you have on hand is critical.

If an updated computer hardware inventory is not available, the systems analyst must immediately
create one and complete it. You should be aware of the following:
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• Model number and manufacturer of the equipment.

• The equipment's operational status: on order, in use, in storage, or in need of repair.
• The equipment's approximate age.
• The equipment's expected lifespan.
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• The equipment's physical placement.

• The department or person who is in charge of the equipment.
• The equipment's financial arrangement: owned, leased, or rented.
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When determining the current hardware available, much of the uncertainty about what exists will be
avoided, resulting in a more sound decision-making process when hardware options are finally
made. You will already know the amount of persons available for data processing, as well as their
skills and capabilities, based on your previous interviews with users, questionnaires polling them,
and research of archival data. Use this data to estimate how well new hardware staffing
requirements can be met.
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Estimating Workloads
 Estimating workloads is the next stage in determining hardware requirements. As a result, systems
analysts create numbers that represent both current and future workloads for the system, ensuring

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that any hardware purchased can handle both current and future workloads.

If forecasts are done correctly, the company should not have to replace hardware due to

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unanticipated system growth. (Other occurrences, such as greater technology breakthroughs, may
necessitate hardware change if the company wishes to stay competitive.) Workloads are sampled
rather than put via many computer systems due to necessity.

A comparison of the times required by an existing and proposed information system to manage a

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given workload is shown in the table below. It's worth noting that the company is now preparing a
summary of shipments to its distribution warehouses using a vintage computer system, and a Web-
based dashboard is being recommended. The workload comparison examines when and how each
procedure is completed, as well as how much human and computer time is necessary. It's worth
noting that the newly proposed approach should drastically reduce the amount of time spent by
humans and computers.

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Evaluating Computer Hardware

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Management, users, and systems analysts are all responsible for evaluating computer hardware.
Although vendors will provide details about their specific solutions, analysts must directly oversee
the evaluation process because they will be looking out for the company's best interests. Users and
 management may also need to be educated on the overall benefits and drawbacks of hardware
before systems analysts can properly evaluate it.

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The next phase in the process is to assess the types of equipment available that appear to satisfy
predicted needs, based on the current inventory of computer equipment and reasonable estimates of

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current and forecasted workloads. At this point, vendor information on various systems and system
configurations becomes more important, and it should be discussed with management and users.
Workloads can also be simulated and executed on a variety of platforms, including those already in
use by the company. Benchmarking is the term for this procedure.

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The following are some criteria that systems analysts and users should use to evaluate the
performance of various systems hardware:

• The time it takes to complete an average transaction (including how long it takes to input
data and how long it takes to receive output).
• The system's overall volume capacity (how much can be processed at the same time before
a problem arises).
• The CPU or network's idle time.

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• The amount of memory available.

Some requirements will be demonstrated in formal demonstrations; others will have to be gathered
from manufacturer specifications. Before getting too caught up in vendor claims during

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demonstrations, it's critical to be clear on the required and desired functions.

After the functional needs have been identified and the existing products have been digested and
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compared to what already exists in the organization, the systems analysts, in collaboration with
users and management, make a judgement on whether new hardware is required. Options can be
viewed of as a spectrum that ranges from using solely existing equipment in the firm to purchasing
fully new equipment. In the middle, there are possibilities for making little or large changes to the
existing computer system.
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Computer Size and Use

Due to the sheer constant advancement of technology, the systems analyst must research the
different types of computers that are available at the time the systems proposal is being developed.
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Computers come in different shapes and sizes, from tiny cell phones to supercomputers the size of a
room. When deciding how to design a computer system, each has its own set of characteristics to
consider.

2.1.5 Importance of Technical Analysis

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• It investigates and evaluates if the solution is supported by current technology.

• To satisfy the new needs, the analyst determines if existing technology resources should be
updated or new ones deployed.
• It ensures that the candidate system responds suitably to the technical upgrade to the extent
that it is capable of supporting it.
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A successful project usually starts with a strategy that includes all of the necessary details to avoid
any unexpected problems during production. This strategy is essential for the successful execution
of a large-scale project and provides insight into what will be required for a successful launch and
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achievement of project objectives.

A feasibility study is an assessment of a proposed project's viability. The technical aspect of a

feasibility study examines the details of your intended process, including materials and labour,
logistics, and technology related to producing, delivering, and tracking the products or services you
intend to develop, to help you determine the efficacy of your proposed project.
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A technical feasibility study can provide relevant context to the various aspects of your project and
can also be used as a planning tool by providing an overhead view of how your project might evolve
 during its development, as well as troubleshooting and tracking your project's progress from concept
to reality.

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2.1.6 Assessing the Technical Feasibility

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What is the best way to do a technical feasibility study?
To begin your technical feasibility study, follow these steps:

(i) Prepare a preliminary analysis

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A preliminary analysis can help you assess whether your project is worth investing time and money in
before beginning on potentially costly and time-consuming operations. The following are the two
primary branches of this analysis:

• Project outline: Describe the project's essential aspects in as much detail as feasible. These
can contain things like who your target markets will be, what demand you'll address, whether
your product or service already exists, and how you'll improve on what you already have.

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• Examine any potential hurdles to entry, as well as any other variables that could stifle
profitability. These can include a lack of availability or particularly expensive financing, an
inability to promote or refer your products, or production expenses that exceed expected
revenues.

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Consider conducting a more in-depth feasibility study if your preliminary analysis appears to be
positive.
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(ii) Create a projected income statement
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If your early investigation indicated that your product or service will meet a need, calculate the
potential revenue and compare it to the costs of creating your goods, paying your debts, and running
your organization. Continue to the next stage of your research if your expected net income is positive.
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(iii) Conduct a market survey

A market survey will help you acquire a more accurate estimate of how much money your project will
bring in. The market survey will take numerous steps because this is an in-depth investigation,
including:
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• Consider population and demographic trends, cultural features, and the typical amount of
disposable income in your target market, as these factors will influence the success of your
project.
• Consider the strengths and limitations of similar or rival offerings in your target market,
including their location, products, pricing, marketing, quality, and client loyalty.
•
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Estimate expansion options, such as adding additional products or services, franchising

prospects, and community response.
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(iv) Make a business plan

A business plan details your product or service offerings, lays out a production schedule, and
provides information on launch expenses, ongoing operations costs, and thorough planning for the
following:

•
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Organizational chart
• Materials, equipment and supplies
• Marketing and merchandising
• Facility location
 • Labor costs
• Overhead such as insurance, taxes and utilities

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(v) Prepare a balance sheet

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Before income is created, a day-one balance sheet should detail the undertaking's assets and
liabilities at the time of project completion, or opening day. The project's initial cash and financing
capital, as well as buildings, land, and equipment, are required assets, whereas liabilities comprise
projected investments, rent, finance payments, and account receivable allowance margins.

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(vi) Review your data and make a decision

A final evaluation is required once you've completed all of your research and prepared your facts
and estimates. This final review is used to go over the preliminary analysis again and compare it to
the data you've gathered since then in order to see if your idea is still viable. This reflection will assist
you in assessing the risks and expenses involved with this project and making a final decision on
whether or not to proceed with production.

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The final stage in deciding whether or not to proceed with your project is to ask yourself the following
questions:
• Do the calculations demonstrate that this project will bring in the smallest amount of profit?
• Is there room for this initiative to expand?

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• Is the potential benefit (revenue, growth, and market share) greater than the risks (time,
energy, and money)?
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If you can answer yes to all three of these questions, your project has a decent probability of
succeeding.

What should my feasibility study's technical part be focused on?

The following list of questions should be included in your inquiry because this is a study that will
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ultimately assess the viability of your proposed project:

• What is the project's intended outcome?

•
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Is the suggested product or service currently accessible on the market? If so, how would my
product improve on the concept, and if not, how feasible and/or dangerous is it to bring it to
market?
• What unmet need would this project address?
• What resources are required to complete this project, and do you have access to them?
• What are the legal or regulatory issues that this product or service raises?
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2.1.7 Operational Feasibility Study

The degree of service to requirements is evaluated in Operational Feasibility, as well as how easy
the product will be to operate and maintain after deployment. Other operational scopes include
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determining product usability, determining whether a software development team's offered solution is
acceptable, and so on.

Operational feasibility is determined by human resources and decides whether or not a programme
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will operate after it has been properly developed.

The operational feasibility is responsible for the following:

• The operational feasibility aids in determining whether or not the software development
team's solution is acceptable.
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• Operational feasibility also helps determine whether the concerns identified in the user
requirements are of high priority.
• It establishes whether or not a programme is user-friendly.
 • Its user interface should be basic enough for anyone to use.
• Assists in establishing whether the software development team's alternative solutions are

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satisfactory to the organization.

Importance of operational feasibility

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• It determines whether or not the system is operational after it has been created and
implemented.
• It guarantees that management will support the proposed system and operate within a
modern organizational framework.

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• It determines if users will be affected and whether they will accept changed or new business
processes that affect the system's potential benefits.
• It also ensures that the computational resources and network architecture of the candidate
system are operational.

A feasibility study determines if a project or system is feasible. A feasibility study tries to objectively
and logically identify the strengths and weaknesses of a current business or new enterprise, as well

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as the possibilities and risks that exist in the natural environment, the resources needed to carry out
the project, and the likelihood of success. In its most basic form, the two factors for determining
feasibility are the required cost and the value to be obtained.

Operational feasibility is a metric for how well a proposed system solves problems and exploits

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possibilities discovered during scope definition, as well as how well it meets the criteria identified
during the requirements analysis phase of system development.
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In terms of development timetable, delivery date, corporate culture, and existing business
procedures, the operational feasibility study looks at how well the proposed project fits into the
existing business environment and objectives.

Desired operational results must be communicated during design and development to ensure
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success. Reliability, maintainability, supportability, usability, producibility, disposability, sustainability,

affordability, and other design-dependent factors are among them. If desirable operational behaviors
are to be realized, these characteristics must be considered early in the design process. To achieve
the previously specified characteristics, system design and development necessitates the timely and
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proper application of engineering and management efforts. When a system's technical and operating
features are engineered into the design, it can best serve its intended purpose. As a result,
operational feasibility is an important feature of systems engineering that must be considered early
in the design process.

It's a metric for how well a proposed system will address the problem and take advantage of the
opportunities indicated during the scope definition process. It also defines how it will meet each of
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the requirements defined during the requirement analysis process.

Operational feasibility is determined by the project's available human resources and decides whether
or not the system will be usable after it has been created and implemented. It assesses the
organization's readiness to support the proposed system. Operational feasibility, unlike technical and
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economic feasibility, is difficult to assess.

To establish operational feasibility, however, you must first determine management's commitment to
the proposed initiative. Management would be more inclined to embrace and apply operational
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feasibility if it was initiated by them.

Questions to test operational feasibility

Here are some key questions to ask in order to guarantee that every project meets the requirement
of operational feasibility.
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• Is the current operational mode sufficient in terms of response and throughput?

• Is information provided to managers and end-users in a timely and accurate manner?
• Is the existing style of operation providing the firm with cost-effective information?
 • Is there going to be a benefit boost or a cost reduction?
• Is there an adequate process in place to protect against fraud and data breaches in the

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current system?
• Is the system going to be used once it's finished?
• What will the system's manpower challenges be?

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• Will there be any labour protests?
• What policies and conflicts are likely to arise within the organization?
• What government restrictions might have an impact on the system?

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When the operating and technical aspects of a project are integrated into the design, it may serve the
purpose for which it was created. As a result, operational feasibility is a critical component of systems
engineering that any company requires throughout the design phase of a project.

2.1.8 Understanding the System Performance Aspects

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Performance analysis is a collection of disparate computer-aided tools that assess a system's
performance at several levels of abstraction, making the task more difficult. We hope to make the
process of performance analysis easier by extracting a common object model. A design pattern can
be used to encapsulate this shared trait. At the system level of the performance modelling hierarchy,

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several design patterns are found. These serve as a foundation for establishing the semantics and
composition features of the modelled data. The definition of design patterns for modelling such data
enables for the identification and addition of often recurring patterns to the system library. These
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could be further enhanced by allowing users to change each design in a flexible and efficient manner
in order to model the exact design in question.

The amount of useful work done by a system is assessed by the pace at which goods of a
predetermined quality are produced. The competitiveness of high-tech Cyber-Physical Systems is
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frequently boosted by system performance. To meet market demands for product quality,
customisation, and total cost of ownership per product, systems must achieve ever-higher productivity
targets.
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Performance is intertwined with other system-level characteristics such as product quality, cost,
reliability, security, and customizability.

Check your Understanding

1. The term "_________" refers to the ability to use, support, and carry out necessary
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programme, system, or project duties. It refers to someone who designs or operates a

system. A project or system must meet particular criteria in order to be judged operationally
practicable.
2. A ___________ is a method of calculating the benefits of a choice or action minus the costs
of that decision or action.
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3. ________is the amount of useful work done by a system - measured by the production speed
of products of a predefined quality.
4. A market analysis is an assessment, which allows you to determine how suitable a particular
market is for your industry. You can use market analysis to evaluate your current market, or
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look at new markets. State true or false.

5. Current resources, both hardware and software, as well as required technologies, are
analyzed/assessed in Technical Feasibility in order to construct a project. State true or false.
6. Market analysis gives you a comprehensive, or all-encompassing, picture of the markets you
want to work in. State true or false.
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Summary
 • A feasibility study is a preliminary evaluation that helps management determine whether or
not a system is viable for development.
•

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The term "operational feasibility" refers to the ability to use, support, and carry out necessary
programme, system, or project duties. It refers to someone who designs or operates a
system. A project or system must meet particular criteria in order to be judged operationally

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practicable. These requirements take the form of questions with specific responses.
• Operational feasibility necessitates a thorough examination of the current system. When a
system's development costs are reduced without sacrificing its quality or product, it's
considered operationally feasible. Such an operation is viable, for example, if you can boost
worker efficiency in a new company by reducing working hours while maintaining product

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quality.
• To take advantage of operational feasibility, everyone in the manufacturing industry needs to
understand how it works. Because it tends to fulfil one essential goal, an operational feasibility
study can be performed on both private and governmental enterprises.
• The most common method for evaluating the effectiveness of a new system is economic
analysis. The method is more frequently known as cost/benefit analysis, and it involves
determining the predicted advantages and savings from a prospective system and comparing

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them to the expenses. If the advantages outweigh the costs, the decision to develop and
deploy the system is made. Before taking action, an entrepreneur must carefully balance the
costs and advantages.
• Cost/benefit analysis is another term for economic analysis. It is the most common way for
determining a new system's effectiveness. The procedure in economic analysis is to evaluate

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the projected advantages and savings from a prospective system and compare them to the
costs. If the advantages outweigh the costs, the decision to develop and deploy the system is
made. Before taking action, an entrepreneur must carefully balance the costs and
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advantages.
• Many forecasting models are available to the systems analyst. The availability of historical
data is the most important consideration when selecting a model. If they aren't available, the
analyst must rely on one of the following judgement methods: sales force estimations,
consumer demand surveys, Delphi studies (a consensus forecast generated independently by
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a group of specialists through a number of iterations), scenario creation, or historical

comparisons.
• Tangible benefits are monetary advantages that accrue to the organization as a result of the
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information system's utilization. Increased processing speed, access to previously

inaccessible information, access to information on a timelier basis than was previously
possible, the advantage of the computer's superior calculating power, and reductions in the
amount of employee time required to complete specific tasks are examples of tangible
benefits. There are a few more. Although quantifying concrete benefits is not always
straightforward, they can be measured in terms of dollars, resources, or time saved.
• Intangible benefits include improving decision-making, increasing accuracy, improving
customer service, preserving a positive corporate image, and increasing employee work
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satisfaction by removing boring chores. Intangible benefits are incredibly significant and can
have far-reaching repercussions for the business in terms of individuals both inside and
beyond the organization, as you can see from the list provided.
• If, after doing an operational feasibility study, the system, product, or end-users do not grasp
the programme, the aim of conducting the feasibility study has been defeated. The
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programme or initiative is deemed unworkable in this case.

• A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a method of calculating the benefits of a choice or action
minus the costs of that decision or action. As a result of the decision to execute a project, a
CBA incorporates measurable financial measures such as revenue produced or costs saved.
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Intangible advantages and expenses, as well as the impacts of a decision, such as staff
morale and customer satisfaction, might be included in a CBA.

Activity
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1. “Feasibility Aspects” this is a vital aspect of system analysis and design. Comment.
 Questions & Exercises

1) How are tangible costs different from direct costs?

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2) Why is it necessary to conduct cost/benefit analysis?
3) What do you understand by system proposal?

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4) Compare the various evaluation methods.
5) What are the various cost benefit categories?
6) Define economic feasibility study.
7) What do you understand by cost benefit analysis?
8) Briefly discuss market analysis.

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9) Write briefly about technical feasibility analysis.
10) State the importance of technical feasibility analysis.
11) What do you understand by the term assessing the technical analysis?
12) What do you understand by operational feasibility study?
13) Define operational feasibility study.
14) Write a short note on system performance aspects.

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Glossary

1. Operational Feasibility: The term "operational feasibility" refers to the ability to use, support,

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and carry out necessary programme, system, or project duties. It refers to someone who
designs or operates a system. A project or system must meet particular criteria in order to be
judged operationally practicable. These requirements take the form of questions with specific
responses.
er
2. System performance: it is the amount of useful work done by a system - measured by the
production speed of products of a predefined quality. System performance often boosts the
competitiveness for high-tech Cyber-Physical Systems. To meet market demands for product
quality, product customization and total cost of ownership per product, systems need to meet
ever more ambitious performance targets relating to system productivity.
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3. Cost Benefit Analysis: A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is the process used to measure the
benefits of a decision or taking action minus the costs associated with taking that action.
4. Market Analysis: A market analysis is an assessment, which allows you to determine how
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suitable a particular market is for your industry. You can use market analysis to evaluate your
current market, or look at new markets.
5. Technical Feasibility: Current resources, both hardware and software, as well as required
technologies, are analyzed/assessed to build a project in Technical Feasibility. This technical
feasibility analysis determines whether the necessary resources and technology are available
for the project's development. In addition, a feasibility study examines the technical skills and
capabilities of the technical team, whether existing technology can be used or not, whether
maintenance and up-gradation of the chosen technology is simple or not, and so on.
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Further Readings

1) Kurt Lewin, “Frontiers in Group Dynamics,” Human Relations, 1947, 1:5–41; and Kurt Lewin,
“Group Decision and Social Change” in E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley, eds.,
Readings in Social Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958, pp. 197–211.
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2) Christopher Koch, “When Bad Things Happen to Good Projects,” CIO Magazine, December 1,
2004.
3) Altschuld, J. W., & Zheng, H. Y. (1995). Assessing the effectiveness of research organizations.
Evaluation Review, 19(2), 197-216.
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4) An, J. Y., Yom, Y. H., & Ruggiero, J. S. (2011). Organizational culture, quality of work life, and
organizational effectiveness in Korean university hospitals. Journal of Transcultural Nursing,
22(1), 22-30.
5) Anderson, J. A. (2000). Explanatory roles of mission and culture: Organizational effectiveness in
Tennessee's community colleges. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Mephis.
6) Baker, K., & Branch, K. M. (2002). Concepts underlying organizational effectiveness: Trends in
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the organization and management science literature. Management Benchmark Study. USA:
Office of Planning & Analysis, Department of Energy
 7) Cameron, K. (1978). Measuring organizational effectiveness in institutions of higher education.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 604-632.

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8) Cameron, K. (1981). Domains of organizational effectiveness in colleges and universities.
Academy of Management Journal, 24 (1), 25-47.
9) Cameron, K. (1986). A study of organizational effectiveness and its predictors. Management

lin
Science, 32(1), 87-112.
10) Dalton, T., & Dalton, L. (1988). The politics of measuring public sector performance. Promoting
Productivity in the Public Sector (Macmillan).
11) Federman, M. (2006). Essay: Towards an effect-ive theory of organizational effectiveness.
12) McCann, J. (2004). Organizational effectiveness: Changing concepts for changing

On
environments. Human Resource Planning, 27(1).
13) Mullins, L. J. (2008). Essentials of organizational behaviour: Pearson Education.
14) Pounder, J. (1999). Organizational effectiveness in higher education. Educational Management
Administration & Leadership, 27(4), 389-400.
15) Yildirim, V. and Kuşakcı, A.O., 2018. The critical success factors of erp selection and
implementation: A case study in logistics sector. Journal of International Trade, Logistics and
Law, 4(1), pp.138-146.
16) Osman, N., 2018. A software requirement engineering framework to enhance critical success

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factors for erp implementation. International Journal of Computer Applications, 180(10), pp.pp32.
17) Vicedo, P., Gil, H., Oltra-Badenes, R. and Merigó, J.M., 2018, January. Critical Success Factors
on ERP Implementations: A Bibliometric Analysis. In International Conference on Modelling and
Simulation in Management Sciences (pp. 169-181). Springer, Cham.

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18) Barth, C. and Koch, S., 2019. Critical success factors in ERP upgrade projects. Industrial
Management & Data Systems.
19) Hentschel, R., Leyh, C. and Baumhauer, T., 2019, January. Critical success factors for the
implementation and adoption of cloud services in SMEs. In Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii
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International Conference on System Sciences.
20) Wolters, J., Eseryel, U.Y. and Eseryel, D., 2018. Identifying the Critical Success Factors for Low
Customized ERP System Implementations in SMEs.
21) Dr. Jawahar, “System Analysis and Design”, Study Material.
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22) Awad, Elias, M., “System Analysis and Design”, Richard D. Irwin.
23) Rajaraman, “Analysis and Design of Information Systems”, PHI.
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Check your Understanding – Answers

1. operational feasibility
2. cost-benefit analysis
3. System performance
4. True
5. True
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6. True

Unit - 3: Sy st em Pe rf o rm an ce Asp e ct s at H ar dw ar e/ S oftw ar e L e ve l

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Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

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• De f in e d at a c e nt er a n d i ts k ey c h arac te ris t ic s .
• Dis c us s t he di ff er e nt t y pes of d at a c e nt er .
• Ex pl a i n th e tr ad i t io n a l HD D v ers es S SD .
• Dis c us s t he R e du n d an t Ar r ay of I n de p en d e nt D is k ( R AI D) .
• Dis c us s i n te gr at i on of har d war e a n d s of tw ar e m a in fr am e : F l i pk a rt .
•
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Ex pl a i n th e i nt e gr a t i on o f h ard w are a n d s o ft war e m a in fr am e : G oo g l e

S erv ic es .
 Int rodu ct ion

The growth of hardware and software technologies has aided the development of data management

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and analysis systems. A computing system is made up of two major components: hardware and
software. Software performance may benefit directly from hardware advancements, but it is also

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constrained by hardware limitations. As a result, trade-offs must be made while designing software
frameworks and systems. Meanwhile, the demand for software performance encourages hardware
technology breakthroughs and innovations. The hardware limits the performance of data access and
query processing in data management and analysis systems. The software should optimise the
architecture of algorithms and data structures according to the hardware in order to fully utilize the

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hardware. Traditional compute-intensive applications, as well as recent data-intensive applications,
have placed significant demands on hardware performance, including access latency, capacity,
bandwidth, energy consumption, and cost performance.

Traditional data management and analysis techniques are being tested to their limits by a variety of
application workloads. Big data difficulties are primarily created by a contradiction in which present
data processing infrastructures are unable to meet a wide range of data processing demands.

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The underlying hardware environment and the higher software system make up data processing
infrastructure. The higher software system's design ideas, architectural selection, fundamental
functions, strategy mode, and optimization approaches are all heavily influenced by the computer
hardware. Hardware technology and settings are changing dramatically today.

3.1.1 Data Center: Key Characteristics si

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A data centre is a structure, a specialised space within a structure, or a collection of structures used
to host computer systems and associated components including telecommunications and storage
systems.
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A data centre is a physical structure that enterprises utilize to house their vital applications and data
at the most basic level. The design of a data centre is built on a network of computer and storage
resources that allow shared applications and data to be delivered.
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Data centres nowadays are vastly different than they were only a few years ago. Virtual networks
that support applications and workloads across pools of physical infrastructure and into a multicloud
environment have replaced traditional on-premises physical servers.

Data exists and is networked across numerous data centres, the edge, as well as public and private
clouds in this era. The data centre must be able to communicate with all of these locations, on-
premises and in the cloud. Even the public cloud is made up of multiple data centres. When
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applications are hosted in the cloud, the cloud provider's data centre resources are used.
Routers, switches, firewalls, storage systems, servers, and application delivery controllers are all
part of the data centre design. Data centre security is crucial in data centre design because these
components hold and handle business-critical data and applications. They provide the following
services when combined:
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Infrastructure for the network. This connects end-user locations to real and virtualized servers, data
centre services, storage, and external connectivity.
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Infrastructure for storing data. Data is the lifeblood of today's data centre. This valuable commodity is
kept in storage systems.

Resources for computing. A data center's engines are applications. Applications are driven by these
servers, which offer processing, memory, local storage, and network access.
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Investing in IT infrastructure needs significant thought, planning, and research to ensure that you
make the best decision possible. It's critical to choose a data centre that provides a comprehensive
suite of solutions that scales with your company, provides exceptional customer service, and
complements traditional colocation offerings with a hybrid mix of cloud, network, and managed
 hosting solutions delivered over advanced networks. A few key characteristics of a data centre are
listed below: -

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Manageability: The first point should be manageability. All of the pieces of a data centre should be
easy to manage and integrate. This can be accomplished by automating routine tasks and reducing

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human intervention.
To automate and decrease manual intervention for repeated processes, datacenters should enable
easy, flexible, and integrated management.

Availability: A data centre should ensure that information is available when it is needed. What does

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this imply? It simply means that there will be no downtime. Unavailability of information can cost a
company a lot of money every hour.
Datacentres should make sure that their data and other IT resources are available to the business
24 hours a day, seven days a week. Information scarcity can have a significant impact on business
operations, resulting in financial losses and a bad reputation.

Security: All of the policies, procedures, and core element integration come together to prevent
unauthorised access to the data.

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To prevent unauthorised access, strict security policies and procedures should be implemented. To
prevent information from being tampered with, control mechanisms must be implemented.

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Scalability: Datacenter resources and facilities (compute, storage, and network) should be scalable
to accommodate changing business requirements without disrupting business operations.
Simple scalability create a scalable infrastructure. Business expansion nearly usually necessitates
the deployment of more servers, new applications, and databases, among other things.
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Performance: First and foremost, service levels must be established. The goal of performance
management is to ensure that all aspects of the DC operate at peak efficiency to meet the desired
service levels.
Based on the desired service levels, datacenter components should provide optimal performance.
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Data integrity: Ensure data integrity by storing and retrieving data exactly as it was received.
Datacenters should perform data integration checks such as error correction codes or parity bits to
verify that data is stored and retrieved exactly as it was received.
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Capacity: When capacity needs to be increased, the data centre must be able to do so without
disrupting availability or with minimal downtime.
The datacenter should be able to expand capacity and resources to efficiently store and process
huge and growing amounts of data, either without disrupting availability or with little downtime.

Monitoring: Monitoring is a continual process of acquiring data on the numerous elements and
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services that are active in the data centre. The rationale is self-evident: to forecast the unpredictable.

Reporting: A snapshot of resource performance, capacity, and utilisation at a specific point in time.

Provisioning: Provisioning is the process of supplying the necessary hardware, software, and other
resources.
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3.1.2 Different Types of Data Center

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There are many different types of data centres and service models to choose from. Their
classification is determined by whether they are owned by a single or multiple businesses, how they
fit (if at all) into the topology of other data centres, the computing and storage technologies they
employ, and even their energy efficiency. Data centres are divided into four categories:
Data centres come in a variety of sizes, ranging from a single server room to clusters of buildings
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spread across multiple locations, but they all have one thing in common: they are a critical business
asset where companies frequently invest in and deploy the latest advancements in data centre
networking, compute, and storage technologies.
 The modern data centre has developed from a building that houses on-premises infrastructure to

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one that connects on-premises systems to cloud infrastructures, with networks, applications, and
workloads virtualized across many private and public clouds.

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The types of data centres are as follows:

1. Enterprise data centres are often built and used for internal purposes by a single organization.
These are rather frequent among tech behemoths.

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Enterprise data centres
Companies build, own, and run these, which are optimized for their end consumers.

The majority of the time, they are located on the company campus.

• An enterprise data centre is a facility that is owned and operated by the firm it serves. It is typically
built on-site, but it can also be built off-site in some situations.

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• Parts of the data centre may be gated off to keep different parts of the business distinct.
• Typically outsources M&E maintenance, but manages the white space through the IT department.
• Before being maintained internally, external businesses may be used for initial fit-outs and network
installation.

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• Can have anything from 10 to 40 cabinets and be as large as 40MW+.

2. Colocation data centres are a type of rental property in which a data center's space and
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resources are made available to those who are prepared to pay for them.

Colocation data centres

A corporation rents space in a data centre operated by others and located off-site in colocation
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("colo") data centres. The infrastructure is hosted by the colocation data centre, which includes the
building, cooling, bandwidth, security, and so on, while the company provides and administers the
components, such as servers, storage, and firewalls.
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• In a colocation data centre, a single data centre owner sells space, electricity, and cooling to a
number of enterprise and hyperscale customers in a single location.
• For enterprises, interconnection is a major motivator. Interconnection to Software as a Service
(SaaS) like Salesforce and Platform as a Service (PaaS) like Azure is available through colocation
data centres.
• Colocation companies provide technical assistance to organizations who don't know what they
need or don't want to deal with the trouble of sourcing and delivering it.
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• Other colocation facilities follow a slightly different strategy, with selected integrators providing
technical design, guidance, and specifications for customers relocating.
• Depending on the size of your network, you can rent anywhere from one to one hundred cabinets;
in some circumstances, 14 or 12 cabinets are available.
• A colocation data centre can accommodate hundreds, if not thousands, of individual customers.
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3. Managed service data centres: As a third party, data centres provide services such as data
storage, processing, and other services to clients directly.

Managed services data centres

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On behalf of a firm, these data centres are maintained by a third party (or a managed services
provider). Instead of purchasing the equipment and infrastructure, the corporation leases it.
A managed data centre is typically obtained through data centre hosting, colocation, or a cloud-
based data centre as a service (DCaaS) platform.

Managed data centres can be managed in part or altogether. Organizations with a partially managed
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data centre have some administrative control over the data centre infrastructure and/or service. In a
totally managed data centre, the data centre provider handles the majority (if not all) of the back-end
data centre administration and management.
 The service provider is normally responsible for:
• Upkeep and maintenance of all hardware and network equipment and services, as specified in the

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service level agreement
• Operating system and other system-level software installation, upgrade, and patching

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• Data centre storage and backup maintenance
• Fault tolerance and data centre infrastructure redundancy in the event of a disaster or other
disrupting events

4. Cloud data centres are dispersed and are occasionally made available to consumers through a

On
third-party managed service provider.

Cloud data centres

Data and applications are hosted by a cloud services provider such as Amazon Web Services
(AWS), Microsoft (Azure), IBM Cloud, or another public cloud provider in this off-premises data
centre.
The physical hardware in a cloud data centre is maintained and run by the cloud provider in
question, frequently with the assistance of a third-party managed services provider. Clients then use

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a virtual infrastructure that runs on cloud servers to run their apps and manage their data.

A cloud Data Center is not the same as a traditional Data Center; except from the fact that they both
store data, they are completely separate computer systems. A cloud Data Centre is not physically

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placed in a company's office — everything is done online! When you put data on cloud servers, it is
split and duplicated across multiple locations for secure storage. In the event of a breakdown, your
cloud services provider will ensure that a backup of your backup is also available!
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3.1.3 Traditional HDD verses SSD

The way data is stored and retrieved is the major difference between an SSD and a hard drive. A
iv

hard disc drive (HDD) is a type of storage device that accesses data using mechanical platters and a
moving read/write head. A solid state drive (SSD) is a newer, quicker form of storage device that
stores data on memory chips that are instantaneously accessible.
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HDD (Hard Disc Drive)

The hard disc drive technology is well-known and well-proven. Hard disc drives have been present
for more than 50 years, with storage capacity and physical size continually growing. To read and
write data, HDDs use rotating discs, or platters.

For several generations of personal computers, the classic rotating hard disc has been the standard.
Hard drive manufacturers have been able to store more storage space than ever before, at a cost
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per gigabyte that still makes hard drives the best bang for the buck.

Hard drives have been around since 1956, no matter how advanced they've become. Back then,
they were two feet across and could only hold a few gigabytes of data, but technology has
progressed to the point that you can now fit 10 terabytes into a space the size of a kitchen sponge.
m

A hard disc contains something that looks eerily similar to an antique record player: A platter, or
several platters, spins around a central axis—a spindle—at a rate of 5,400 to 7,200 revolutions per
minute. Some hard discs designed for performance work more quickly.
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Using a read-write head, information is written to and read from the drive by changing the magnetic
fields on the spinning platters. It resembles the arm of a record player in appearance, but instead of
a needle running in a physical groove on the record, the read-write head hovers just over the actual
surface of the disc.

Hard drives come in two sizes: 2.5 inch, which is frequent in laptops, and 3.5 inch, which is common
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in desktop computers. External drives with 2.5 inch and 3.5 inch drives are also available. When
something goes wrong, the size is standardised, making repair and replacement easier.
 The vast majority of today's hard drives employ a common interface known as Serial ATA (or SATA).
Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), Fibre Channel, and other exotic interfaces built for special applications

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are sometimes used in specialised storage systems.

How do hard drives function?

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One or more magnetically sensitive platters, an actuator arm with a read/write head for each platter,
and a motor to spin the platters and move the arms make up a hard disc drive. There's also an I/O
controller and firmware that communicates with the rest of the system and informs the hardware
what to do.

On
Each platter is divided into tracks, which are concentric circles. Tracks are separated into sectors,
which are logical units. A unique address is generated for each track and sector number, which can
be used to organise and locate data. The data is written to the closest available storage location.
Before the data is written, an algorithm processes it, allowing the firmware to detect and repair
problems.

The platters are spinning at their current rates (4200 rpm to 7200 rpm for consumer computers). The
read/write rates are related to these speeds. The faster a hard disc can read and write data, the

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greater its current speed.

Reading and Writing

The I/O controller instructs the actuator arm where the data is stored, and the read/write head

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gathers the data by sensing the presence or absence of a charge in each address each time you ask
your computer to obtain or update data. The read/write head alters the charge on the concerned
track and sector if the request was to update the data.
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Latency is the time it takes for the platter to spin and the actuator arm to locate the correct track and
sector.

Drawbacks
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The disadvantages of HDDs stem from the mechanical parts needed to read and write data, as
physically finding and retrieving data takes longer than finding and retrieving it electronically. If
mechanical parts are dropped or handled violently, they may skip or even fail. This is a problem with
laptops, but not so much with desktop computers. HDDs are also bulkier and consume more energy
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than SSDs.

Benefits
Hard disc drives have the advantage of being a tried and true technology that is typically less
expensive than solid state drives for the same amount of storage. HDDs are currently available with
larger storage capacity than SSDs.
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SSD (Solid State Drive)

Solid-state drives (SSDs) rely on flash memory to provide improved performance and longevity.
Because your hard drive has so many microscopic, moving elements - magnetic heads, spindles,
and spinning platters — it's possible for something to go wrong and lead you to lose vital data. SSDs
are more durable, operate cooler, and use less energy because they have no moving parts.
m

In recent years, solid-state drives (SSDs) have grown much more common. They're standard on
Apple's laptops; for example, SSDs come standard on the MacBook, MacBook Pro, and MacBook
Air. The Mac Pro is no exception.
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Solid state refers to an integrated circuit, and the main difference between an SSD and a hard disc
drive is that an SSD has no moving parts. Instead of discs, motors, and read-write heads, SSDs rely
on flash memory, which is made up of computer chips that keep their data even when the power is
switched off.

In theory, SSDs work in the same way that the storage on your smartphone or tablet does. However,
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SSDs in today's Macs and PCs are faster than the storage in your smartphone.
 HDDs' total performance is limited by their mechanical nature. Hard drive manufacturers strive
relentlessly to improve data transfer speeds, minimize latency, and reduce idle time, but they can

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only do so much. SSDs provide a significant performance advantage over hard drives, as they are
faster to boot up, shut down, and transfer data.

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If you're still using a PC with a SATA hard drive, upgrading to an SSD will significantly improve
performance.

How does NAND work?

SSDs are similar to huge USB devices in that they share the same basic technology. Solid state

On
drive technology uses NAND, which is a type of flash memory. Floating gate transistors, at their
most basic level, record a charge (or lack of charge) to store data. The gates are arranged in a grid
pattern that is then divided into blocks. The size of the blocks varies, but each row of the grid is
referred to as a page.
An SSD controller has numerous functions, one of which is to keep track of where data is stored.

Reading and Writing

SSDs make data updates more difficult. When any portion of a block's data is updated, the entire

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block must be refreshed. The data from the old block is copied to a new block, the old block is
erased, and the data is rewritten to a new block with the changes.

The SSD controller examines the address of the data sought and reads the charge status each time

si
you ask your computer to retrieve or update data.

When the drive is turned off, a procedure known as garbage collection takes place, ensuring that the
information in the old block is deleted and the block is ready to be written to again.
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Another procedure, known as TRIM, tells the SSD that when it erases blocks, it can skip rewriting
some data. This is an important operation that prevents premature wear on the storage disc because
each block can only be rewritten a finite number of times.
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To further reduce drive wear, an algorithm ensures that each block in the drive receives an equal
number of read/write operations. Wear levelling is a process that occurs automatically as the drive
operates.
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SSDs are typically overprovisioned with storage since the read/write process necessitates data
migration; there is always a portion of the drive that is not reported to the operating system and is
not accessible to the user. This gives the drive more room to relocate and remove files without
reducing total store capacity.

Drawbacks
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SSDs are more expensive than HDDs because they are a newer technology. Large-capacity solid
state drives are becoming more common, yet they are still difficult to come by. HDDs can be 2.5
times larger than SSDs.

Benefits
Solid state SSDs allow games, programmes, and movies to load faster. SSDs are lighter and better
m

equipped to tolerate movement and page drops due to the technology they employ. Furthermore,
solid state discs consume less energy, allowing computers to operate at a lower temperature.
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SSD vs. HDD

Speed
SSDs are becoming increasingly popular due of their speed. SSDs outperform HDDs across the
board because they rely on electrical circuitry rather than physical mechanical parts. This results in
faster startup times and fewer delays while opening apps or performing intensive computing
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operations. The Intel SSD D5-P5316, for example, is a 15.36TB enterprise-grade SSD with a
bandwidth of over 7000 MB/s. The 14TB Seagate Exos 2x14, a compatible HDD, has a bandwidth of
just 500 MB/s.
 These higher speeds assist users in a variety of ways, including when checking in and waiting for

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apps and services to load, or when executing storage-intensive tasks like copying a large file.
Performance is substantially slowed by an HDD, however an SSD can continue to work on other
tasks.

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When moving data back and forth, the interface utilized by an SSD vs. HDD that interfaces to the
rest of the computer system has an impact on speed. SATA and PCI Express are two interfaces you
may be familiar with (PCIe). SATA is a legacy technology that is older and slower, whereas PCIe is
newer and faster. SSDs with PCIe interfaces are often much faster than HDDs with SATA interfaces

On
because PCIe has additional data transfer channels. Consider the difference in the number of cars
that can travel down a one-lane country road vs a four-lane freeway.

Although no one ever complains about their computer being too fast, an HDD can be useful at times.
If you need to store terabytes of data, HDDs are still the less expensive alternative, however this is
changing as SSD prices fall and emerging NAND technologies push bit densities higher per NAND
die. Consider data as either cold or hot when making computer storage decisions. Years of images
you want to save on your laptop but don't look at every day and don't need quick access to are

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examples of "cold" data. For cold data, HDDs can be an excellent and cost-effective option.On the
other hand, "hot" data is what you need if you're a company doing real-time transactions, editing
films and images, and need quick access to a database of files, video clips, or models, or even just
running the operating system. SSDs' high performance makes them an excellent choice when quick

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access to your data is critical.

Endurance
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Since data is written in pages but erased in blocks, the degree of write wear on a NAND SSD is
partly determined by the condition of data already on the disc. Data can be efficiently written to
successive, free pages on a relatively fresh SSD when writing sequential data. While small blocks of
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data must be modified (for example, when amending documents or numerical values), the old data is
read into memory, edited, and then re-written to a new disc page. The old page has been flagged as
invalid because it contains outdated information. When free pages become unavailable, "invalid"
pages are released for use in a background process known as "defragmentation" or "wear levelling."
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All valid pages in a given block must first be transferred to other free locations on the drive, leaving
only invalid, deprecated pages in the original block. After that, the original block can be removed to
make room for new data to be written.

Write amplification occurs when the total internal writes on an SSD exceed the writes required to
merely deposit fresh data on the disc, as a result of internal NAND housekeeping procedures like
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wear levelling. Because each write destroys individual NAND cells significantly, write amplification is
a major cause of wear. NAND SSDs have built-in technologies that help spread wear uniformly over
the drive. But the bottom line is that write-intensive workloads (particularly random writes) cause
NAND SSDs to wear out faster than other I/O patterns due to increased write amplification.

The good news is that SSD disc durability is always specified in terms of worst-case random write
m

patterns. When a drive says it can write one drive worth of data per day, for example, it implies you
may write at least one full drive worth of data every day over the drive's warranty period (typically 5
years).
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Head-to-Head Comparison: SSD vs. HDD

SSDs for PCs are available in capacities ranging from 120GB to 30.72TB, while HDDs are available
in capacities ranging from 250GB to 20TB. HDDs outperform SSDs in terms of cost per capacity,
although as SSD prices fall, this will become less of a distinction for HDDs. However, SSDs allow
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you to accomplish far more work per server, requiring fewer machines to provide the same output as
an HDD. What's the end result? SSDs have a lower total cost of ownership (total cost of ownership).
 The term "reliability" refers to whether data is kept correctly and in an uncorrupted state. SSDs are
more dependable than HDDs in general, which is due to the absence of moving parts. SSDs aren't

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affected by vibration or related heat issues because they don't move.

Because data access is much faster and the device is idle more often, SSDs often use less power

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and result in longer battery life. When compared to SSDs, HDDs require more power to start up due
to their spinning discs.

SSD Cost Savings over HDDs

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SSDs perform substantially better than HDDs, as is commonly known. The advantage of SSDs in
terms of reliability is almost as well acknowledged. SSDs do not require replication for performance,
and they often require significantly less replication for reliability, due to their inherent advantages. In
comparison to HDDs, SSD performance allows for far more efficient data reduction strategies. The
ratio of host data stored to physical storage required is known as data reduction; a 50 percent ratio is
similar to a 2:1 data-reduction ratio. The resulting effective capacity is improved because data
reduction allows the user to store more data than is available on the actual hardware. The raw
storage capacity required to achieve a "usable capacity" requirement can be considerably reduced

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using compression and deduplication technologies.

Modern methods are tailored for SSDs, allowing for a high data-reduction ratio (DRR) while
maintaining great application performance. For example, Facebook's Zstandard compression

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algorithm compresses and decompresses data significantly quicker than HDDs can read/write,
allowing the methods to be used in real time on SSDs. 2 Another example is VMware vSAN, which
only supports all-flash setups for compression and deduplication.
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3.1.4 Redundant Array of Independent Disk (RAID)

RAID, or "Redundant Arrays of Independent Drives," is a technique for increasing performance, data
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redundancy, or both by combining many discs instead of a single disc. David Patterson, Garth A.
Gibson, and Randy Katz of the University of California, Berkeley, created the phrase in 1987.

What is the purpose of data redundancy?

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Although it takes up more space, data redundancy improves disc reliability. This means that if the
same data is backed up onto another disc in the event of a disc failure, we can retrieve the data and
continue with the operation. If the data is spread across numerous discs without the use of RAID, the
loss of a single disc might have a significant impact on the data.

Points to consider while evaluating a RAID system

• Reliability: Can the system withstand a certain number of disc failures?
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• Availability: How much of a system's total session time is spent in uptime mode, i.e. how accessible
is it for actual use?
• Reaction time: How fast is the response time? What is the throughput (rate of work processing)?
It's important to note that performance is comprised of many variables, not just the two.
• Capacity: Given a set of N discs, each with B blocks, what is the user's useable capacity?
m

At the server level, a redundant array of independent discs (RAID) is a standard solution for high-
volume data storage. RAID systems store enormous volumes of data and provide greater reliability
and redundancy by combining multiple small-capacity disc drives. The computer sees such an array
as a single logical unit made up of numerous disc drives.
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There are several methods for storing RAID data. Some RAID kinds place a premium on
performance, while others place a premium on reliability, fault tolerance, or error correction. The type
you select is determined on the goal you're attempting to achieve.

The ability to "hot-swap" a damaged disc for a new one is a feature common to all RAID systems,
and it's what gives them their actual benefit. Data on a failing disc can be recreated automatically in
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most RAID kinds without requiring the server or system to be shut down.
Regular backups and mirroring software are slower and may entail shutting down the system if a
drive fails, so RAID isn't the only solution to protect big amounts of data.
 Even if the disc does not cause the server to crash, IT professionals will need to shut down the
servers in order to replace the drive. Instead of requiring a shutdown, RAID rebuilds data from the

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remaining discs using mirrored or parity information.

Levels 0, 3, and 5 are the three most frequent RAID implementations.

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The most basic form is RAID Level 0, which involves data striping. Data is stored on consecutive
sectors of the same disc on a conventional hard drive. RAID 0 uses at least two disc drives and
separates data into blocks ranging from 512 bytes to several gigabytes, which are written to the
discs in a random order. Disk 1 receives Segment 1, Disk 2 receives Segment 2, and so on. When
the system reaches the array's final drive, it writes to Drive 1's next available segment, and so on.

On
The I/O burden is distributed uniformly across all discs by striping the data. Because drives can be
written to and read from at the same time, performance improves substantially. However, there is no
data security. Data is lost when a disc fails. RAID 0 isn't designed for mission-critical scenarios, but
it's ideal for video production and editing, as well as image processing.

Data striping is included in RAID Level 3, however parity information is stored on one drive. This
provides some fault tolerance and is especially beneficial for accessing long sequential records in

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data-intensive or single-user scenarios. To avoid performance decrease with short records, RAID 3
requires synchronized-spindle discs.

RAID Level 5 is similar to Level 0, only it stripes the bits of each byte over many drives rather than

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separating data into blocks. This byte-striping adds overhead, but if a drive fails, the data can be
recovered using parity and error-correcting codes if the drive is replaced. All read/write operations in
RAID 5 are overlapping. It requires three to five discs for the array and is best suited to multiuser
systems with low write operations and no major performance requirements.
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Less Common RAID Types

Disk mirroring is RAID Level 1; everything written to Disk 1 is likewise written to Disk 2, and anything
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written to either disc can be read. This enables immediate backup, but it necessitates the most disc
drives and does not enhance performance. RAID 1 is the easiest configuration to establish in a
multiuser system, providing the best performance and fault tolerance. It's suitable for accounting,
payroll, financial, and high-availability data.
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For mainframes and supercomputers, RAID Level 2 was created. RAID 2 corrects data in real time,
however it has a high error-checking and correction ratio.
Large stripes are included in RAID Level 4 to allow records to be read from any single drive. It's
rarely used because it doesn't handle multiple write operations at the same time.
Commercially, RAID Level 6 is rarely used. It extends RAID 5 by distributing a second parity method
across many discs. It can withstand numerous drive failures at the same time, but performance is
poor, especially for write operations, and the system requires a highly complicated controller.
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Storage Computer Corp. in Nashua, N.H., offers RAID Level 7, which combines a real-time
embedded operating system as a controller and a high-speed bus for caching. It provides quick I/O,
but it is costly.
RAID Level 10 is made up of a series of stripes, each of which is a RAID 1 array of drives. This has
the same fault tolerance as RAID 1, and it's designed for database servers that need great
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performance and redundancy but don't need a lot of space.

The most recent form, RAID Level 53, is implemented as a Level 0 striped array with each segment
being a RAID 3 array. It has the same fault tolerance and redundancy as RAID 3. This may be useful
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for IT systems that require a RAID 3 configuration with high data transmission rates, but it is both
costly and wasteful.

3.1.5 Integration of hardware and Software and Mainframe: Flipkart

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The Flipkart Marketplace Seller APIs allow a seller's applications to interact with the Flipkart
Marketplace programmatically and exchange data. They assist with the automation of all business
 procedures related to selling on the Marketplace. These APIs allow a seller to search orders, print
shipping labels and invoices, and manage orders throughout the order life cycle.

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You can register third-party applications that can contact APIs by logging into the Seller APIs -
Developer Admin page as a registered seller.

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• Before deploying the application integration in a live (production) environment, it must first be
tested in a sandbox environment. The OAuth framework is used in both installations.
• All seller API requests must be HTTPS. Requests through HTTP are not supported.
• Do not hard-code the Access Token value in the Authorization header because the token will

On
expire after a certain period of time, usually 60 days. API queries with an expired Access Token will
fail with a 401 HTTP status code. In this case, you must regenerate the access token and use the
new one in further queries.

1 Sandbox Environment
The sandbox is a controlled environment where you may create, programme, and test applications
before deploying them in the production environment. Although the items displayed in this
environment are not genuine, changing the base URL to the production environment allows the

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applications to go live with actual products and users.

2 Production Environment
The live Flipkart platform serves as the production environment. Real Flipkart consumers can buy

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the products displayed in this environment. The Flipkart Marketplace terms of usage apply to the
information provided for this environment (TOU).

3 Application Registration
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1. Log into the Seller APIs - Developer Admin portal.

• Sandbox: Write to seller-api-queries@flipkart.com to get your credentials to log into Sandbox

environment
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• Production: Write to seller-api-queries@flipkart.com to get your application registered in

production. You will receive the clientId and clientSecret over email.
2. Click Register new application.
3. Provide the following configuration data:
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• Application Name: The name of your third-party application

• Application Description: Relevant description for your application
• Application Type:
• self_access_application : Select this if you are a seller and going to access your own
resources (orders and listings) using the APIs
• third_party_application : Select this if you are a vendor / aggregator and going to access
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other sellers’ resources (orders and listings) on their behalf using the APIs
• Scope: Pre-populated with the specific Seller API
• Redirect URL: The URL to which Flipkart will redirect the browser after authorization has
been granted by the seller. This field should be set if you selected third_party_application as
the application type above. Leave it black for self_access_application. Kindly refer
to Authorization Code Flow for more details on this.
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4. Click Register application. The new application is now added to your applications list and a
unique Application ID (<appid>) and Application Secret (<app-secret>) pair is assigned.
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Application ID (appid) mentioned above and client_id used in the below mentioned OAuth APIs refers
to same thing.

Generating Access Tokens

To use the APIs, you must first register your application and then generate an access token. The
Client Credentials and Authorization Code flows are supported by the Flipkart API Authorization
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framework for generating access tokens.

Client Credentials Flow

 If you're a registered seller on Flipkart Marketplace and want to use the APIs to manage your own
orders and listings, this flow is for you.

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Authorization Code Flow
If you're an aggregator or a vendor who'll be managing orders and listings on behalf of other Flipkart

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Marketplace merchants, this flow is for you.

API Integration
Once the Access Token has been received, it may be used to perform API calls by including it as a
Bearer Token in the HTTP request's Authorization header. You could browse through this API

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documentation and design your own application to interface with the Flipkart Marketplace Seller
APIs offered in this documentation.

However, the recommended way to integrate is to use auto-generated client code by using
the Swagger spec. To ease the process, we are providing a sample java application which you
can download and start integration using the api client included in it. If you are using any other
language, you can use swagger-codegen to auto generate the client code for that language. Steps to

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install swagger-codegen can be followed from the official documentation page.

Sample API Call

This is a sample code in Java which can be used to fetch the details of a shipment. This code is also

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provided in the above linked sample Java application.
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packagecom.flipkart.api.seller;

importcom.flipkart.api.seller.v3client.api.ShipmentV3Api;
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importcom.flipkart.api.seller.v3client.model.ShipmentResponse;

publicclassMyFlipkartOrdersApplication{
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publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){
StringaccessToken=AccessTokenGenerator.getClientCredentialsAccessToken();// You need to write
custom code for token generation if you are using your own auto-generated client code.
ApiClientapiClient=newApiClient();
apiClient.setAccessToken(accessToken);
ShipmentV3ApishipmentV3Api=newShipmentV3Api(apiClient);
StringshipmentId="__SHIPMENT_ID__";
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try{
ShipmentResponseshipmentResponse=shipmentV3Api
.getShipmentDetailsByInternalId(shipmentId,null,null);
System.out.println("Order Id for shipment is
"+shipmentResponse.getShipments().get(0).getOrderItems().get(0).getOrderId());
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}catch(ApiExceptione){
e.printStackTrace();
}
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}
}

Best Practices
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When creating client applications for the Flipkart MarketPlace, keep the following in mind:
 • Before connecting your applications with the production environment, test them in the sandbox.
• Make sure your client apps can manage changes to the response structure and don't crash when

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new fields are added.
• The access token for the client application should not be hardcoded because it expires after a set

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period of time.
• In your client application, keep a log of all Flipkart API queries and responses.
• It's worth noting that the answer elements and fields aren't returned in any specific order. The
samples in our documentation are only meant to be used as a guide.

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3.1.6 Integration of hardware and Software and Mainframe: Google Services

Google provide a number of services and many of these are open for integration with other
applications. Google also provide hardware infrastructure for apps and services on Google Cloud's
scalable infrastructure. This can be used for reliable and high-performance cloud services. Google
provides official APIs for integration of hardware and software for most of Google services.

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The complete list of Google APIs is available at Google API Explorer at
https://developers.google.com/apis-explorer .

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We will see in detail one core Google service – Google Analytics in the following section.

Companies cannot afford to rely on partial, erroneous, or otherwise mismatched data when using
Google Analytics as a decision-making tool. To suit enterprises' measurement needs and business
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objectives, Google Analytics must be correctly configured.

This section will teach you how to take some of the most crucial actions to ensure that your data is
clean, organised, and accurate. The section is broken into five sections, each of which represents a
stage in properly integrating Google Analytics into a website or app:
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1. Understanding the web analytics process: Before you start using Google Analytics, you need know
how the data will be used and how data collecting and analysis link to other business sectors. This will
assist you in determining your company's data requirements and the criteria that will be used to
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assess performance.

2. Implementing and customizing codes: Once your data requirements and success metrics have
been established, you should begin exploring for Google Analytics adaptations to add to your website
or app.

3. Configuring the Google Analytics interface: After you've installed the code, you'll need to configure
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the Google Analytics interface to make sure it's processing your data the way you want it to.

4. Tagging inbound traffic: In order to effectively monitor all of your website or app traffic, particularly
marketing efforts, you'll need to use custom URL parameters known as UTMs to tag incoming links.

5. Managing the implementation: You should always keep track of changes in your Google Analytics
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account to ensure that your implementation is always neat.

Please note that this section is not intended to be a thorough discussion of Google Analytics
installation methods and capabilities; rather, it concentrates on the most critical factors needed to
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create an accurate and well-organized data collection.

1. Planning Your Implementation

Web analytics' goal is to improve online consumers' experiences while also assisting a firm in
achieving its goals; it is not a tool that generates reports and spills data. Web analytics is a virtuous
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loop that does not begin with data collection; data collection is merely a means to a goal.
 Figure below depicts a procedure for implementing web analytics in your organization. It's not the
procedure; it's the procedure. Each business should figure out what procedure works best for them,

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but here is a simple one that might work for you.

1. Begin by defining your business objectives.

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2. Create a set of key performance indicators (KPIs) to monitor target progress.

3. Gather accurate and full information.

4. Examine data in order to glean insights.

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5. Evaluate alternatives based on data analysis assumptions.

6. Put data analysis or website testing insights into action.

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The web analytics process

This section focuses on steps three and four of the above-mentioned process: data collection and
analysis. Before we go into the bits and bytes of data, it's crucial to note that data shouldn't exist in a
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vacuum; it should be tightly related to business and customer demands. You'll learn a little more
about each of the processes in Figure above. Following this part, you'll go deeper into the technical
aspects of Google Analytics best practises implementation.

Define Business Goals

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When it comes to analysing and improving a website or app, this is the first step: To develop your
business, you must first define your objectives. The answer to the following question will help you
define your objectives: What is the purpose of your website or app?
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Each website or application will have its own set of goals. For some, the goal will be to increase page
views in order to sell more advertising (increase engagement); for others, the goal will be to reduce
page views in order to help visitors discover answers (increase satisfaction). For some, the goal will
be to boost ecommerce transactions (and thus money), whereas for others, the goal will be to sell
only when the product meets the customer's demands (decrease products returns).
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The objectives are extremely necessary in order to begin the web analytics process, as shown in
Figure above. Only when they've been specified can you start working on the KPIs. It's also critical to
examine the goals on a regular basis in light of website analysis and optimization to fine-tune them.
 Build Key Performance Indicators

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You'll need to construct KPIs to track whether your website's results are improving or declining in

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order to track goal achievement. A KPI should be similar to an excellent piece of art in that it awakens
you up. It can make you happy or unhappy at times, but it should never leave you feeling unsatisfied,
because if it does, you aren't utilising the correct KPIs.

And decent art is in short supply. In each museum, there are just a few profoundly moving works of
art, and not every work of art affects the same people. The same may be said about KPIs. Each

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person (or hierarchy level) will be interested in different KPIs—those that relate to their day-to-day
operations. The overall fulfilment of the website's aims will affect upper management; campaign and
site optimization outcomes will affect mid-management; and analysts will be affected by every single
measure in the globe!

Good KPIs should have three characteristics:

• Simple: Decisions are made in businesses by people from various departments and backgrounds.

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Decision makers across the firm are unlikely to adopt KPIs if they are complex and difficult to
understand.

• Relevant: Since each firm has its own set of goals, it should have its own set of KPIs to track
progress.

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• Reliable: Even the best KPIs are meaningless if they take a month to receive data, especially if your
industry changes every week.
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You'll be in a much better position to collect the data you'll need if you stick to the specification of the
business objectives and the metrics that will be used to measure them.
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Collect Data
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When a corporation begins collecting data from a website or app, two questions should be asked:

• Is my information correct? It's like constructing a kingdom on sand if your data is inaccurate; your
foundations are too easily rocked.

• Am I gathering all of the information I require? You won't be able to analyse client behaviour
adequately if data isn't collected.
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I'll keep this step brief because you'll learn more about Google Analytics data collection techniques in
the subsequent sections.

Analyze Data
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Data analysis is a broad field that encompasses anything from basic filtering, sorting, and grouping to
complex statistical analysis. You'll learn how to analyse data using a variety of Google Analytics
reports and capabilities throughout this book, but here are some broad principles to get you from data
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to insights:

• Segment or perish: When it comes to evaluating client behaviour, segmentation is a must. You'll be
able to optimise your customers' experiences more easily and efficiently if you segment them into
useful groups.
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• Focus on trends rather than data points: It's crucial to track your analytics over time to see if your
website's performance is increasing.
 • Use visualisation techniques to explore your data: There are a plethora of graphs and tools available
to help you visualise numbers. Patterns and trends that are difficult to detect by crunching numbers

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will be shown by examining data with charts.

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It's worth noting that data analysis can result in one of three outcomes:

• To find an implementation insight, such as a bug or a page that does not convert for no apparent
reason.

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• To come up with a hypothesis for a low-converting customer interaction point that will result in a split
test.

• To determine the cause of a data gathering failure: Important information may be missing or
incorrect.

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Test Alternatives

"No one tests the depth of a river with both feet," according to an African proverb. In the same vein,
changing your website without first testing it on the tip of your toes is a bad idea. When you test, you

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reduce the danger of a revenue loss due to a bad new design, and you introduce science into the
organization's decision-making process.

However, it is the learning experience about your customers—a chance to understand what they like
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and dislike, which will ultimately lead to more or fewer conversions—that is the most exciting aspect
of experimenting.

The web analyst must try endlessly and fast learn to be incorrect, test everything, and recognise that
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the consumer, not the designer or the website manager, should make the final decision.
Experimenting and testing promotes idea democracy, which means that anyone in the business can
come up with a new concept, and the customers (the market) will choose the best one; the winner is
scientifically determined.
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When it comes to website testing, here are a few pointers:

• Landing page testing isn't the only option: It should be deployed across the board, wherever users
are fleeing the site and money is being left on the table.

• Conduct a little experiment to test your tools (and your abilities): It's sometimes a good idea to start
small and work your way up. Once you're comfortable with your tools, run a test on a key page for a
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tiny (but profitable) slice. Then make a beeline for the jackpot!

• Track several goals: While improving macro conversions, you may be reducing registrations or
newsletter signups, which could have a long-term detrimental impact.

• Run tests for multiple segments: Because different segments, such as countries and operating
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systems, can have drastically different behaviours, the testing should be segregated as well.

Google Analytics offers an A/B testing feature called Content Experiments.

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Implement Insights

Web analytics is synonymous with no insight implementation. It's as if you done nothing if you go
through all of the preceding procedures but can't put the results into action on your website. Here are
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some pointers to assist you get around implementation bottlenecks:

• Obtain C-level support: If you reach a stage where organizational priorities must be established and
resources given, this will be critical.
 • Begin small: As previously stated, starting small helps to establish expectations; individuals are
aware of the tools and what is expected of them.

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• Be friendly: Human nature dictates that being a pleasant person is always beneficial.

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2. Implementing and Customizing your Code

If you're new to Google Analytics, right after you create an account, you'll see a tutorial that will walk
you through retrieving the necessary tracking code to utilize. The first option is to choose between a

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website and a mobile app for tracking. If you choose a website, you will be given JavaScript code to
use on it; if you choose an app, you will be given URLs to either the Android or iOS SDKs to
download.

You may locate this page by login into Google Analytics and clicking on Admin at the top of any page
if you missed the previous step or if you need to find your tracking information at a later time. This will
take you to the Administration panel, where you'll see a Tracking Info item.

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While implementing the default code on your website or app will provide you with important
information about customer behavior, other code customizations might be required to accommodate
your business needs. In the next section, I describe the customizations that I believe to be the most

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important; for a comprehensive and detailed description of all customizations available.

Implementing Google Analytics through Google Tag Manager

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"When is he going to start talking about Google Tag Manager?" you might wonder if you're an
experienced analyst, developer, or marketer. What a fantastic question! In this chapter, I'll focus on
the Google Analytics strategies that should be employed while improving your implementation,
regardless of how you decide to do so.
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Google Tag Manager is a sophisticated and scalable solution to organise your Google Analytics (and
other tools) installations, as you may already know. It will make updates simpler and clearer, and it
will elevate you to the status of hero. When using Google Tag Manager to build Google Analytics,
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here are some resources to consider:

• The official Google Tag Manager Help Center: http://goo.gl/1uXK90

• The official Google Tag Manager Developer documents: http://goo.gl/CPTYH6
• Google Tag Manager Step-By-Step Guide (Web): http://goo.gl/lBiX6t
• Guide to Google Tag Manager for Mobile Apps: http://goo.gl/ib3LL7
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Cross Domain Tracking

It is necessary to change the code with Cross Domain Tracking if you want to measure many
websites that are linked together under a single Google Analytics property (tracking behaviour across
subdomains does not require additional configuration). When using Google Analytics, failing to
account for many domains might lead to considerable data inaccuracy. Ecommerce carts, which are
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sometimes hosted on various domains, are a common example; if the tracking code is not set up
correctly, you may see a huge number of direct or self-referral sessions ending in a transaction.

Enhanced Ecommerce
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If your website or app sells items or conducts any other form of ecommerce transaction, you should
use Google Analytics Enhanced Ecommerce to better analyse your customers' journey. This tool will
help you gain a better knowledge of buying habits, campaign ROI, customer lifetime value, and other
critical data.
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Custom Dimensions

When trying to analyse and optimise client behaviour, creating audience segments is one of the most
significant approaches; it allows you to make your website or app more relevant to different groups of
 people. Google Analytics comes with a robust segmentation feature by default, which allows you to
combine a variety of metrics and dimensions.

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Custom Dimensions allow you to add attributes of a person, session, or activity to your data collection
in addition to the basic segments. A company that sells various types of memberships, for example,

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should be able to understand how each type of member behaves; a large publisher should be able to
understand how each of their authors is performing; and a travel website should be able to determine
which type of hotel their returning customers prefer.

Throughout the book, you'll learn more about Google Analytics Segments and Custom Reports.
Custom Dimensions, on the other hand, are particularly essential because they are not included in

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any of the usual reports. As a result, the following are the best techniques to examine behaviour using
Custom Dimensions:

• Create a segment: You may use the Segment builder to create a segment that includes or
excludes specified user behaviour. For example, you might wish to use a segment to exclude
all of your existing clients (specified by a Custom Dimension) from your reports. When
reviewing client acquisition efforts, this might be prudent. You might also wish to include only

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people who are enrolled in your loyalty programme (as determined by a Custom Dimension)
in your reports to see what kind of material they are most interested in.
• Construct a Custom Report: Google Analytics customers can create Custom Reports using
the tool's metrics and dimensions to adapt their reports to their own company needs. This

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feature may be used to create reports with Custom Dimensions and acquisition behaviour, as
well as conversion metrics, to better understand your users' activity.
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Download Clicks

The objectives of various websites differ. You learned how to track ecommerce transactions
previously, and you'll learn how to measure advertising revenue with the AdSense integration shortly,
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but other websites' primary focus will be downloads. By default, Google Analytics does not track clicks
on download links, so if you want to encourage visitors to download any form of file, you'll need to add
a special code to your website.
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Advanced Content Tracking

Every website owner should be aware of how their visitors consume content. However, people
occasionally behave in ways that a default implementation cannot account for. For example, if
someone visits a long post, reads it completely, and then leaves the site, Google Analytics considers
this person to have viewed only one page and not interacted with the material. When it comes to
content publishers, this is a concern.
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In response, Google Analytics Evangelist Justin Cutroni created a script that transmits events to
Google Analytics whenever a user scrolls down a page. In addition, the script uses Custom
Dimensions to divide people into "scanners," who scroll to the bottom of the content in less than 60
seconds, and "readers," who scroll to the bottom of the information in more than 60 seconds. This
approach is excellent for determining how users consume content.
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Troubleshooting Code Implementation

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If you run a website, it's vital to keep an eye on things at all times to ensure that everything is working
properly, especially while updating the website code. The Google Analytics team has produced a list
of tools to assist you with this task:

• Diagnostics (in-product feature): When you connect into your Google Analytics account and choose
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a view, you'll see a bell icon in the upper-right corner of your screen. You'll also note that there's a
notification number there on occasion. You'll find a variety of tailored notifications for your code
implementation and setup if you click the bell.
 • Real Time (in-product feature): Google Analytics provides Real Time data for website activities,
allowing you to view exactly what is occurring on your website or app right now. This is particularly

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handy for website debugging because it allows you to make changes to the code and see how they
affect the data in real time.

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• Tag Assistant (Chrome extension): Use this extension to check your Google Analytics tag (and other
Google tags) while surfing the page. It's a useful tool for quickly checking and troubleshooting
implementations.

• Google Analytics Debugger (Chrome Extension): When compared to the extension, this extension
delivers more detailed and technical details on what is being transmitted from a page to Google

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Analytics.

3. Setting Up the Google Analytics Interface

In this part, you'll learn about some of the most crucial settings for setting up a clean Google Analytics

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account with accurate data.

Setting Up Goals

Goals are the lifeblood of a Google Analytics account; without them, no analysis would yield useful

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information. Goals can be measured in a variety of ways, including an ecommerce purchase (see
previous section), a thank-you page for a newsletter subscription, a session that lasted a specific
amount of time, a visit with a specific number of pages visited, and so on. Google Analytics provides a
collection of templates to help website owners set up goals, as seen in Figure below.
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Google Analytics goals templates

If you want to construct a custom goal based on your own requirements, you can choose from four
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different goal types:

• Destination: When a web page or app screen loads (for example, when you reach a "thank you"
page), the destination is triggered.
 • Duration: Triggered when a user spends more than a pre-determined length of time on a website or
app in a single session.

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• Pages/Screens per Session: When a user visits more than a pre-determined number of pages or
screens in a single session, this event is triggered.

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• User-initiated event: Triggered when a user-initiated event occurs (e.g., clicking on a button or
playing a video).

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Focusing on Potential Customers

Your website may be seen by a wide range of people; regrettably, this number includes workers of
your own company and service suppliers, neither of whom are the visitors you want to understand
and optimise for. As a result, it's critical to set up filters that exclude the IP ranges used by your
company and its service suppliers, such as web development and marketing firms.

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Google Analytics has a number of pre-defined filters, including one that allows you to "limit traffic from
IP addresses" (see Figure below). If you wish to use the "that begin with" or "that end with" choices to
exclude a simple range of addresses, this option is ideal.

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Predefined filter to exclude IP addresses

Additionally, Google Analytics allows you to filter bot traffic. This filter will filter out any hits from IAB-
approved bots and spiders, allowing you to see the true number of visitors to your site. To use the
filter, go to your Administration panel and click the box labelled "Exclude all hits from recognised bots
and spiders" in the View Settings menu of the view you want to filter.

Removing Parameters That Do Not Point to Unique Content

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The navigation patterns between website pages are one of the interesting insights we may acquire
from Google Analytics; you can find this information in the Behavior section of Google Analytics
standard reports. However, websites can refer to the same page using several URL parameters, and
Google Analytics treats one page with multiple parameter values as multiple different pages by
default.
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As a result, if your content for these criteria is not unique, you should remove the duplicate pages
from your reports.
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Google Analytics has a straightforward interface for excluding URL parameters from reports; look for
a field called "Exclude URL Query Parameters" under View Settings in the Administration Panel.
When you add a parameter to this field, GA ignores it, bringing together pages that were previously
considered independent.

Eliminating Duplicate Pages

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Google Analytics is case sensitive. This means

that example.com/HELLO and example.com/hello would be recognized as two different pages,
generating duplicate entries in your content reports. However, from a customer's perspective, those
 pages are usually the same. (Check if this is the case with your website before you create the
following filter.) Therefore, it is important to lowercase all URLs. Figure below shows an example of

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what this filter would look like.

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Filter to lowercase URLs

I also propose setting lowercase filters for the following fields because the same issue can influence
additional fields, particularly campaign data:
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• Name of the campaign

• Term of the campaign

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• Medium of the campaign

• Source of the campaign

Setting Up Site Search

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Studying search keywords used on the internal site search (search boxes displayed on the website
that allow visitors to search the website content) is a good technique to understand visitor intent; they
show what your visitors are looking for on the website. The Google Analytics Site Search function,
when properly configured, can assist website owners discover which material is being searched for,
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which searches are returning irrelevant results, and which searches are driving sales (or another goal)
on the site. You will be able to add up to five parameters to define a search and up to five parameters
to define a category, as illustrated in Figure below. You can also strip the parameters from this view
(tick the box underneath the text field), which works in the same way as eliminating the parameter.
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Setting up site search
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Enabling Display Advertising and Demographics Reports

Enabling both Display Advertising and Demographics and Interest Reports will provide your reports
with a wealth of useful information. Once you've enabled them, you'll be able to examine behaviour
data based on the user's age, gender, and hobbies. However, this information can also be utilized to
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segment regular reports and generate remarketing lists.

The first step is to update Google Analytics to support Display Advertising, which enriches data with
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DoubleClick cookie information where it is present (for websites) or with the Advertiser ID when they
are collected (for apps). To enable this setting, log into Google Analytics and go to Admin at the top of
the page, select the property you want to enable, and then click "Property Settings." "Enable
Advertiser Features" is an item you'll find. Please keep in mind that enabling advertiser features may
require you to change your privacy policy.

The second step is to enable the Demographics and Interest Reports, which can also be done in the
Property Settings.
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Excluding Referrals

This option allows you to add URLs that Google Analytics would ignore as referrals. This means that
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a visitor who visits your site from an excluded domain will be treated in the same way as Direct traffic.
The person will still be ascribed to Organic if he or she has previously visited the website via an
Organic Search.
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By default, Google Analytics will add your own domain to this list (the same domain that you added to
the Property settings). A third-party cart, where the user is led to your website after making a
purchase, or a sibling website that should not be counted as a Referral, is another typical purpose.
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4. Tagging Your Inbound Traffic

Google Analytics, when properly installed, may assist you in measuring client acquisition initiatives,
which is a vital responsibility. Users that arrive at a website via an Organic Search or Referral are
 immediately detected by Google Analytics, but it won't know whether they arrived via a newsletter
until you provide it a means to know. The same is true for AdWords campaigns: you won't see

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accurate figures in your reports unless you link AdWords to Google Analytics; nevertheless, this is the
subject of a whole chapter. For the time being, I'll concentrate on other marketing channels.

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It's critical to use campaign tags appropriately whether sending emails, purchasing banner spots, or
even promoting offline. Users who come from a billboard or a TV commercial will be classified as
Direct traffic; visitors who come from newsletters will be classified as Direct, mail.google.com, or other
email provider traffic; and visitors who come from banner campaigns will be classified as Direct,
ad.doubleclick.net, or the website itself. When it comes to judging campaign effectiveness, these

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habits are plainly suboptimal.

In such circumstances, Google Analytics has developed a technique called UTM parameters that
allows you to "inform" it if users came through a campaign. (UTM stands for Urchin Traffic Monitor, a
relic of Urchin, the technology Google bought to create Google Analytics.) In essence, the technology
enables you to create connections that carry precise information about how a visitor came at your
website.

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Tagging Custom Campaigns

Using UTM parameters, you can create links that include five variables that, taken together, help
Google Analytics “see” how users got to the website:

•
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utm_source describes the origin of the visitor. Since every visitor must come from some
place, this is a required parameter. It is usually the URL of the website where the campaign is
running, such as theguardian.com, online-behavior.com, newsletter, or others.
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• utm_medium describes the channel used by the visitor; it is also a required parameter. It
could be cpc, display, social, email, or others.
• utm_name describes the name of the campaign. It could be a special campaign such as
“Launch,” an ongoing campaign such as “Product X,” or a newsletter edition such as
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“newsletter-jan-2015.”
• utm_term describes the term clicked on in a campaign. It could be a search term or a term
used in a newsletter. For example, if you are advertising on a search platform for the search
terms “analytics” and “measurement,” you would have the source example.com, the
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medium cpc, the name “Analytics Campaign,” and the terms “analytics” and “measurement”
for each ad.
• utm_content describes the version of an advertisement on which a visitor clicked. It is often
used to analyze the effectiveness of banner design or copy in a campaign. For example, if
you advertise on cnn.com and use two different banners, you would use the same parameters
for source, medium, and name, but would add a unique value for each banner on the content
UTM; this would enable you to learn which banner is better.
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NOTE Google has developed a tool in order to build links using these campaign variables
called URL Builder. It can be accessed at http://goo.gl/yQycsq. In order to tag multiple URLs
once, use the following template, created by Cardinal Path, a Google Analytics Certified
Partner and Google Analytics Premium reseller: http://c05tdu.
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If you have existing campaigns tagged with custom link parameters (different from the UTM),
there is a way to translate them into UTMs without physically changing the campaign links,
but this would require an addition to the GA tracking code. For technical implementation
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details, check the following plugin: http://goo.gl/GytPhO.

Tagging FeedBurner Traffic

Really Simple Syndication (or RSS) is a typical mechanism for content publishers to notify users of
new posts/articles, from individual bloggers to huge content portals. FeedBurner is a Google service
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for creating (or burning) website feeds. RSS is a family of web feed formats used to distribute
regularly updated works, and FeedBurner is a tool given by Google for creating (or burning) website
feeds.
 The FeedBurner team established a technique to ensure that feed links are properly labelled with
UTM parameters to help publishers better understand traffic received through RSS. This is necessary

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in order to gain a better understanding of how and where your audience consumes your material.

In order to tag FeedBurner traffic, log in to your feed at http://goo.gl/SuI6rx. On the Analyze tab (the

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default), you will find a link on the left sidebar under Services named Configure Stats. Click on it and
you will reach the screen shown in figure below.

As indicated by number 3, you will be given the option to Track Clicks as a Traffic Source in Google
Analytics. Once you check the box to enable the tracking, click on Customize. You will see the screen

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shown in figure below.

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Configuring FeedBurner links

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Customizing FeedBurner links
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FeedBurner allows you to use the following dynamic variables to populate the UTM parameters:

1. ${feedUri}: The feed URI

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2. ${feedName}: The feed name

3. ${distributionChannel}: The channel in which the feed is distributed, usually either feed or
email
4. ${distributionEndpoint}: The application where a click request originates, such as Gmail
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Here is a suggestion of how you can set up the parameters in order to understand FeedBurner
traffic in an effective way:

1. Source: feedburner
2. Medium: ${distributionChannel}
3. Campaign: ${feedName} Feed
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4. Content: ${distributionEndpoint}

Both Custom Campaigns and FeedBurner traffic discussed in this section can be found under the
Acquisition tab on Google Analytics; to analyze a campaign search for it on the All Traffic report.
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5. Managing Your Implementations Effectively

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Google Analytics setups are a continual process; new features necessitate adjustments to the
tracking code or account settings on a regular basis. You must be exceedingly structured in order
to maintain control over what is and is not implemented, as well as when it was configured. You'll
learn how to avoid losing data and context on Google Analytics reports in this section.
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NOTE If you are not acquainted with the definitions of accounts, properties, and views,
read http://goo.gl/TAv93N before proceeding. In addition, please note that when you create new
 views, they will start being populated from their creation date, even if another view in the property has
been collecting data for longer than that.

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Creating Raw Data and Staging Views

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A view that does not employ any filters is the best way to check for configuration issues. You may
immediately determine if you have a misplaced or malfunctioning filter by comparing it to your main
view. You should also put up the same goals in this view as you did in your main view. In the event
that you need to use the data, this will make it more relevant. You might want to utilize the Raw Data
view for a bit if you discover that your main view has a filter that affects your prior data.

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Assume you decide to implement a filter to lowercase URLs (as suggested above), but you're not sure
how it would effect your data. The best approach to proceed is to create a separate view with the
same parameters as your main view and only apply the new filter to that view.

After you've applied the filter, go over the data and compare the numbers to see if anything went
wrong. (Tip: Wait at least one full day of data before using filters, as they may take up to 24 hours to
begin filtering data.)

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Creating an Analytics Staging Property

If you've spent enough time in the web analytics sector, you've probably seen data that has been

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tainted by poor implementations. Changes to the code should be done with caution. However,
because code changes affect all views in a property, creating a new view is ineffective in this
scenario.
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Because most websites include a staging site where changes are tested before going live, I
recommend using a distinct tracking code (that is, a new Google Analytics property) to test code
changes on the Google Analytics tracking code in those settings. Also, make sure that both properties
have the identical configurations.
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Keeping Track of Implementation and Configuration Changes

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Users make changes to Google Analytics views all the time as they revise their website goals,
improve filters, employ new capabilities, and so on. Every change has the potential to affect data in
unforeseen ways. As a result, having a mechanism in place to manage code and view changes is
critical, especially in large businesses where multiple people are active with Google Analytics. This is
significant even if just one person is involved, because employees may go on leave, be promoted, or
depart the organization.
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Change History is an out-of-the-box tool in Google Analytics that tracks changes to your account
settings, such as objectives, filters, and user permissions. Apart from the modification itself, you can
see who made it and when in Figure below. To get this report, go to Google Analytics and choose
Admin at the top of the page; this setting will be under your account settings.
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Change History table sample

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It is recommended using a Google Docs form to centralise the collecting and distribution of changes
made to a Google Analytics account, including code changes. The form should be constructed so that
all parties involved are informed of any changes. These will then be archived for future reference by
 the entire team (and future team members). An example of such a form with fields that you might
want to develop is shown in the diagram below.

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Tracking Google Analytics implementations using Google Docs

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Keeping Track of External and Overall Changes with Annotations

Google Analytics Annotations is a tool that allows you to annotate data points on the Google Analytics
user interface, allowing for richer analyses by providing context while evaluating data. Here are some
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examples of when you should make use of this feature:

• Marketing campaigns that are conducted offline (radio, TV, and billboards)

• Significant updates to the website (design, structure, and content)

• Tracking modifications (changing the tracking code and adding events)

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• Modifications to goals or filters

 While annotations can (and should) be used for website technical modifications, they should be kept

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at a high level. If you include too much detail about your changes or annotate minor changes, the
annotations will become too dense to deliver significant information to readers.

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Summary

This section covered best practises for Google Analytics setups as well as suggestions for how to use
the tool to capture clean and reliable data. You learnt about the five primary steps for deploying
Google Analytics in a clean, organised, and accurate manner in your website or app.

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1. Understand the web analytics process: Before deploying Google Analytics, it's critical to understand
how the data will be used and how data collecting and analysis relate to other aspects of the
organization.

2. Implement and customise codes: Once you've identified your data requirements, you can start
exploring for Google Analytics changes to add to your website or app.

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3. Configure the Google Analytics interface: After you've installed the code, you'll need to configure
the Google Analytics interface to make sure it's processing your data the way you want it to.

4. Track inbound traffic: In order to effectively track all of your website or app traffic, especially

connections.
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marketing campaigns, you'll need to use custom URL parameters known as UTMs to tag inbound

5. Manage the implementation: You should always keep track of changes in your Google Analytics
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account to ensure that your implementation is always neat.
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Check your Understanding

1. A ________ is a structure, a specialised space within a structure, or a collection of structures

used to host computer systems and associated components including telecommunications
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and storage systems.

2. ______ data centres are dispersed and are occasionally made available to consumers
through a third-party managed service provider.
3. _________ data centres are third party, data centres provide services such as data storage,
processing, and other services to clients directly.
4. __________," is a technique for increasing performance, data redundancy, or both by
combining many discs instead of a single disc.
5. David Patterson, Garth A. Gibson, and Randy Katz of the University of California, Berkeley,
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created the phrase HDD in 1987. State true or false.

Summary

• A data centre is a structure, a specialised space within a structure, or a collection of

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structures used to host computer systems and associated components including

telecommunications and storage systems.
• A data centre is a physical structure that enterprises utilize to house their vital applications
and data at the most basic level. The design of a data centre is built on a network of computer
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and storage resources that allow shared applications and data to be delivered.
• Investing in IT infrastructure needs significant thought, planning, and research to ensure that
you make the best decision possible. It's critical to choose a data centre that provides a
comprehensive suite of solutions that scales with your company, provides exceptional
customer service, and complements traditional colocation offerings with a hybrid mix of
cloud, network, and managed hosting solutions delivered over advanced networks.
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• There are many different types of data centres and service models to choose from. Their
classification is determined by whether they are owned by a single or multiple businesses,
how they fit (if at all) into the topology of other data centres, the computing and storage
 technologies they employ, and even their energy efficiency. Data centres are divided into four
categories.
•

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The way data is stored and retrieved is the major difference between an SSD and a hard
drive. A hard disc drive (HDD) is a type of storage device that accesses data using
mechanical platters and a moving read/write head. A solid state drive (SSD) is a newer,

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quicker form of storage device that stores data on memory chips that are instantaneously
accessible.
• RAID, or "Redundant Arrays of Independent Drives," is a technique for increasing
performance, data redundancy, or both by combining many discs instead of a single disc.
David Patterson, Garth A. Gibson, and Randy Katz of the University of California, Berkeley,

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created the phrase in 1987.
• Although it takes up more space, data redundancy improves disc reliability. This means that if
the same data is backed up onto another disc in the event of a disc failure, we can retrieve
the data and continue with the operation. If the data is spread across numerous discs without
the use of RAID, the loss of a single disc might have a significant impact on the data.
• A market analysis is an evaluation that allows you to decide whether or not a given market is
appropriate for your industry. Market analysis can be used to assess your current market or to

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investigate new markets. Market analysis gives you a comprehensive, or all-encompassing,
picture of the markets you want to work in. Several evaluation tools are included in the report,
as well as a discussion of your industry and its market forecast. It also does a competitive
analysis and discovers cultural and legal regulations, as well as analysing the target market.

Activity
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1) Formulate a presentation on the topic ‘Redundant Array of Independent Disk (RAID)’.
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2) Prepare on a case study based on your knowledge on Integration of hardware and Software and
Mainframe: Flipkart.
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Questions & Exercises

1) What do you understand by the term data center?

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2) What are the key characteristics of data centres?

3) What are the different types of data center?
4) Define HDD.
5) What does SSD stand for? Write a short note on it.
6) Differentiate between HDD and SSD.
7) State the importance of HDD and SDD in feasibility study and negotiation.
8) Briefly discuss RAID.
9) Write an article based on your knowledge on the topic ‘Integration of hardware and Software and
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Mainframe: Google Services’.

Glossary

1. Enterprise data centres: these are often built and used for internal purposes by a single
organization. These are rather frequent among tech behemoths.
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2. Colocation data centres: these are a type of rental property in which a data center's space
and resources are made available to those who are prepared to pay for them.
3. Managed service data centres: As a third party, data centres provide services such as data
storage, processing, and other services to clients directly.
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4. Cloud data centres: these are dispersed and are occasionally made available to consumers
through a third-party managed service provider.
5. RAID: "Redundant Arrays of Independent Drives," is a technique for increasing performance,
data redundancy, or both by combining many discs instead of a single disc. David Patterson,
Garth A. Gibson, and Randy Katz of the University of California, Berkeley, created the phrase
in 1987.
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 Further Readings

1) Kurt Lewin, “Frontiers in Group Dynamics,” Human Relations, 1947, 1:5–41; and Kurt Lewin,

e
“Group Decision and Social Change” in E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley, eds.,
Readings in Social Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958, pp. 197–211.

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2) Christopher Koch, “When Bad Things Happen to Good Projects,” CIO Magazine, December 1,
2004.
3) Altschuld, J. W., & Zheng, H. Y. (1995). Assessing the effectiveness of research organizations.
Evaluation Review, 19(2), 197-216.
4) An, J. Y., Yom, Y. H., & Ruggiero, J. S. (2011). Organizational culture, quality of work life, and

On
organizational effectiveness in Korean university hospitals. Journal of Transcultural Nursing,
22(1), 22-30.
5) Anderson, J. A. (2000). Explanatory roles of mission and culture: Organizational effectiveness in
Tennessee's community colleges. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Mephis.
6) Baker, K., & Branch, K. M. (2002). Concepts underlying organizational effectiveness: Trends in
the organization and management science literature. Management Benchmark Study. USA:
Office of Planning & Analysis, Department of Energy
7) Cameron, K. (1978). Measuring organizational effectiveness in institutions of higher education.

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Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 604-632.
8) Cameron, K. (1981). Domains of organizational effectiveness in colleges and universities.
Academy of Management Journal, 24 (1), 25-47.
9) Cameron, K. (1986). A study of organizational effectiveness and its predictors. Management

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Science, 32(1), 87-112.
10) Dalton, T., & Dalton, L. (1988). The politics of measuring public sector performance. Promoting
Productivity in the Public Sector (Macmillan).
11) Federman, M. (2006). Essay: Towards an effect-ive theory of organizational effectiveness.
er
12) McCann, J. (2004). Organizational effectiveness: Changing concepts for changing
environments. Human Resource Planning, 27(1).
13) Mullins, L. J. (2008). Essentials of organizational behaviour: Pearson Education.
14) Pounder, J. (1999). Organizational effectiveness in higher education. Educational Management
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Administration & Leadership, 27(4), 389-400.

15) Yildirim, V. and Kuşakcı, A.O., 2018. The critical success factors of erp selection and
implementation: A case study in logistics sector. Journal of International Trade, Logistics and
Law, 4(1), pp.138-146.
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16) Osman, N., 2018. A software requirement engineering framework to enhance critical success
factors for erp implementation. International Journal of Computer Applications, 180(10), pp.pp32.
17) Vicedo, P., Gil, H., Oltra-Badenes, R. and Merigó, J.M., 2018, January. Critical Success Factors
on ERP Implementations: A Bibliometric Analysis. In International Conference on Modelling and
Simulation in Management Sciences (pp. 169-181). Springer, Cham.
18) Barth, C. and Koch, S., 2019. Critical success factors in ERP upgrade projects. Industrial
Management & Data Systems.
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19) Hentschel, R., Leyh, C. and Baumhauer, T., 2019, January. Critical success factors for the
implementation and adoption of cloud services in SMEs. In Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences.
20) Wolters, J., Eseryel, U.Y. and Eseryel, D., 2018. Identifying the Critical Success Factors for Low
Customized ERP System Implementations in SMEs.
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Check your Understanding – Answers

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1. data centre
2. Cloud
3. Managed service
4. Redundant Arrays of Independent Drives
5. False
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 Unit - 4: F ea si bi lit y R e port

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Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

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Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

• Dis c us s t he f e as ib i l ity r ep or t pr ep ar at i on .
• Ex pl a i n th e s y s t em pr op os a l ne g ot i at i o n s tr at e gy .

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Int rodu ct ion

Ev ery o n e as pi r es t o s t ar t a n d r u n a s uc c es s f u l c om p a ny or e nd e av or. Any proj ec t

dev e l op er or e n tr e pr e ne ur h as o n ly o ne g o a l i n m i nd . Th es e, h ow e v er, a re gr e et e d
wi t h a h ars h r ea l ity . T h is r ea l i ty is t ha t n ot e v ery b us i n es s or e n de av or is v i a bl e or

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prac t ic a b l e. T o pu t i t a no t her w ay , t h es e en t erp ris es or bus i nes s es ar e d ea l i n g wi t h
th e c h a ll e ng i n g q ues t i on of l o ng - t er m v i a b i l it y . T h is is t he mos t i m p ort a nt c h a l le n ge
or q ues t io n t ha t a ny b us in es s or e n de av or f ac es . I n th is i ns ta nc e, a f e as i b i l ity
s tu dy is re q u ir e d t o es ta b l is h t h e pr oj ec t's v i ab i l ity an d l o ng - t erm s us t a in a b il i ty . A
fe as ib i l ity s t u dy is a b l ue pr i nt f or d et er m in i n g th e v i a b il i ty of a pr o pos e d
c om m erc i al v en tur e or pr oj ec t.

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In t h is u ni t w e wi l l s t u dy a bo ut f e as ib i l ity r e por t.
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4.1.1 Feasibility Report Preparation
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A feasibility study is a methodical strategy and examination of a project's long-term viability, taking
into account factors such as marketing, production, and technological challenges, as well as
organizational and management issues and financial implications. In other terms, a feasibility study
is a process of evaluating and assessing a potential project or business. This is a crucial task that
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must be completed before any further action can be performed. On the other hand, it influences an
investor's, financier's, or an organization's management's decision or course of action.

Conducting a feasibility study has a number of advantages. A feasibility study identifies the virtues
and demerits of a project, which is one of the key advantages. In actuality, it is a cost-benefit
analysis of a certain activity, project, or commercial venture. As a result, a person can make an
educated decision regarding a certain activity or undertaking. At the same time, a feasibility study
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reduced risks by taking decisions without fully knowing the financial, legal, or reputational
consequences to an organization or a firm.As a result, a feasibility study gives you a thorough grasp
of a project or plan. A feasibility study also identifies potential hurdles and problems that may arise
during the execution of the plan or project. Furthermore, a feasibility assessment considers all
essential elements that must be considered during the project or plan's implementation.
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Important Features of a Basic Feasibility Report

The seven components of a feasibility report are listed below:

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• Introductory paragraph/Introduction - You must persuade the decision maker to consider any
option. You must first persuade them to read your report. Tell them how your work will benefit them
personally or as an organization.

• Criteria/Constraints - You must clearly define the criteria for the desired outcomes. You will be
able to make practical and rational decisions as a result of this. In your feasibility report, you have
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two options for presenting the criteria. To begin, divide the criteria into separate sections. When you
have a lengthy report and need to go into great detail with your explanation, this is the greatest
option. Second, when the criteria become more relevant, you can incorporate them throughout your
report.It's vital to remember, though, that whatever technique you use, the criteria must be
 introduced early in the report. It's also crucial to sketch out the restrictions of your proposed
solutions. This demonstrates to the audience that you recognise and accept the fact that no solution

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is perfect. This will also ensure that the audience takes the best decision possible.
• Method – It is critical to deliver accurate and timely information. You should list the trustworthy
sources you used and the process by which they were obtained (internet,interview, book, etc.). Your

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document will lack credibility if you don't use a reputable research strategy or use credible sources.

• Alternative Option Overview – You must highlight the essential elements of each alternative
option. Make sure they're simple to comprehend and presented in a user-friendly format. Remember
that your goal is to empower your audience to make the best decision possible.

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• Evaluation - The majority of your report should be devoted to evaluating the possibilities using the
criteria you devised. Add graphs, charts, and other visual aids to demonstrate that you've
researched your options and compiled statistics to back up your arguments for why your alternative
is superior to the competition.

• Conclusions - You must state the conclusion that you have reached. What criteria did you use to
weigh the options? Then it's a matter of deciding which option is ideal for your company.

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• Recommendations – You must utilize your knowledge and experience to state which choice you
believe should be chosen.

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Note: Depending on the audience, scenario, mission, and other factors, all seven elements listed
above may or may not need to be included in the feasibility study. Additionally, the pieces do not
have to be in the exact order listed above. The conclusion, in particular, should be mentioned more
than once in the report. It should be summarised at the start of the report, and if the feasibility report
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is lengthy, it can also be addressed in the middle.

Conducting a Feasibility Study

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Step One: Conduct a Preliminary Analysis

The preliminary analysis' main goal is to screen project ideas before investing a lot of time, effort,
and money into them. There are two types of activities involved.
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1. Describe or outline the proposed services, target audiences, and unique qualities of the
services as precisely as possible by answering the following questions:
• Does the practise fill a gap in the market? (For example, multicultural communities or
underserved age groups)
• Does the practise service an existing market where demand exceeds supply?
• Can the practise compete successfully with existing practises due to a "advantageous
situation," such as a better design, price, location, or availability (e.g., balance evaluation and
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rehabilitation, programmable devices)?

2. Determine whether any difficulties are insurmountable. If you answered "yes" to the following
questions, your proposal has a slim probability of succeeding:
• Is the capital needed to start or continue operations unavailable or unaffordable?
• Are there any factors that hinder you from promoting effectively to any or all referral sources?
• Continue with a full feasibility assessment if the evidence obtained so far shows that the
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proposal has promise.

Step Two: Prepare a Projected Income Statement

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Taking into account the estimated revenue growth curve, anticipated income must cover direct and
indirect costs. In order to construct a projected income statement, work backward from the
anticipated income to determine the revenue required to create that income.

Services supplied, pricing for services, volume of services, and revenue adjustments are all factors
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that go into determining this statement (e.g., actual reimbursement levels).

 Step Three: Conduct a Market Survey

A thorough market analysis is essential. If the planner is unable to conduct the survey, a third-party

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agency should be employed. A market survey's main goal is to generate a realistic revenue
forecast.

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The following are the primary steps:

• Define the geographic influence on the market.

• Examine the community's population trends, demographic characteristics, cultural influences, and

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purchasing power.

• Compare and contrast rival community services to discover their primary strengths and
drawbacks. Pricing, product lines, referral sources, location, promotional activities, quality of
service, consumer loyalty and happiness, and sales are all factors to consider.

• Calculate total volume in the market area and forecast market share.

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• Assess market expansion prospects (e.g., receptivity to new/improved services).

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Step Four: Plan Business Organization and Operations

At this time, the business's organization and operations should be thoroughly designed to establish
the technical feasibility and expenses of startup, fixed investment, and operations. It will take a lot of
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time and effort to build thorough strategies for:

• Merchandising approaches

• Equipment
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• The location and architecture of the facility (or layout)

• Personnel availability and costs

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• Supply availability (e.g., vendors, pricing schedules. exclusive or franchised products)

Expenses (e.g., utilities, taxes, insurance)

Step Five: Prepare an Opening Day Balance Sheet

The Opening Day Balance Sheet should precisely depict the practice's assets and liabilities at the
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time the practise opens, before revenue is generated.

Make a list of the assets you'll need for practise. The list should include the item, its source, its
pricing, and the various financing options accessible. Everything from cash for working capital to
buildings and land are considered critical assets. Despite the fact that the final list is quite basic, the
amount of effort required may be considerable.
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It is also necessary to clarify the liabilities that will be incurred as well as the investment that will be
required by the practise.
These factors must be taken into account:
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• How to finance asset purchases

• How to finance accounts receivables
• Whether to lease or buy land, buildings, and equipment
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Step Six: Review and Analyze All Data

 This examination is critical. Any new data or analysis should be evaluated by the planner to see
whether it affects any of the previous analyses. Taking this step essentially implies "take a step back

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and think about it again."

• Compare the Projected Income Statement to the list of desired assets and the Opening Day Balance

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Sheet once more. Does the Income Statement reflect reasonable expectations in light of all expenses
and liabilities?

• Assess risk and prepare for the worst-case scenario. Take into account the possibility of significant
changes in the current market, which could cause estimates to shift.

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Step Seven: Make "Go/No Go" Decision

All of the processes before this one were designed to provide data and analysis for the "go/no go"
decision. A "go" option is appropriate if the study suggests that the firm should provide at least the
specified minimum income and has growth potential. Anything less is a "no go" situation.

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• Is there a willingness to make the necessary time, effort, and financial sacrifices?

• Will the activity meet your long-term goals?

4.1.2 System Proposal Negotiation Strategy

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A Systems Proposal is typically delivered in the form of a written report and a PowerPoint
presentation. It frequently concludes the project's second phase and points to the next steps, most
notably the Design phase, which should ultimately specify the project's total expenditures, which are
still speculative.Its goal is to persuade the client's decision makers to move forward with the project
and secure their agreement on the best course of action. A proposal is not the same as a quotation!
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This will happen after the specifications have been agreed upon. Although a proposal should be a
sales document, it should not appear to be one! Instead, it should provide subtle convincing that the
proposing team is capable of delivering the suggested system in the future. Credibility is its most
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crucial feature.

Length of the Written Report

• To Executive-level managers-one or two pages

• To Middle-level managers-three to five pages
• To Supervisory-level managers-less than 10 pages
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• To clerk-level personnel-less than 50pages.

6 Steps for a Successful Software Contract Negotiation

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1. Assemble a negotiation team

You'll need to form your own team to focus on key elements of the contract because the vendor will
be bringing their strongest team to the table. The members of this team will vary depending on the
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size and resources of your company; the table below lists the various emphasis areas and
considerations for each:

Focus area Things to consider

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 • Negotiation strategy
Procurement •

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Request for proposal creation
• Price checklist

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• Contract development and review
• Legal terms and requirements
Legal and contracts • Terms and conditions checklist

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• Contract review and database

• Business need communication

• Process performance
Business needs • Hardware and software requirements

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• Technology standards

• Project management

Application development
•
•
Build versus buy
Customization efforts si
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• Budget
• Total cost of acquisition (TCA)
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Finance and accounting • Total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis

• Financial and accounting impact
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• Relationship
Vendor management • Performance measurement

• IT security policy
• Data privacy
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Information security
• Regulatory compliance
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Make a checklist for your team members using this table. Of course, not every organization has
individuals for each of these emphasis areas; if that's the case, choose the team members who are
most suited to handle numerous roles.
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2. Capture fees and hidden costs

You'll almost certainly spend more than the price mentioned on your favourite software's website, and
suppliers won't give you a detailed look at actual pricing until you ask. Ask inquiries about these
pricing issues ahead of time to go into a negotiation with an accurate cost assessment:
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 Software Maintenance and support Services and training

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• Fees: List and net price • Warranty: Length and • Options: Pricing and
expiration time/materials
•

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Type: License or subscription
• Options: All coverage • Rates: Blended or role-
• Metric: Per user vs. per types and prices based
month
• Descriptions: Coverage • Methods: On-site, remote,
• Delivery: Cloud or on- details or online

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premise
• Discounts: Options for • Payment: Timing of
• Integration: Fees for vendor reduced prices payment and travel fees
assistance

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3. Understand your T&Cs

The risks and benefits of your software agreement are described in the terms and conditions (T&Cs).
Because each software supplier has its own set of terminology, it's easier to create your own list of
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must-haves for your company.

Depending on whether you install the software on your computer or use it through a web browser,
these conditions will change.
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Here are some terms and criteria that are common in both types of software deployment:

On-premise software SaaS and cloud software

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• Defined pricing metrics • Renewal price protection

• Clear service recovery plan • Acceptable penalties for vendor service failure
 • Cap on maintenance renewal increases • Rights to customize, test, and develop
• •

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Right to perform audits Clear data privacy and security terms
• Cost of changing hardware • Defined support services

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• Bundling and renaming protection • Rights to convert to on-premise

4. Uncover vendor motivations to gain leverage

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The seller will most likely ask about your budgetary constraints, how the software will be paid for,
which executive will authorise the purchase, and who will make the ultimate decision.

This provides the vendor with additional information to help them manipulate the deal in their favour,
but you can ask questions to uncover the vendors' objectives to ensure you have the same edge.

Consider the following:

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• Do you get paid only on commission or on a salary plus commission basis?

• Do you get bonuses at any point during the year? When is your biggest bonus due?

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• Are some products and services more highly compensated than others—which ones, and how does
the financial incentive programme work?
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After you've gathered this information, see if the following elements can help you gain an advantage:

Consider the end of the fiscal year. Do any of your vendors press you to seal a contract as soon as
possible? Sales teams are always aggressive, but near the conclusion of the fiscal year, they should
boost the ante, and so should you.
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It's ideal to push software conversations to the end of a fiscal quarter or year to take advantage of the
vendor's urgency to secure a better deal—special pricing and discounts are easier to come by when
the sales team is pressed for time to seal the quarter's or year's final contract.
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Fiscal year-end Vendors

January Autodesk, Salesforce, Workday

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February Dell

March BMC, Compuware, Fujitsu, Hitachi, Lenovo, Symantec

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April Infor
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May Oracle

June Microsoft
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July Cisco
 October Broadcom, HPE, Micro Focus

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November Adobe

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Amazon, ASG, Citrix, Google, IBM, Informatica, SAP, SAS,
December
ServiceNow, Software AG, Tableau, Unisys

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Is your seller a newcomer? Hundreds of tiny startup software providers have sprung up as a result of
the rapid growth of cloud-based software, allowing them to provide more flexible terms and contracts
than their larger enterprise competitors. A more flexible startup vendor can be the ideal match for your
feature requirements and budget.

This firm could also be getting ready to raise money—in this scenario, the vendor will want to boost
customer and revenue before a series fundraising round, giving your company an advantage in

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negotiating a better price.

Crunchbase has funding, acquisition, and investor facts that you can use during the negotiation
depending on the size and type of software company.

5. Use a scoring template to identify your best options

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Use the criteria in the table below to compare and contrast your top software options—this way, you'll
know precisely how invested you should be in the purchase or whether you can walk away.

When determining winners, score the criteria on a scale of 1 to 5, and give key aspects more weight.
For your vendor selections, use as many or as few of these as you need:
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• Pricing
o License fees
o Customization and implementation costs
o Maintenance fees
o Training costs
• Required (and nice-to-have) features and functionality
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• Operating requirements (compatibility and mobility)

• Integrations
• Support and training capabilities
• Terms and conditions (T&Cs) risks
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6. Be prepared to walk away

You'll know whether you can afford to walk away from a feasible alternative after assessing
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each vendor, reviewing terms and conditions, and comprehending the implications for both the
vendor and your firm.

When negotiations with lower-scoring vendors do not continue in a positive direction, you can
abandon them using your list of needs and viable alternatives. If you have to leave a
negotiation, take some time to regroup with your team:
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• Reframe your expectations

• Improve your negotiating skills

 • Decide whether the next best software choice is truly worth pursuing

Each conversation will teach you how to better utilize your research and respond to difficult

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questions and approaches from vendors.

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Check your Understanding

1. A ________ is a process of evaluating and assessing a potential project or business.

2. A feasibility study identifies the virtues and demerits of a project, which is one of the key

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advantages. State true or false.
3. A feasibility study also identifies potential hurdles and problems that may arise during the
execution of the plan or project. State true or false.
4. In order to construct a projected income statement, work backward from the anticipated
income to determine the revenue required to create that income. State true or false.
5. A Systems Proposal is typically delivered in the form of a written report and a PowerPoint
presentation. State true or false.

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Summary

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• A feasibility study is a methodical strategy and examination of a project's long-term viability,
taking into account factors such as marketing, production, and technological challenges, as
well as organizational and management issues and financial implications.
• A Systems Proposal is typically delivered in the form of a written report and a PowerPoint
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presentation. It frequently concludes the project's second phase and points to the next
steps, most notably the Design phase, which should ultimately specify the project's total
expenditures, which are still speculative.Its goal is to persuade the client's decision makers
to move forward with the project and secure their agreement on the best course of action. A
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proposal is not the same as a quotation! This will happen after the specifications have been
agreed upon. Although a proposal should be a sales document, it should not appear to be
one! Instead, it should provide subtle convincing that the proposing team is capable of
delivering the suggested system in the future. Credibility is its most crucial feature.
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Activity

1. Formulate a study on the topic ‘Feasibility Report’.

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Questions & Exercises

1) What do you understand by the term feasibility report?

2) What are the key characteristics of system proposal negotiation strategy?
3) State the importance of feasibility report preparation in feasibility study and negotiation.
4) Briefly discuss system proposal negotiation strategy.
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Glossary
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1. Fe as i b i l ity r e p or t : A f eas i b i li ty s t udy is a d oc u m en t t ha t as s es s e s a s e t of

po t en t ia l pr oj ec t p a ths or s o lu t io ns t o s e e i f th ey ar e f eas i b le . A p ers o n w h o
wri t es a f eas i b i li ty r e por t as s es s es th e fe a s i bi l i ty o f v ar io us op t i ons b ef or e
mak i n g a s u gg es t i o n f or th e b es t o p t io n. T h ey th e n g iv e t h ei r c o mp a ny th e
fe as ib i l ity s t u dy a nd m ak e t h e ir pr op os al .
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Further Readings
 1) Kurt Lewin, “Frontiers in Group Dynamics,” Human Relations, 1947, 1:5–41; and Kurt Lewin,
“Group Decision and Social Change” in E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley,

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eds., Readings in Social Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958, pp. 197–
211.
2) Christopher Koch, “When Bad Things Happen to Good Projects,” CIO Magazine, December

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1, 2004.
3) Altschuld, J. W., & Zheng, H. Y. (1995). Assessing the effectiveness of research
organizations. Evaluation Review, 19(2), 197-216.
4) An, J. Y., Yom, Y. H., & Ruggiero, J. S. (2011). Organizational culture, quality of work life,
and organizational effectiveness in Korean university hospitals. Journal of Transcultural

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Nursing, 22(1), 22-30.
5) Anderson, J. A. (2000). Explanatory roles of mission and culture: Organizational
effectiveness in Tennessee's community colleges. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of
Mephis.
6) Baker, K., & Branch, K. M. (2002). Concepts underlying organizational effectiveness: Trends
in the organization and management science literature. Management Benchmark Study.
USA: Office of Planning & Analysis, Department of Energy
7) Cameron, K. (1978). Measuring organizational effectiveness in institutions of higher

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education. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 604-632.
8) Cameron, K. (1981). Domains of organizational effectiveness in colleges and universities.
Academy of Management Journal, 24 (1), 25-47.
9) Cameron, K. (1986). A study of organizational effectiveness and its predictors. Management

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Science, 32(1), 87-112.
10) Dalton, T., & Dalton, L. (1988). The politics of measuring public sector performance.
Promoting Productivity in the Public Sector (Macmillan).
11) Federman, M. (2006). Essay: Towards an effect-ive theory of organizational effectiveness.
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12) McCann, J. (2004). Organizational effectiveness: Changing concepts for changing
environments. Human Resource Planning, 27(1).
13) Mullins, L. J. (2008). Essentials of organizational behaviour: Pearson Education.
14) Pounder, J. (1999). Organizational effectiveness in higher education. Educational
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Management Administration & Leadership, 27(4), 389-400.

15) Yildirim, V. and Kuşakcı, A.O., 2018. The critical success factors of erp selection and
implementation: A case study in logistics sector. Journal of International Trade, Logistics
and Law, 4(1), pp.138-146.
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16) Osman, N., 2018. A software requirement engineering framework to enhance critical
success factors for erp implementation. International Journal of Computer Applications,
180(10), pp.pp32.
17) Vicedo, P., Gil, H., Oltra-Badenes, R. and Merigó, J.M., 2018, January. Critical Success
Factors on ERP Implementations: A Bibliometric Analysis. In International Conference on
Modelling and Simulation in Management Sciences (pp. 169-181). Springer, Cham.
18) Barth, C. and Koch, S., 2019. Critical success factors in ERP upgrade projects. Industrial
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Management & Data Systems.

19) Hentschel, R., Leyh, C. and Baumhauer, T., 2019, January. Critical success factors for the
implementation and adoption of cloud services in SMEs. In Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences.
20) Wolters, J., Eseryel, U.Y. and Eseryel, D., 2018. Identifying the Critical Success Factors for
Low Customized ERP System Implementations in SMEs.
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Check your Understanding – Answers

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1. feasibility study
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. True
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 Module IV: System Analysis, Design and Testing

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Unit 1.1 Understanding Structured Analysis Tools

Learning Objectives:

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the concept of data flow diagrams

• Comprehend the meaning of Context diagrams

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• Explain the meaning of system flow chart, decision tables, decision trees and so on.

1.1.1 Introduction

You've probably heard the phrase "a picture is worth a thousand words." A process model is a visual
representation of how a business system should function. It depicts the processes or activities that
are carried out, as well as how data is exchanged between them. A process model can be used to
document an existing system (i.e., as-is system) or a new system in development (i.e., to-be system),

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whether or not it is computerised.

For many years, process models have been a part of structured systems analysis and design
methodologies. With use cases gaining popularity due to their ability to clearly communicate user

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requirements, you may notice that organisations are putting less focus on process modelling than in
the past. Process models may not offer much to an organization's understanding of the system under
development if it seeks to produce fully clothed use cases like those shown in Figure 4-1. Process
modelling, on the other hand, may be a useful part of the analysis phase deliverables for some firms,
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particularly those that produce more casual use cases. We've discovered that graphically depicting
the system that will be created in a series of well-organized diagrams is a really effective method.
Keep in mind that our goal is to be able to use a variety of tools and techniques to better understand
and explain what the new system needs to perform before it is built.
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Today, a variety of process modelling methodologies are in use. In this unit, we'll look at one of the
most popular methods: data flow diagramming. Data flow diagramming is a method of depicting
business processes and the data that flows between them. In this section, we'll go over the
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fundamental syntax rules and show you how to apply them to create simple one-page data flow
diagrams (DFDs). Then we'll go through how to make multipage diagrams that are more complicated.

The name data flow diagram (DFD) implies that it is focused on data, yet this is not the case. The
primary focus is on the processes or actions that are carried out. Data modelling depicts the
organisation of data generated and used by processes. One of the most critical abilities required by
systems analysts is process modelling, particularly the creation of DFDs.
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The focus of this unit is on logical process models, which are models that describe processes without
implying how they should be carried out. You won't be able to identify whether a process is
computerised or manual, whether data is collected on paper or via the Internet, or whether it is stored
in a filing cabinet or a huge database by reading a logical process model. These physical features are
defined during the design process, when logical models are developed into physical models, which
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offer information needed to build the system in the end. Analysts can focus on how the business
should work without being sidetracked by implementation specifics by focusing on logical processes
first.
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First, we'll go through how to read DFDs and their basic syntax in this section. The procedure for
creating DFDs is then described, which incorporates information from the use cases as well as extra
requirements acquired from users.

1.1.2 Data Flow Diagrams

Data Flow Diagrams: How to Read Them

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 A DFD of a Grass Chemical Applicator (LCA) seeking a lawn chemical is shown in Figure 5-1. An
analyst can deduce the method by which LCAs seek lawn chemicals by looking at the DFD. Before

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you continue reading, take a look at the diagram. How well do you comprehend?

The majority of people in Western societies read schematics from top to bottom, from left to right. As a

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result, most analysts try to start the DFD here whenever possible. The "Lawn Chemical Applicator
(LCA)" external entity, which is a rectangle that symbolises individual employees that must request
the chemicals they will use for their lawn care tasks, is the first item on the left side of Figure 5-1.
Three arrows point away from this sign to rounded rectangular symbols. The external entity (LCA)
offers three "bundles" of data to processes that consume the data, as shown by these arrows.

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Now look at the arrow on the right side of the "Determine Chemical Approval Status" process. The
process must obtain certain information from storage in order to assess if the chemical requested is
approved for use. A data store is the open-ended rectangle labelled "Lawn Chemical Supply," and it
represents a collection of stored data. The "Determine Chemical Approval Status" method finds the
requested chemical and determines if it is an approved or disapproved chemical using an identifier for
the chemical.

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Take a closer look at the use case's Major Steps Performed section.

The use case has a number of steps, as you can see. These phases have been arranged into five key
processes on the data flow diagram, each performing one main component of the interactions

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outlined in the use case. Imagine the LCA specifying the chemical he needs for a work on the DFD
(Figure 5-1) as you follow the arrows starting with "Chemical needed" from the LCA to the "Determine
Chemical Approval Status" process. The system checks up the chemical and sends a message to the
LCA, either confirming that it is an allowed chemical or informing them that it cannot be used.
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When a chemical is approved, the system checks up how much of it is accessible and notifies the
LCA. The LCA specifies the quantity he desires. Notice how the use case's "Information for Steps"
section lists the data pieces that each step uses or produces, matching to the inflows and outflows
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from the process symbols (2.1, 2.2) on the data flow diagram (Figure 5-1).

Examine the flows into and out of each of the remaining three process symbols in the DFD. Try to
figure out what the process is doing based on the data coming in and going out. Examine the Major
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Steps Performed and Information for Steps sections of the use case to double-check your
comprehension.

The "Confirm Request" step (2.3), as you surely know, receives the LCA's chemical request
confirmation and produces and stores a new Chemical Request. The system also performs two more
operations, as you can see. By labelling the quantity sought as "reserved," the chemical's available
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quantity is changed (and no longer available to another LCA). Finally, the LCA is given the pickup
authorization, and the Chemical Supply Warehouse is informed of the approved pick-up. The flows
from process 2.3 to processes 2.4 and 2.5 show that a process can sometimes pass data directly to
another process.
 Although the analyst will have to make some decisions about how much detail to portray in the DFD,
a well-constructed use case makes constructing a data flow diagram very simple. On a DFD, the

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steps of a use case can be arranged into logical processes. The Major Inputs and Major Outputs
sections of the use case list the origins and destinations of the processes' inflows and outflows,
respectively. The data flows that enter or leave each process on the data flow diagram are shown in

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the Information for Steps section, which corresponds to the data flows that enter or leave each
process on the data flow diagram.

1.1.3 Elements of Data Flow Diagrams

Now that you've seen a DFD, we'll go over the DFD language, which consists of a collection of

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symbols, naming standards, and syntactic rules. Processes, data flows, data storage, and external
entities are the four symbols in the DFD language, each of which is represented by a separate
graphic symbol. There are two popular symbol styles: one created by Chris Gane and Trish Sarson,
and the other by Tom DeMarco and Ed Yourdon2 (Figure 5-2). The Gane and Sarson style of
symbols is used by some organisations, whereas the DeMarco/Yourdon style is used by others.

Process

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A process is a set of activities or functions that are carried out for a specified business purpose.
Processes can be either manual or automated. Every process should be titled with a verb at the
beginning and a noun at the conclusion (for example, "Determine request quantity"). Short names

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should have enough information to allow the reader to grasp exactly what they perform. Because
each process usually only does one thing, most system analysts avoid using the word "and" in
process names because it implies that the process does multiple things. Furthermore, each process
must have at least one input data flow and one output data flow.
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The essential aspects of a process are depicted in Figure 5-2, along with how they are typically
named in CASE tools. Every process has its own unique identifier, name, and description, which are
all recorded in the CASE repository. The phases and features of the processes are described clearly
and accurately in descriptions, which are then used to guide programmers who need to computerise
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the operations (or the writers of policy manuals for non computerised processes). As additional
information about the process is gained throughout the analysis phase, the process descriptions grow
more complex. Many process descriptions consist of basic text statements that describe what
happens.
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More formal strategies, such as structured English, decision tables, or decision trees, are used in
more sophisticated procedures, as mentioned in a subsequent section.
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Data Flow

A data flow is a logical grouping of numerous pieces of information (e.g., quantity available) or a
single piece of data (e.g., quantity available) (e.g., new chemical request). A noun should be used to
name each data flow. The data elements contained in a data flow are listed in the flow's description.
The data pieces in the pick-up notification data flow, for example, could include the LCA name,
chemical, and amount required.
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The glue that ties the processes together is data flows. Every data flow has one end that comes from
or goes to a process, with the arrow indicating the direction of flow into or out of the process. Data
flows explain what goes into each operation and what it creates as outputs. Every process must
generate at least one output data flow, because without one, the process will be rendered useless.
Similarly, any process has at least one input data flow since producing an output without any input is
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difficult, if not impossible.

Data Store
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A data store is a collection of data that is kept in some form of storage (which is determined later
when creating the physical model). Every data storage is given a word and a description, as well as
an identifying number. Data stores serve as the foundation for the data model and serve as the
primary link between the process and data models.

Data flows going out of a data storage show that the data store has been accessed. Process 2.1
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(Determine Chemical Approval Status) receives the Chemical Approval Status data flow from the
Lawn Chemicals Supply data store, as shown in Figure 5-1. The Quantity Available data flow is also
retrieved from the Lawn Chemicals Supply data storage by Process 2.2 (Determine Request
Quantity). When data flows into a data store, it means that data is being added to the data store.
 Process 2.3, for example, populates the Chemical Requests data store with a New Chemical Request
data flow. Finally, data flows into and out of a data store indicate that information in the data store has

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been modified (for example, by retrieving data from a data store, modifying it, and restoring it).
Process 2.4 (Update Available Chemical Quantity), as shown in Figure 5-1, retrieves the current
reserved quantity from the Lawn Chemical Supply data store, updates it, and publishes the new data

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back into the data store.

Unless they are produced and maintained by another information system or on a different page of the
DFD, all data stores must have at least one input data flow (otherwise they will never have any data).
On some pages of the DFD, they also have at least one output data flow. (Why save data if you're

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never going to utilise it?) When a single process both stores and receives data from a data store, it's
tempting to draw a single data flow with an arrow on both ends. This practise, however, is erroneous.
Always show the data flow that saves data and the data flow that retrieves data as two independent
data flows.

External Entity

A person, organisation, organisational unit, or system that is external to the system but interacts with

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it is referred to as an external entity (e.g., customer, clearinghouse, government organization,
accounting system). The external entity is usually the same as the principal player in the use case.
External entities deliver data to or receive data from the system, and they also serve to define the
system's boundaries. There is a name and a description for every external entity. The most important

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thing to understand about an external entity is that it is not a part of the organisation, rather it is
external to the system. External entities are those who use the information from the system to execute
other activities or who decide what information goes into the system (e.g., managers, staff ).
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1.1.4 Creating the Context Diagrams

The context diagram is used to determine the context and limits of the system to be modelled, such
as what is inside and outside the system and how the system interacts with these other entities.
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A context diagram, also known as a level 0 data-flow diagram, is used to describe and illustrate the
software system's boundaries. It locates information flows between the system and external entities.
The complete software system is shown as a single process in this diagram.
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Below is a proposed context diagram for the Video-Rental LTD case study.
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Drawing and analysing the context diagram to develop the analytical framework unavoidably leads to
some first discussions with users about problems with the present system and the specific
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requirements for the new system. These, as well as any special system needs established in prior
investigations, are formally documented.

After the framework has been agreed upon, a full examination of the current system must be planned.
This entails figuring out how each of the areas covered by the scope will be explored. This could be
accomplished by user interviews, the distribution of questionnaires to users or clients, the examination
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of existing system documentation and procedures, observation, and so forth. The investigation's key
users are identified, and their precise duties are agreed upon.
 Putting together a context diagram

The following must be identified in order to create the context diagram and agree on system scope:

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• external entities

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• data-flows

The following steps may be helpful:

• Identify data-flows by making a list of the system's primary documents and information flows,
such as forms, papers, reference material, and other structured and unstructured data

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(emails, telephone conversations, information from external systems, etc.).
• Identify external entities by identifying data-flow sources and recipients that are not part of the
investigation system. External entities may frequently be actors in any use case models
you've produced.
• Create a process box that represents the entire system and label it.
• Outside of the process box, draw and label the external entities.
• Data-flows between external entities and the system box should be added. Documents and

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other packets of information that pass wholly within the system should be ignored from the
perspective of the context diagram — they are hidden within the process box at this level.

This system boundary, as well as the specifics indicated in the context diagram, should be reviewed

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(and amended if required) with your clients until an agreement is reached.

The areas for research will be identified when the system boundary and scope have been defined,
and acceptable procedures for investigating each area will need to be determined.
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1.1.5 Creating the level 0 Data Flow Diagrams

You assemble the DFD fragments (one for each of the primary use cases) into a single DFD drawing,
which becomes the level 0 DFD. There are no specific layout rules for DFDs, as previously stated.
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Most systems analysts try to start in the upper left corner of the diagram with the most recent process
and work their way down from top to bottom, left to right (e.g., Figure 5-1). Most analysts aim to
minimise the amount of times data flow lines cross or guarantee that when they do, they do so at right
angles to avoid misunderstanding. (Many add a small "hump" to one line to indicate that one data flow
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jumps over the other without touching it.) It's difficult to reduce the number of data flows that cross.

The cornerstone of excellent DFD design is iteration. Even the most seasoned analysts rarely sketch
a DFD precisely the first time around. They usually draw it once to understand the pattern of
processes, data flows, data stores, and external entities, and then they draw it again on a new sheet
of paper (or in a new file) to make it easier to understand and limit the number of data flows that
cross. A DFD is frequently redrawn before it is completed.
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1.1.6 Creating Level 1 Data Flow Diagrams

As explained previously, context diagrams (level 0 DFDs) are diagrams where the whole system is
represented as a single process. A level 1 DFD lists all of the major sub-processes that make up the
entire system. A level 1 DFD can be thought of as a "exploded perspective" of the context diagram.
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The following is a possible level 1 DFD for the Video-Rental LTD case study:
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External entities have been put on this diagram, but they are outside of the rectangle that symbolises
the diagram's boundary (i.e., the system boundary). It's not necessary to show external entities on
level 1 (or below) DFDs all of the time, although it can help with clarity and understanding.

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We can see that there are a lot of data stores and data-flows between processes and data stores on
this level 1 DFD.
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It's worth noting that this level 1 diagram and the level 0 context diagram both show the identical data
flows to and from external entities. When a process is expanded to a lower level, the lower level
diagram must include all of the same data flows into and out of the upper level process.

Creating DFDs at the first level

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Before attempting to construct the level 1 DFD, develop a context diagram if one does not exist (or
construct the context diagram and level 1 DFD simultaneously).
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To assist in the building of Level 1 DFD, the following procedures are suggested:

Processes should be identified. A process must receive each data flow into the system. Examine the
documentation for the system and speak with the users for each data-flow into the system to
determine a credible system process that receives the data-flow. At least one output data-flow is
required for each process. A process must have sent each system output data-flow; identify the
processes that send each system output.
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Create data-flow diagrams between external entities and processes.

Determine where documents and data need to be stored within the system to identify data stores. To
the diagram, add the data storage and label them with their local names or descriptions.
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Within the system, add data-flows between processes and data stores. There must be at least one
input data-flow and one output data-flow for each data store (otherwise data may be stored, and
never used, or a store of data must have come from nowhere). Ascertain that each data storage has
data-flows for input and output to system activities. Almost all processes are linked to at least one
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data store.

Examine the diagram. There should be an input and an output for each procedure. There should be
an input and an output for each data store. Examine the system's details to determine if any
processes appear to be occurring for no apparent reason (i.e., some "trigger" data-flow that would
cause the process to occur is missing).
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1.1.7 Validating Data Flow Diagrams

 It should go without saying that creating data-flow diagrams is difficult. Using the following questions
as a checklist, you should be able to catch any minor errors. The first series of questions is for a

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single diagram, so if you have a set of levelled data-flow diagrams, you'll need to run these tests for
each one.

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1. Is every data-flow associated with a process at the start or end of the arrow?

2. Is each data stream labelled with a meaningful noun?

3. Is there at least one input and one output in every process?

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4. Is every process called logically (no phrases like "process" or "handle"), with an action and the
object of the action? (Do something to something is the template.)

5. Does every data store have a plural name for the sort of data it stores?

6. Do all instances of data stores and external entities that appear several times on one diagram have
a "diagonal" line?

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7. Are there any data flows that cross each other? If this is the case, try to avoid the crossing by
adding more duplicate external entities or data storage.

This second series of questions focuses on levelling and should be addressed to the entire collection

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of diagrams.

1. Are all of the diagrams balanced? Are the inputs and outputs of the process identical to the inputs
and outputs on the extended, lower level diagram when a diagram expands a process to a higher
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level?

2. Do both the context and level one diagrams show all foreign entities?

3. Have you numbered all of the processes and data stores correctly?
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All data-flow diagrams are meant to help software engineers and their clients communicate. A chaotic
or convoluted data-flow model will impede communication just as much as a long-winded text
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description, even if it is factual and accurate. To avoid this, repaint the diagrams anytime they become
cluttered or have multiple corrections as they evolve. A simple reorganisation of the components may
be all that is required to significantly improve a diagram.

1.1.8 System Flow Chart

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process that was first presented by Frank
Gilberth in 1921. Previously, they were known as "Process Flow Charts." Each phase in the process
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is represented by a different symbol, which is accompanied by a brief description of the step. The flow
chart icons are connected by arrows that indicate the direction of the process flow.
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1.1.9 Data Dictionary and Meta Data

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To assist in the creation of ERDs, a CASE tool is employed. A data dictionary is part of any CASE
tool, and it's where the analyst goes to define or seek up information about the entities,
characteristics, and relationships on the ERD. Even Visio 2010, which is largely recognised as a
drawing programme, includes some basic data dictionary features. Figures 6-6, 6-7, and 6-8 show
 common data dictionary entries for an entity, an attribute, and a relationship; note the types of
information captured by the data dictionary for each element.

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The information in the data dictionary is referred to as metadata, which is data about data. Metadata
is anything that specifies an entity, attribute, or relationship, such as entity names, attribute

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descriptions, and relationship cardinality, and it is captured to help designers and users better
understand the system they are constructing. Figure 6-9 shows a list of common metadata contained
in a data dictionary. It's worth noting that metadata can both describe an ERD element (such as entity
name) and provide information to the project team (like the user contact, the analyst contact, and
special notes)

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The data dictionary stores metadata so that it may be shared and accessed by developers and users
at any time during the SDLC. The data dictionary helps you to keep track of the common pieces of
information about your elements in one location and make that information available to several areas
of a project. The data characteristics in a data model, for example, appear as elements of data stores
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and data flows in process models, as well as fields on an input screen in the user interface.
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When you make a modification to the data dictionary, it has an impact on all of the project's relevant
parts.

When metadata is complete, clear, and shared, it can be utilised to connect the many elements of the
analysis phase, resulting in a far better design. As the project progresses through the SDLC, it
becomes progressively more thorough.
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1.1.10 Decision Trees

Let us learn about different Structured Analysis tools with the aid of a question.
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Decision Trees

Provides a non-technical person with an easy-to-understand graphical depiction of decision

reasoning. It's a simple representation of a computer design that illustrates branch points but not the

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specifics of user dialogues. It aids in demonstrating the path that can be taken in a design as a result
of a user action or decision. As a result, it aids the designer in visualising how the user would navigate
the design to achieve a desired destination. In simple terms, a decision tree depicts the control flow
that will be implemented in the computer programme.

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1.1.11 Decision Tables

Decision Tables are a type of non-procedural decision rule definition. They've been widely employed
in the systematic development of information systems. They've also been utilised for documenting
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and communicating complex decision-making processes. A decision table is a set of conditions and
actions that define a logical procedure. As a result, it's a tool for representing complex processing
decisions in a concise manner.
 Components of decision table:

• Condition Stub lists all the conditions to be verified in the decision table.

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• The Action Stub lays forth all of the steps that must be taken to meet the condition.

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• Answers to queries posed in the condition stub quadrant are provided by Condition Entry.

• Action Entry is the appropriate action taken as a result of the responses to the conditions in the
condition entry quadrant.

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Rules

• (Y) if a condition exists.

• (N) – a condition that is not met.

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• (blank or hyphen) - indicates that it should be ignored.

An X (or a check mark) indicates that the action is to be carried out.

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There are three types of decision tables.

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• LEDT- Limited Entry Decision Table

 o The answer to the question is just 'YES' or 'NO,' and the action is only denoted by 'X' (Cross) or '-'.
(Hyphen). There is no alternative symbol or code that can be used. As a result, the number of

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conditions in this form of decision table is higher.

o The question is written in the condition stub, and the answer is written in the decision table's

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condition entry portion.

Solution for above mentioned Question

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• Extended Entry Decision Table (EEDT) o It can have several answers depending on the type of
question asked, which is extended into the decision table's condition entry section. It should be noted
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that each question is created by combining the statement from the condition stub with the statement
from the condition entry of the EEDT decision table.

Solution for above mentioned Question

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• MEDT - Mixed Entrance Decision Table o The identical question that is dealt with in LEDT and
EEDT can also be shown in a different manner, with one query extending to the entry portion and the
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other being limited to the condition stub. In the condition entry, this table can have 'YES' or 'NO,' as
well as different answers to the question in the condition stub.

o It is a combination of LEDT and EEDT. As a result, the manner in which a decision table is
expressed is determined by the problem, available software system, and other factors.
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Solution for above mentioned Question

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 1.1.12 Structured English

Structured English is analogous to a computer language like Pascal, which, unlike other programming

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languages, does not have rigorous grammar constraints. The goal is to provide a detailed description
of a procedure in plain English that the user can understand. In the context of structured English, the

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following conventions are followed when describing a structured English process:

• Keywords: Imperative Statements

• Relational and arithmetic operations: (+, *, -, /)

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(LT stands for less than, LE stands for less than equal to, GT stands for greater than, GE stands for
greater than equal To, EQ stands for equal to, and NE stands for not equal to)

• Case Statements: (If..then..Else) Decision Structures

• Looping: Repetition (For, While, Do while)

The important thing to remember is to keep individual procedures simple enough that anyone who

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isn't a computer expert can read and comprehend them.

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Solution for the above mentioned Question

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Check your Understanding

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1. A __________ is a set of activities or functions that are carried out for a specified business
purpose.

2. A ____________ is a collection of data that is kept in some form of storage.

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3. A context diagram, also known as a_______________ , is used to describe and illustrate the
software system's boundaries.

4. A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process that was first presented by
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____________________.

5. The data dictionary stores ___________ so that it may be shared and accessed by developers and
users at any time during the SDLC.

6. _________ lists all the conditions to be verified in the decision table.

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 Summary

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Different elements of data flow diagrams are: process, data flow, data store and external
entity.
• The context diagram is used to determine the context and limits of the system to be modelled,

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such as what is inside and outside the system and how the system interacts with these other
entities.
• A context diagram, also known as a level 0 data-flow diagram, is used to describe and
illustrate the software system's boundaries. It locates information flows between the system
and external entities.
•

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A level 1 DFD lists all of the major sub-processes that make up the entire system. A level 1
DFD can be thought of as a "exploded perspective" of the context diagram.
• A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process that was first presented by
Frank Gilberth in 1921. Previously, they were known as "Process Flow Charts." Each phase
in the process is represented by a different symbol, which is accompanied by a brief
description of the step. The flow chart icons are connected by arrows that indicate the
direction of the process flow.
•

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To assist in the creation of ERDs, a CASE tool is employed. A data dictionary is part of any
CASE tool, and it's where the analyst goes to define or seek up information about the entities,
characteristics, and relationships on the ERD.
• Metadata is anything that specifies an entity, attribute, or relationship, such as entity names,
attribute descriptions, and relationship cardinality, and it is captured to help designers and

•
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users better understand the system they are constructing.
Decision Trees provides a non-technical person with an easy-to-understand graphical
depiction of decision reasoning.
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Decision Tables are a type of non-procedural decision rule definition. They've been widely
employed in the systematic development of information systems. They've also been utilised
for documenting and communicating complex decision-making processes. A decision table is
a set of conditions and actions that define a logical procedure. As a result, it's a tool for
representing complex processing decisions in a concise manner.
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• Structured English is analogous to a computer language like Pascal, which, unlike other
programming languages, does not have rigorous grammar constraints. The goal is to provide
a detailed description of a procedure in plain English that the user can understand.
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Activity

Create a PPT on Data Flow Diagrams

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Glossary

• System analysis- Systems analysis is "the process of studying a procedure or business to

identify its goal and purposes and create systems and procedures that will efficiently achieve
them"
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• Data flow diagram- A data-flow diagram is a way of representing a flow of data through a
process or a system
• Context diagram- Context diagrams show the interactions between a system and other actors
(external factors) with which the system is designed to interface
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• Data flow- Dataflow is the movement of data through a system comprised of software,
hardware or a combination of both
• Data store- A data store is a repository for persistently storing and managing collections of
data which include not just repositories like databases, but also simpler store types such as
simple files, emails etc
• Entity- a thing with distinct and independent existence
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• Validating- check or prove the validity or accuracy of.

• Flow chart- a diagram of the sequence of movements or actions of people or things involved
in a complex system or activity.
 • Data dictionary- a set of information describing the contents, format, and structure of a
database and the relationship between its elements, used to control access to and

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manipulation of the database.
• Meta data - a set of data that describes and gives information about other data.

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Questions and Exercises

1. What you do understand by the term data flow diagrams? Explain in detail.

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2. What are the different elements of data flow diagrams?

3. Explain context diagrams.

4. What do you understand by system flow charts.

5. Write a short note on:

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a) decision tables

b) decision trees

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c) data dictionary and meta data
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Further Readings

• Book: Systems Analysis and Design

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Author: Goyal A

Publisher: Prentice Hall India Learning Private Limited

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• Book: Systems Analysis and Design, 6ed Paperback – 1 January 2016

Author: Dennis , Wixom , Roth

Publisher: Wiley
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Check your Understanding (Answers)

1. process

2. data store
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3. level 0 data-flow diagram

4. Frank Gilberth in 1921.

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5. metadata

6. Condition Stub
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 Unit 2.1 System Design

Learning Objectives:

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After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

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• Analyze the transition from requirement to design
• Understand system acquisition strategies
• Comprehend entity relationship model
• Understand the different types of system design
•

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Explain the factors affecting system complexity

2.1.1 Introduction

The operation of the new system is decided during the design process. As the development team
creates the system requirements, many actions will be involved. This unit outlines the actions involved
in the design phase, which culminate in the preparation of the system specification. We also go over
three different acquisition tactics that the development team can use to get the system.

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2.1.2 Transition from Requirement to Design

The goal of the analysis phase is to determine what the company need. The design phase's goal is to

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figure out how to construct it. System design is the process of determining the overall system
architecture—a collection of physical processing components, hardware, software, people, and their
interactions—that will meet the system's key needs.
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The project team turns the business needs for the system into system requirements, which describe
the technical specifications for developing the system, during the first phase of design. System
requirements are expressed through a set of design documents and physical process and data
models, as opposed to business needs, which are stated in the requirements definition and presented
through use cases and logical process and data models. The blueprint for the new system is made up
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of design documents and physical models.

It's important to remember that our focus is on creating a technical system blueprint that meets the
system's needs. However, altered work flows and procedures that users will follow when utilising the
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new system will be a significant part of the final, full information system. At this stage of the project,
business analysts often focus on the design of these components, while systems analysts
concentrate on more technical design features. User documentation and training materials will
eventually describe the new business processes and procedures.

There are several actions in the design process that lead to the system blueprint. (For a visual
representation, see Figure 7-1.) Examining multiple system acquisition strategies to determine which
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will be used to meet the system's needs is an important first step in the design phase. System
development can be done from the ground up, purchased and customised, or outsourced to others,
and the project team must weigh the pros and cons of each option. The design tasks undertaken
throughout the rest of the phase are influenced by the decision to make, buy, or outsource.
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During the analysis, the project team carefully evaluates the nonfunctional business needs that were
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discovered. The system requirements that drive the design of the system's architecture are influenced
by nonfunctional business needs. Operational, performance, security, cultural, and political factors all
play a role in the "how" of a system. The project team, for example, must plan for the new system's
performance, including how quickly it will work, its capacity, and its availability and reliability. The
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team must establish a secure system by defining access controls and determining the requirement for
encryption, authentication, and virus protection. The nonfunctional criteria are rewritten as system
requirements in the architectural design document.
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Simultaneously, decisions are made about the hardware and software that will be purchased to
support the new system's architecture. The hardware and software specification, which is a document
that outlines what hardware and software are required to enable the new application, documents
these decisions. The project team uses the hardware and software specification to communicate the
hardware and software needs to the appropriate people. The purchasing department or the area in
the organisation that handles capital procurement is sometimes in charge of the actual acquisition of
hardware and software; however, the purchasing department or the area in the organisation that
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handles capital procurement is sometimes in charge of the actual acquisition of hardware and
software.

Interactions between the user and the system must also be planned. The system's inputs and outputs
will be designed, as well as a plan or roadmap for navigating the system's features. Techniques that
aid the project team in designing a system that satisfies the needs of its users and is enjoyable to use,
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such as storyboarding and prototyping. The interface design is a design document that communicates
design decisions made about the interface.

The logical process model describes the processes that underpin the system's functionality. These
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logical DFDs are then transformed into physical DFDs, which detail the system's physical design
decisions. As technological decisions are made, the CASE repository entries are updated to reflect
them. Program specifications are created to offer final design details and ensure that programmers
have enough information to efficiently develop the correct system. All of the information regarding the
new system's programmes is contained in the programme design document.
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Prior to implementation, the data component of the system, as specified in the logical data model,
must also be designed. The construction of the physical data model, modifications to the CASE
repository, and how to update the CRUD matrix to ensure that the process and data models are
consistent. Data storage design decisions are documented in the data storage design document.
 The design phase's several operations are intricately linked. Analysts frequently switch back and forth
between these processes, as they do with the steps in the analysis phase. Prototyping in the interface

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design phase, for example, frequently reveals new information that is required in the system,
necessitating a revision of the physical DFDs or ERDs. If the project team decides to switch to a
system that distributes all processing, a system that was created for an organisation with centralised

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systems may require significant hardware and software investments.

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The project team generates the final deliverable for the phase, known as the system specification, at
the end of the design phase. Physical process models, physical data models, architectural design,
hardware and software specification, interface design, data storage design, and programme design
are all contained in this paper. The system definition, taken as a whole, specifies exactly what system
the project team will develop throughout the SDLC's implementation phase. The content of the system
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specification is outlined in Figure 7-2.

2.1.3 System Acquisition Strategies

We have carefully avoided committing ourselves to a certain method of attaining the new system in
the units assigned to the SDLC's analysis phase. We've emphasised that during the analysis phase,
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the team should concentrate on identifying the system's logical requirements, deferring the question
of how the system should be obtained until the design phase.

Until now, we've taken it for granted that the project team will design, build, and deploy the system.
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This isn't a completely reasonable assumption. In many projects, the team may realise that some or
all of the new system's software will be purchased from a third party. Some companies have adopted
software acquisition strategies that substantially favour purchased software. This section explains why
this decision is justified for a variety of reasons. The work done in the analysis phase, particularly the
tools and techniques used to establish, define, and explain the business and user requirements, is still
critical to the project's success, in our opinion. Before looking for a product that fits us perfectly, we
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must first figure out what we need. Otherwise, we risk having a software vendor tell us what we need,
resulting in software that does not meet our real-world business and user needs.
 However, there are three main approaches to approach the design of a new system: (1) create a
custom application in-house; (2) purchase a packaged system and (potentially) customise it; or (3)

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have the system built or provided by an external vendor, developer, or service provider. Each of these
options has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, and each is better suited to certain
scenarios. There may be clear project characteristics that point to the best acquisition method.

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Personalized Development

Many project teams believe that custom development, or creating a new system from the ground up,
is the best way to go. For starters, teams have complete control over the system's appearance and
functionality. Let's take a look at the Tune Source purchase process. The project may require a costly,

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highly specialised application if the organisation wants a Web-based component that is tightly
integrated with its existing CD sales system. Tune Source could, on the other hand, have a technical
environment in which all information systems are designed using standard technologies and interface
designs, making them consistent and easier to maintain and support. In both circumstances, building
a new system from the ground up to fulfill these extremely specialised requirements might be very
beneficial.

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In certain cases, the difficulties that the new system is addressing are so substantial and demanding
that they require serious systems engineering to solve. In certain circumstances, the developers are
unable to discover a packaged solution capable of satisfying the project criteria, leaving only a
bespoke development project as a viable option.

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Custom development also allows developers to handle business difficulties in a more flexible and
innovative manner. The Web interface that accepts client digital music sales could be a key strategic
enabler for Tune Source. The corporation may wish to use the system's data to better understand its
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clients who buy digital music over the Internet, and it may want the freedom to evolve the system to
include data-mining tools and geographic information systems for marketing research. It would be
easier to modify a custom programme to include components that take advantage of existing
technology that can support such strategic endeavours.
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Building a system in-house also improves the company's technical and functional knowledge.
Developers gain a greater grasp of the business when they interact with business users, and they are
better equipped to connect information systems with strategies and needs. These same developers
are climbing the technological learning curve, making future projects that use similar technologies
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much easier.

Custom application development, on the other hand, necessitates a focused effort involving long
hours and hard work. Many businesses already have an overburdened development team. The staff
just does not have time for another project due to massive backlogs of system requests. In order for
the project to move forward successfully, a number of skills—technical, interpersonal, functional,
project management, modeling—must be in place. IT experts, especially those with advanced
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degrees, are challenging to find and keep.

Building a system from the ground up comes with a lot of risks, and there's no certainty that the
project will succeed. Developers may be drawn away to work on other projects, technological issues
may create delays, and business customers may become frustrated as the deadline lengthens.
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Packaged Software

Since it makes little sense to recreate the wheel for many business needs, many firms opt to
purchase pre-written packaged software rather than developing their own custom solution. Indeed,
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thousands of commercially available software programmes have previously been produced to suit a
wide range of objectives. Consider your own need for a word processor: have you ever considered
writing your own software? That would be ridiculous, given the abundance of competent software
products available at reasonable prices.

Similarly, most businesses have needs, such as payroll or accounts receivable, that bundled software
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can easily meet. Buying programmes that have already been written, tested, and proved can be
considerably more efficient, and a packaged system can be purchased and installed much faster than
 a custom system. Furthermore, packaged systems incorporate the skills and experience of the
software's creator.

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Consider the requirements Tune Source will have for its Digital Music Download system. One
necessity is that the purchased tunes be delivered to the customer via the Internet in an easy, quick,

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and flexible manner. There are server-side download management software applications available
that are aimed to optimise file download delivery. Some of these items are free, and others include
these tools as part of a larger shopping-cart capability. As it analyses alternatives for the Digital Music
Download system, Tune Source will undoubtedly have to evaluate this type of possibility.

Small single-function tools, such as the server-side download manager, to large all-encompassing

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systems, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) solutions that are installed to automate a whole
corporation, are all examples of packaged software. ERP system implementation is a common
procedure in which huge corporations spend millions of dollars to install software from companies like
SAP, Oracle, and Infor, and then adjust their operations accordingly. ERP software is more difficult to
deploy than small application packages since the benefits are more difficult to achieve and the
difficulties are more serious.

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One issue is that firms that use packaged systems must accept the capabilities that the system
provides, which is rarely flawless. If the packaged system has a vast scope, its adoption could result
in a significant shift in the company's operations. Allowing technology to drive the business might be a
risky move.

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Most packaged apps allow for some modification or system parameter manipulation to change how
particular features work. For example, the package may include a feature that allows you to submit
company information or a logo, which would subsequently appear on input forms. To support the
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accounting practises in different organisations, an accounting software package could offer a variety
of ways to handle cash flow or inventory control. If the level of customization is insufficient and the
software package contains a few features that do not function as expected, the project team can
devise a workaround. A custom-built add-on programme that interfaces with the bundled application
to fulfil particular demands is a workaround. It can be a convenient approach to add functionality that
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isn't included in the programme package. Workarounds, on the other hand, should only be used as a
last resort for a variety of reasons. First, because the vendor who provided the packaged software
does not offer workarounds, changes to the main system may render the workaround worthless. In
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addition, if difficulties develop, vendors are prone to blaming the workaround and refusing to provide
help.

Although picking a packaged software system is easier than custom development, it can still benefit
from following a rigorous process, much like when developing a custom application. The software
package should be chosen based on the detailed requirements discovered throughout the
investigation.
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Systems integration is the process of merging packaged software, existing legacy systems, and new
software designed to integrate them to create new systems. Many consulting organisations specialise
in systems integration, therefore it's not uncommon for businesses to choose packaged software and
then hire a consulting firm to integrate the various packages.

Finding solutions to integrate the data supplied by various packages and legacy systems is a major
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difficulty in systems integration. Integration frequently entails reformatting data produced by one
package or system for use in another programme or system. The project team begins by reviewing
the data generated by and required by the various packages and systems, as well as the
transformations that must take place in order to move the data from one to the other. In many
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circumstances, this entails deceiving the various packages or systems into believing that the data was
generated by an existing programme module that the package or system expects to generate the
data, rather than the new package or system that is being integrated.

Tune Source, for example, may seek to combine its new Digital Music Download system with its
existing Web-based CD sales system. Customers can buy CDs over the Internet, and the system
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integrates with Tune Source's accounting and inventory management systems. The new Digital Music
Download system will not require interaction with the inventory management system, but it will need
to communicate with the accounting system and may be able to share consumer information with the
 CD sales system. As it examines its development possibilities, the Digital Music Download project
team will need to address these areas of system integration.

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Outsourcing

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Outsourcing, which entails contracting an external vendor, developer, or service provider to design or
provide the system, is the acquisition option that requires the fewest in-house resources. In recent
years, outsourcing has grown in popularity, with both domestic and non-domestic (offshore) service
providers available.

Outsourcing has expanded to encompass a wide range of methods for obtaining IT services and

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products. Application service providers (ASPs) are outsourcing companies that provide software
applications and/or software-related services across wide area networks or the Internet. The ASP
hosts and administers a software programme, as well as owns, runs, and maintains the servers that
run the application, under this method of receiving software. The ASP also hires the individuals who
will keep the application running.

Organizations that want to use a software programme hire an ASP, who then makes it available to

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them across a wide area network or the Internet, either on client computers or through a browser. The
ASP bills the consumer either on a per-use basis or on a monthly or annual charge basis for the
application.

The term "Software as a Service" (SaaS) refers to a popular expansion of the ASP paradigm. This

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term refers to circumstances in which SaaS vendors develop and manage their own software rather
than managing and hosting the software of a third-party independent software vendor (the more
traditional ASP model). Salesforce.com was one of the first companies to offer a SaaS version of its
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customer relationship management (CRM) software, and it helped popularise the concept of web-
based software that just requires a browser to utilise.

There are numerous application service providers to choose from. Some companies provide
enterprise-wide high-end business apps. Some are more interested in serving small and medium-
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sized businesses. Some ASPs are focused on specific business needs (such as CRM), while others
are focused on specific industries (e.g., healthcare).

Using an application service provider to get access to a software package provides a lot of benefits.
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There is a modest entrance cost and, in most circumstances, a very quick setup time. For all save the
most frequent users of the service, the pay-as-you-go model is generally substantially less expensive.
IT staffing costs can be cut, and specialist IT infrastructure purchases can typically be avoided.

There are other companies that will design a custom system on the customer's behalf. Having others
design your system can be really beneficial. They may have more technological experience or
resources, such as experienced programmers. Many businesses enter into outsourcing agreements
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to save money, while others see it as an opportunity to add value to their operations. Tune Source, for
example, may elect to let a Web service provider provide commercial services for them rather than
writing a programme to manage the purchasing process or purchasing a pre-existing package.

Outsourcing can be a good solution for a new system for a variety of reasons; however, it does not
come without price. You risk compromising secret information or losing control over future
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development if you delegate the design of a new system to someone else. The abilities that could be
learnt from the project are not benefiting in-house personnel; instead, the expertise is transferred to
an outside organisation. Important abilities can, in the end, walk out the door at the end of a contract.
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Most risks can be mitigated by outsourcing, but two are particularly critical. First, thoroughly examine
the project's requirements—you should never outsource what you don't understand. If you've done
your homework and done your research, you should have a good idea of what you need. Second,
pick a vendor, developer, or service that has experience with the type of system and technology your
system requires.
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There are three basic types of contracts that can be used to manage an outsourcing agreement.
Because you agree to pay for whatever time and expenses are required to complete the project, a
time and arrangements agreement is incredibly flexible. This arrangement, of course, could result in a
 big bill that exceeds original predictions. This arrangement works best when both you and the
outsourcer are unsure about how long it will take to complete the task.

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With a fixed-price contract, you'll spend no more than you expected because the outsourcer will have
to bear any expenditures that exceed the agreed-upon price. Outsourcers are meticulous about

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specifying needs in advance, and there is minimal room for adjustment.

The value-added contract, in which the outsourcer receives a portion of the advantages of the
completed system, is gaining popularity. In this situation, there is very little danger, but you should
expect to share the wealth once the system is in place.

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Fair contracts are an art form because they require a delicate balance of flexibility and clearly
specified parameters. Because needs vary over time, you don't want the contract to be too explicit
and restrictive, preventing changes. Consider how quickly technology, such as the World Wide Web,
evolves. It's impossible to predict how a project will develop over time. Short-term contracts allow for
reevaluation if needs alter or if partnerships aren't working out as planned for both sides. The
relationship with the outsourcer should be considered as a partnership in which both parties profit and
communicate openly in all instances.

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It takes a full-time job to manage an outsourcing relationship. As a result, someone must be
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appointed full-time to oversee the outsourcer, and that person's level should be adequate for the job's
size. (A high-level executive should handle a multimillion-dollar outsourcing project.) Progress should
be tracked and measured against defined goals throughout the relationship. If you decide to
outsource your design work, make careful to gather more information. Some outsourcing rules are
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summarised in Figure 7-3.

Interactions with the Acquisition Strategy

Each of the aforementioned system acquisition tactics has its own set of advantages and
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disadvantages, and no one strategy is necessarily superior to the others. As a result, it's critical to
grasp the benefits and drawbacks of each method, as well as when to employ them. The project
characteristics that influence acquisition approach selection are summarised in Figure 7-4.

Business Requirement
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It is usually appropriate to choose a packaged software solution if the business need for the system is
common and technological solutions already exist in the marketplace that can meet the system
requirements. Packaged systems are a suitable option for common business requirements. Because
of the ubiquitous availability and utility of packaged software, many larger organisations have
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developed a recommended list of packaged solutions for use across the board. The organisation is
able to ensure consistency across organisational units, streamline decision-making, and ultimately
reduce costs by limiting the selection of software packages from a list of standard options.

Packaged software, on the other hand, isn't appropriate for every situation. When the business need
is unique, when there are particularly difficult or demanding requirements that cannot be met with a
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package, or when the organisation is unable to change quickly enough to adapt to the way of doing
business embodied in a software package, a custom solution should be considered.
 Outsourcing can help a corporation with custom development initiatives as well as software
acquisition. The specialty and knowledge of an outsourcing firm can be quite helpful. Because

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outsourcing involves bringing in a third party into the development process, it is typically done when a
business need isn't a crucial part of the company's strategy. If the business necessity is critical to the
firm's strategy, it's usually best if the company can keep complete control of the project.

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Many companies are employing, or considering using, offshore outsourcing to "export" IT-related work
to nations with lower labour costs. Offshore IT outsourcing is used by two-thirds of organisations on
the InformationWeek 500 list of business technology pioneers. Although good quality IT talents are
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accessible in a number of countries, businesses adopting this option to save money must carefully
handle the dangers associated with this method of obtaining IT services.

In-House Training
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It will be easier to design a custom application if all of the functional and technical needs of the
system are met in-house rather than if these abilities are lacking. A packaged system may be a
preferable solution for companies who do not have the technical skills to develop the needed system.
A project team that lacks Web commerce technical skills, for example, could choose to invest in a
Web commerce package that can be setup quickly. Outsourcing is a good way to bring in outside
experience that isn't available in-house, allowing qualified people to take responsibility of the system's
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development.

Project Management Expertise

Technical (e.g., Java, Structured Query Language [SQL]) or functional (e.g., electronic commerce)
abilities are used in projects, and different design options are more viable depending on how vital the
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skills are to the company's strategy. For example, if the company needs certain functional and
technical expertise in Internet sales applications and Web commerce application development
because it expects the Internet to play an increasingly important role in sales over time, it makes
sense to develop Web commerce applications in-house, using company employees, so that the skills
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can be developed and improved. On the other hand, some talents, like as network security, may be
beyond the technical knowledge of employees or irrelevant to the company's strategists—it is simply a
business issue that must be addressed. Packaged systems or outsourcing should be considered in
this case so that internal employees can concentrate on more business-critical applications and skills.

Management of Projects
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Custom apps necessitate good project management and a tried-and-true approach. Many factors
might throw a project off schedule, including finance issues, staffing shortages, and overly demanding
business customers. As a result, the project team should only develop a custom application if the
 underlying coordination and control mechanisms are certain to be in place. Packaged and outsourcing
options must also be handled, but they are less vulnerable to internal impediments because the

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external parties have their own goals and ambitions (e.g., it may be easier for an outside contractor to
say no to a user than for a person within the company to do so). Companies who do not have an
acceptable technique to utilise can benefit from the later options, which often have their own

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methodologies.

Time Limits

When time is of the essence, the project team should opt for a system that has already been
constructed and tested. As a consequence, the organisation will have a decent notion of how long it

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will take to install the software and what the ultimate result will be. Of course, this implies that the
package can be installed as-is and that integrating it into existing business processes and technical
environments does not need numerous workarounds. Custom applications take a long time to
develop, especially when you consider how often projects miss crucial deadlines. If you have no
choice but to go with bespoke development and you have a short time frame, try adopting timeboxing
approaches to solve the problem. The time it takes to develop a system through outsourcing is mostly
determined by the system and the resources available to the outsourcer. A business need could be

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handled swiftly if a service provider has services in place that can satisfy the company's needs. An
outsourcing solution could otherwise take as long as a custom development project.

Optimizing Your Acquisition Strategy

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After the project team has a strong knowledge of how well each acquisition strategy fits the project's
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requirements, it must start thinking about how to put these strategies into action. What tools and
technologies, for example, would be employed if a bespoke option was chosen? What vendors
produce packaged solutions that meet the project's requirements? If the application were to be
outsourced, which service providers would be able to construct it? This information can be gathered
by talking to employees working in the IS Department and collecting recommendations from business
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users by contacting other organisations with comparable needs and researching the types of systems
that they have put in place. Brochures, product demos, and information seminars are common ways
for vendors and consultants to deliver information about various tools and solutions.
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To obtain the additional information that is required, project teams use a variety of methods. One
helpful tool is the request for proposal (RFP), a document that solicits a formal proposal from a
possible vendor, developer, or service provider. RFPs specify the system or service that is required,
and suppliers reply by describing how they would meet those requirements.

Although there is no set format for an RFP, it should include critical information that the vendor
requires, such as a clear explanation of the needs, any particular technical requirements or
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conditions, evaluation criteria, procedures to follow, and a timeframe. The RFP for a large project
might be hundreds of pages long since all relevant project details must be provided.

The RFP is more than just a tool for gathering data. Instead, it produces a vendor proposal, which is a
legally binding offer to complete the tasks outlined in the RFP. A schedule and a price for the work to
be done are included in the vendor proposal. A contract for the job is signed once the winning vendor
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proposal is chosen.

The request for information (RFI) may be sufficient for smaller projects with smaller expenditures. An
RFI is a shorter, less thorough request for broad information on potential vendors' products and
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services that is delivered to them. The RFI is sometimes used to identify which vendors are capable
of performing a service. It is frequently followed up with a request for proposal (RFP) to qualified
vendors.

The request for quote (RFQ) can be used when a list of equipment is sufficiently comprehensive that
the seller merely needs to submit a price without any analysis or description of what is required. The
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RFQ can be used, for example, if the manufacturer needs 20 long-range RFID tag readers on a
specific day and at a specific place. If an item is specified but no specific manufacturer's product is
mentioned, thorough testing will be necessary to ensure that the specifications are met.
 The design team will most likely have multiple plausible options for obtaining the system after
assessing the acquisition plan options and gathering additional information. For example, the project

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team might find three vendors who make packaged systems that could meet the project's
requirements; or the team might be debating whether to develop a system using Visual Basic as a
development tool and Sybase's database management system; or the team might decide that

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outsourcing the development effort to a consulting firm like Accenture or American Management
Systems is worthwhile. Each option will have advantages and disadvantages that must be weighed,
and only one answer may be chosen in the end.

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Matrix of Alternatives

An alternative matrix can be used to organise the benefits and drawbacks of design options so that
the best option is chosen in the end. (For more information, see Figure 7-5.) The same methods as
the feasibility analysis are used to produce this matrix. The only distinction is that the alternative
matrix integrates numerous feasibility evaluations into a single matrix, making it easier to compare the
options. The alternative matrix is a grid that lists the technical, economic, and organisational feasibility

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of each system candidate, as well as the benefits and drawbacks of selecting each solution and other
relevant data. Weights are sometimes assigned to different portions of the matrix to indicate when
certain criteria are more crucial to the final decision.

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Draw a grid with the alternatives across the top and other criteria (e.g., feasibilities, pros, drawbacks,
and other miscellaneous criteria) along the sides to produce the option matrix. Next, fill up the grid
with descriptive explanations about each choice. Because it clearly provides the choices under
consideration and compares their attributes, this document becomes a useful conversation tool.
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Weights and scores are sometimes applied to the alternative matrix to form a weighted alternative
matrix that communicates the project's most essential criteria and the best solutions. A scorecard is
created by including a "weight" column with a number indicating how important each criterion is to the
final choice. Analysts often take 100 points and distribute them evenly across the criteria. Each
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criterion would be given a weight of 20 if five criteria were employed and they all mattered equally. If
cost were the most essential criterion for selecting an option, it might receive 60 points, whereas the
other four criteria might only get 10 points each.
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The analysts then add a "Score" column to the matrix, which indicates how well each solution satisfies
the requirements. To grade the acceptability of the alternatives by the criteria, numerical ranges such
as 1 to 5 or 1 to 10 are commonly employed. As a result, the least expensive option may score a 5 on
a 1-to-5 scale, while the most expensive option may receive a 1. Weighted scores are calculated by
multiplying each criterion's weight by the score assigned to it for each choice. The weighted scores
are then added together for each option. Our requirements are best met when the highest weighted
score is obtained. When numbers are employed in the alternative matrix, project teams can make
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judgments quantitatively and on the basis of hard numbers.

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It should be noted, however, that the score assigned to the criteria for each possibility is purely a
subjective decision. As a result, it's quite conceivable for an analyst to influence the results based on
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his or her personal biases. In other words, the weighted alternative matrix can be manipulated to
favour any option you like while still appearing impartial and rational. To overcome the problem of
biassed analysis, each team member might produce ratings individually, then compare them and
resolve disagreements in an open team discussion.
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Of course, the ultimate stage is to choose which solution to design and implement. The decision
should be made by the approval committee after all of the issues associated with the various
possibilities have been thoroughly investigated. Keep in mind that the distinction between analysis
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and design is hazy. Alternatives are sometimes outlined and chosen towards the end of analysis, and
other times they are done before the start of design. The bottom line is that, before moving into the
heart of the design phase, the project team and approval committee must understand all of the
possible approaches to develop the system and choose the one that makes the most sense for the
company. Many of the subsequent tasks in the design phase will be influenced by the acquisition
approach chosen.
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Putting the Concepts into Practice at Tune Source

Jason Wells, senior systems analyst and project manager for Tune Source's Digital Music Download
system, had three options for developing the new system: he could develop the entire system himself
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using Tune Source's development resources; he could buy a packaged software programme (or a
collection of different packages and integrate them); or he could hire a consulting firm or service
provider to do it for him. Jason ruled out the third option right away. Tune Source's business approach
included the development of Internet applications, particularly e-commerce platforms. Tune Source
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would not foster Internet application development capabilities or business skills within the corporation
if the Internet system was outsourced.

Jason concluded that for Tune Source, a custom development project employing the company's
normal Web development tools would be the best option. The corporation would be able to build
important technical and business skills in-house, and the project team would have a lot of freedom
and control over the end product. Jason also wanted the new music download system to link with the
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existing Internet-based CD sales system, and a packaged solution might not fit into the Tune Source
environment as well. Finally, Jason was aware that new features were planned for future versions of
the system, so he understood the importance of maintaining control over each one.
 The purchasing section of the programme was one component of the project that could be handled by
packaged software. Jason recognised that a variety of applications for handling client transactions

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over the Internet have been built and are available (at affordable prices). Customers can usually
select goods for an order form, provide basic information, and complete the purchase transaction
using these systems, which are known as shopping-cart applications. Jason said the project team

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should at least investigate some of these packaged options so that they could spend less time
creating a software to handle basic Web functions and more time on novel marketing concepts and
specialised CD sales system interfaces.

Jason produced a weighted alternative matrix that contrasted three distinct shopping-cart

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programmes against one another to help better understand some of the shopping cart programmes
that were available on the market and how their adoption could benefit the project (Figure 7-6). Jason
considered choice 2 (WebShop) as the greatest option for handling the shopping cart functionality for
the new music download system, despite the fact that all three alternatives had advantages.

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WebShop was written in Java, which Tune Source had chosen as its main Web development
language; the cost was affordable, with no hidden or recurring fees; and there was an in-house expert
with some prior expertise with the application. Jason made a mental note to check into purchasing
WebShop as the Digital Music Download system's shopping cart programme.
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2.1.4 Input and Output for the System Design

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System Design Inputs

The following inputs are used in system design:

➢ Plan for determining requirements based on the statement of work

➢ Analyze the current circumstances
➢ A conceptual data model, redesigned DFDs, and Metadata are among the system
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requirements proposed (data about data).

Design of System Outputs

 ➢ The suggested system's infrastructure and organisational modifications are produced by
system design.
➢

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A data schema, which is usually a relational schema.
➢ Tables/files and columns/data-items are defined using metadata.
➢ A diagram that graphically depicts the programme structure, such as a function hierarchy

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diagram or a web page map.
➢ For each module in the programme, actual or pseudocode is used.
➢ The suggested system's prototype.

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2.1.5 Types of System Design

Logical Design

The term "logical design" refers to an abstract representation of a system's data flow, inputs, and
outputs. It describes the inputs (sources), outputs (destinations), databases (data storage), and
procedures (data flows) in a user-friendly format.

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The system analyst specifies the user demands at a degree of detail that virtually determines the
information flow into and out of the system, as well as the required data sources, while developing the
logical architecture of a system. E-R diagram modelling and data flow diagrams are employed.

Physical Design

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Physical design refers to the system's real input and output operations. It focuses on how data is
entered into a system, validated, processed, and outputted.
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It creates the working system by creating the design specification, which details the candidate
system's functionality. It is involved with the design of user interfaces, processes, and data.
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It entails the following procedures:

• Choosing input/output media, creating a database, and deciding on backup strategies.

• Implementation of the system is being planned.
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• Creating a test and implementation strategy, as well as identifying any additional hardware or
software requirements.
• Costs, benefits, conversion dates, and system constraints are all being updated.

Architectural Design

It's also known as high-level design, and it focuses on system architecture design. It explains the
system's structure and behaviour. It establishes the structure of the system development process and
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the relationships between the various modules.

Detailed Design

It adheres to architectural principles and concentrates on the development of each module.

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All the types of system design are discussed in detail ahead.

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2.1.6 Logical Design

Designing a Logical System

A logical design is abstract and conceptual. You haven't yet addressed the physical implementation
aspects. You're just concerned with defining the types of information you require.
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Entity-relationship modelling is one method for modelling your organization's logical information
requirements. Entity-relationship modelling is the process of identifying important items (entities), their
properties (attributes), and how they are connected to one another (relationships).
 The logical design method entails organising data into a set of logical relationships known as entities
and attributes. A block of data is represented by an entity. An entity frequently maps to a table in

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relational databases. An attribute is a component of an entity that aids in defining the entity's
uniqueness. An attribute in a relational database corresponds to a column.

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You must use unique IDs to ensure that your data is consistent. A unique identifier is a field that you
may add to tables to help you distinguish between the same item when it appears in many places.
This is frequently a primary key in a physical design.

While entity-relationship diagramming is most commonly associated with fully normalised models like
OLTP applications, it is also beneficial for data warehouse architecture in the form of dimensional

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modelling. Instead than attempting to uncover atomic units of information (such as entities and
attributes) and all of the relationships between them, dimensional modelling focuses on determining
which data belongs in a core fact table and which data belongs in its associated dimension tables.
You name the attributes for each topic after identifying business subjects or areas of data, defining
links between business subjects, and naming business subjects.

Your logical design should produce (1) a collection of entities and characteristics that correspond to

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fact and dimension tables, and (2) a model of operational data from your source into subject-oriented
data in your target data warehouse schema.

You can use a pen and paper to develop the logical design, or you can use a design tool like Oracle

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Warehouse Builder (specifically designed to support modelling the ETL process).

Schemas for Data Warehousing

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Tables, views, indexes, and synonyms are all part of a schema, which is a collection of database
objects. In schema models for data warehousing, you can arrange schema objects in a variety of
ways. A dimensional model is used in the majority of data warehouses.

The data warehouse schema is designed using the model of your source data and the requirements
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of your users. You can often obtain the source model from your company's corporate data model and
use it to reverse-engineer the logical data model for the data warehouse. The physical implementation
of the logical data warehouse model may need to be tweaked to fit your system's parameters—
machine size, user count, storage capacity, network type, and software.
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Schemas with a Star

The simplest data warehouse schema is the star schema. Because the diagram resembles a star,
with points radiating from a core, it is termed a star schema. As shown in Figure 2-1, the centre of the
star consists of one or more fact tables, while the points of the star are the dimension tables.
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Additional Schemas
 In data warehousing environments, third normal form schemas are used instead of star schemas in
some cases. The snowflake schema, which is a star schema with normalised dimensions in a tree

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structure, is another effective template.

Objects for Data Warehousing

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The two types of objects usually utilised in dimensional data warehouse schemas are fact tables and
dimension tables.

The large tables in your data warehouse schema that record business measures are known as fact
tables. Fact tables usually include facts as well as foreign keys to dimension tables. Data that may be

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analysed and examined is represented using fact tables, which are usually quantitative and additive.
Sales, cost, and profit are some examples.

Dimension tables, often known as lookup or reference tables, house the data warehouse's generally
static data. Dimension tables are used to store the data that is generally used to contain queries.
Dimension tables are often textual and descriptive, and they can be used as the result set's row
headers. Customers and merchandise are two examples.

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Tables of Contents

There are two types of columns in a fact table: those that hold numeric facts (commonly referred to as
measurements) and those that are foreign keys to dimension tables. A fact table can contain either

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detail-level facts or aggregated facts. Summary tables are fact tables that provide summarised
information. Facts with the same level of aggregation are frequently found in a fact table. Although the
majority of facts are additive, some are semi-additive or non-additive. Simple arithmetical addition can
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be used to aggregate additive data. Sales is a good example of this. Non-additive facts can't be
combined in any way. Averages are a good example of this. Facts that are semi-additive can be
aggregated along certain dimensions but not others. Inventory levels are an example of this, as you
can't know what a level means by by looking at it.
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Fact Table Requirements

For each star schema, you must define a fact table. In terms of modelling, the fact table's main key is
frequently a composite key made up of all of its foreign keys.
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Tables of Dimensions

A dimension is a data-categorizing structure made up of one or more hierarchies. The dimensional

value can be described using dimensional attributes. They're usually textual values that describe
something. You can answer business questions by combining several various dimensions with facts.
Customers, products, and time are all common dimensions.
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Dimension data is often collected at the most basic level before being aggregated into higher-level
totals that are more valuable for analysis. Hierarchies are the natural rollups or aggregations within a
dimension table.

Hierarchies
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Hierarchies are logical structures that organise facts by using ordered levels. Data aggregation can be
defined using a hierarchy. A hierarchy might aggregate data from the month level to the quarter level
to the year level in a time dimension, for example. A hierarchy can also be used to build a family
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structure and to define a navigational drill path.

Each level in a hierarchy is logically linked to the layers above and below it. Lower-level data values
combine to form higher-level data values. A dimension can be made up of many hierarchies. For
example, there could be two hierarchies in the product dimension: one for product categories and one
for product suppliers.
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Dimension hierarchies also divide levels into general and detailed categories. Hierarchies are used by
query tools to allow you to drill down into your data and observe different levels of granularity. This is
one of the most important advantages of a data warehouse.
 You must consider the relationships in company structures while creating hierarchies. A divisional
multilevel sales organisation, for example.

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Dimension values are given a family structure through hierarchies. A value at the next higher level is
its parent, and values at the next lower level are its children for a given level value. Analysts can

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readily obtain data because to these familial ties.

Levels

In a hierarchy, a level denotes a position. A time dimension, for example, might include a hierarchy
that depicts data at month, quarter, and year levels. The root level is the highest or most general

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level, and it ranges from general to particular. A dimension's levels are divided into one or more
hierarchies.

Relationships at the Level

From the most broad (the root) to the most precise information, level relationships establish a top-to-
bottom ordering of levels. They establish the parent-child link between hierarchy levels.

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Hierarchies are also necessary for more complicated rewrites to be possible. When the dimensional
dependencies between quarter and year are understood, the database can aggregate previous sales
revenue on a quarterly basis to a yearly aggregation.

Typical Hierarchy of Dimensions

Figure 2-2 depicts a customer-based dimension hierarchy.

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Identifiers that are unique

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In a dimension table, unique identifiers are supplied for each separate record. Artificial unique
identifiers are frequently used to circumvent the difficulty of changing unique identifiers. The #
character is used to indicate unique identifiers. #customer id, for example.
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Relationships

Business integrity is ensured via relationships. If a company sells anything, for example, there must
be a customer and a product. The business rules in databases are enforced by designing a
relationship between the sales information in the fact table and the dimension tables products and
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customers.

Objects in Data Warehousing and Their Relationships as an Example

 Customers, items, promotions, hours, and channels are all depicted in Figure 2-3, which is a standard
example of a sales fact table and dimension table.

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2.1.7 Physical Design

The physical design is concerned with the system's real input and output processes. This is described
in terms of how data is entered into a system, how it is verified/authenticated, processed, and
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displayed. The following system needs are decided during physical design.

Input, output, storage, processing, system control, and backup or recovery are all things that must be
considered.
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To put it another way, the physical aspect of system design can be divided into three sub-tasks:

User Interface Design

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Data Design

Process Design

User Interface Design is concerned with how users input data into a system and how that data is
presented to them by the system. The way data is expressed and stored within a system is called
data design. Finally, Process Design is concerned with how data is vetted, secured, and/or altered as
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it flows into, through, and out of the system. Documentation defining the three sub-tasks is developed
and made available for usage in the following phase at the end of the system design phase.

Physical design does not refer to the physical appearance of an information system in this sense. To
draw an analogy, the physical design of a personal computer includes input via a keyboard,
processing by the CPU, and output via a display, printer, and other devices. It would not affect the
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physical layout of the hardware, which in the case of a PC would include a monitor, CPU,
motherboard, hard drive, modems, video/graphics cards, USB slots, and so on. It entails the creation
of a detailed user and product database structure processor, as well as a control processor. For the
proposed system, the H/S personal specification is created.
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2.1.8 Input Design

Input mechanisms make it easier to enter data into a computer system, whether it's highly structured
data like order information (item numbers, quantities, and costs) or unstructured data like text (e.g.,
comments). Input design include the creation of displays for entering data as well as any forms on
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which users write or type data (e.g., time cards, expense claims).

Basic Concepts
 The purpose of input design is to quickly and readily acquire reliable data for the system. The basic
input design concepts reflect the nature of the inputs (whether batch or online) and strategies to make

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their collecting easier.

Appropriately use online and batch processing

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Online processing and batch processing are the two main methods for entering data into a computer
system. Each input item (e.g., a client order, a purchase order) is entered into the system separately
with online processing (also known as transaction processing), usually at the same time as the event
or transaction generating the input. When you borrow a book from the library, buy something at the
store, or make an airline reservation, for example, the computer system that supports each activity

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employs online processing to record the transaction in the proper database almost instantly (s). When
having real-time information regarding a business process is critical, online processing is most
typically used. When you reserve an airline seat, for example, that seat is no longer accessible for
anyone else to use, thus that information must be recorded right away.

With batch processing, all of the data collected over a period of time is gathered and fed into the
system all at once. Some business processes create data in batches by default. Because time cards

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are acquired in batches and processed all at once, batch processing is used for most hourly payrolls.
Batch processing is also employed in transaction processing systems that do not necessitate real-
time data. Most retailers, for example, report sales data to district offices in order to order new
replacement goods. This information might be delivered in real time as it is taken in the store, allowing

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district offices to be notified of a product sale within a second or two. If retailers do not require real-
time data, they will collect sales data throughout the day and send it to the district office in batches
every evening. Batching data transmissions streamlines the process and often lowers communication
expenses. It does, however, imply that inventories are not accurate in real time, but only after the
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batch has been processed at the end of the day.

Data should be captured at the source. The collection of data in an electronic format at the original
source, or as close to the original source as feasible, is perhaps the most essential principle of input
design. Computer systems superseded old manual systems based on paper forms in the early days
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of computing. Many of the original paper forms persisted after these business operations were
automated, either because no one thought to change them or because it was too expensive to do so.
Instead, the business process continued to use manual forms that were delivered in batches to the
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computer centre and written into the computer system by a data-entry operator.

Many corporate processes are still carried out in this manner today. Many organisations, for example,
have expense claim forms that are filled out by hand and submitted to an accounting department,
which authorises them and batches them into the system. There are three issues with this strategy.
To begin with, it is costly because it duplicates work. (The form is completed twice: once by hand and
once by typing.) Second, because the paper forms must be physically transported through the
process, it lengthens the processing time. Third, because it separates data entering from data
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processing, it raises the cost and risk of mistake; someone could misunderstand the handwriting on
the input form, data could be entered improperly, or the original input could contain an error that
invalidates the data.

The majority of today's transaction processing systems are built to capture data at its source. The
term "source data automation" refers to the use of special hardware devices to capture data
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automatically without the need for someone to type it in. Bar code readers are routinely used in stores
to scan products and enter data directly into the computer system. There are no intermediate formats
used, such as paper forms. Optical character recognition (OCR) can read printed numbers and text
(e.g., on checks); magnetic stripe readers (e.g., credit cards) can read information encoded on a
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stripe of magnetic material similar to a diskette; and smart cards (which contain microprocessors,
memory chips, and batteries) are all similar technologies (much like credit card-size calculators). The
RFID (radio frequency identification) tag, which combines a microprocessor chip with an antenna to
broadcast information to electronic readers, is a recent breakthrough. The RFID tag can be used to
read or write information. These systems eliminate errors by lowering the time and expense of data
entering. They are also less likely to record data inaccurately. Data may now be gathered at the
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source, even in mobile settings, thanks to portable computers and scanners (e.g., air courier
deliveries, use of rental cars)
 However, these automated methods are unable to capture a significant amount of data. With the
growing usage of the Internet, much data is being collected directly from customers. As a result, forms

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for capturing information on-screen should follow a logical sequence and allow the user to simply fill
out and double-check their entries before submitting them. Validation checks (see Figure 9-15) should
be implemented wherever possible since data submitted by the user is prone to inaccuracies.

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Reduce the number of keystrokes you use Another crucial guideline is to use as few keystrokes as
possible. Whether conducted by a client, a user, or a skilled data-entry operator, keystrokes cost time
and money. Information that can be obtained in another means should never be requested by the
system (e.g., by retrieving it from a database or by performing a calculation). Similarly, a system

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should not force a user to type data that may be selected from a list; picking reduces errors and
speeds up entry.

Data frequently repeats values in various circumstances. These frequently occurring values should be
used as the data's default value, so that the user may just accept the value rather than having to
retype it over and over. The current date, the area code used by the majority of a company's clients,
and a billing address based on the customer's domicile are all examples of default settings. To handle
data entry exceptions as they occur, most systems allow adjustments to default values.

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Inputs of Various Types

Each data item that needs to be entered has a field on the form that its value is typed into. Each field

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also has a field label, which is the text that appears beside, above, or below the field and informs the
user of the sort of data that should be entered. The field label is frequently comparable to the data
element's name, although the two do not have to be identical. In some circumstances, a template will
appear over the entry box to demonstrate the user how data should be entered. In the same way that
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there are many distinct sorts of fields, there are many different types of inputs. (See Fig. 9-13 for more
information.)
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Text
 A text box is used to enter text, as the name implies. Text boxes can be set to be a fixed length or
scrollable, allowing for nearly infinite text to be entered. Boxes can hold one or more lines of textual

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content in each situation. If a selection box is available, use that instead of a text box.

Field labels should be located to the left of the entry area, and their size should be clearly restricted

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by a box (or a set of underlines in a non-GUI interface). The field labels and the left borders of the
entry boxes should be aligned if there are numerous text boxes. Standard GUI capabilities like cut,
copy, and paste should be available in text boxes.

Numbers

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To enter numbers, a number box is needed. Some applications can format numbers automatically as
they are entered, so 3452478 becomes $34,524.78. Dates are a unique type of number that may or
may not have their own number box. If a selection box is available, use it instead of a number box.

Box of Choices

A selection box allows the user to choose a value from a list of options. The list's entries should be

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organised in a meaningful order, such as alphabetical order for big lists or most commonly used order
for short lists. It's important to choose the default selection value carefully. A selection box can be set
to "unselected" by default or, better yet, with the most frequently used item already selected.

Check boxes, radio buttons, on-screen list boxes, drop-down list boxes, combo boxes, and scroll bars

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are the six most frequent types of selection boxes (Figs. 9-13, 9-14). The selection of text selection
boxes is usually limited by screen space and the amount of options available to the user. A drop-down
list box is the best solution if screen space is limited and just one item can be selected, because not
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all list items need to be displayed on the screen. An on-screen list box that displays only a few items
can be utilised if screen space is restricted but the user can pick several items. Both check boxes (for
multiple selections) and radio buttons (for single selections) require all list items to be displayed at all
times, which takes up more screen space, but they are typically easier for inexperienced users
because they display all options.
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Validation of Input
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To ensure correctness, all data entered into the system must be checked. Input validation (also
known as edit checks) comes in a variety of shapes and sizes. Computer systems should not accept
input that fails any important validation check, ideally, to prevent invalid information from entering the
system. However, this can be challenging, because erroneous data is frequently overlooked by data-
entry operators and the consumers who provide the data. It is up to the system to detect incorrect
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data and either correct it or tell someone who can fix the situation.

Validation checks are divided into six categories: completeness, format, range, check digit check,
consistency check, and database check. (For more information, see Figure 9-15.) Every system
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should execute at least one validation check on all entered data, and ideally, it should do all
necessary checks.
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2.1.9 Output Design

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The reports that the system generates, whether on the screen, on paper, or in other media such as
the Web, are known as outputs. Because one of the key reasons for utilising an information system is
to access the information it creates, outputs are likely the most apparent aspect of any system.
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Basic Concepts

The output mechanism's purpose is to convey information to users in such a way that they can
interpret it accurately with the least amount of effort. The output design essential principles represent
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how the outputs are used and how to make them easier to grasp for consumers.

Understand How to Use Reports

Understanding how reports are used is the fundamental rule of report design. Reports can be used for
a variety of reasons. Reports are read cover to cover in some circumstances, but not very often,
because all information is required. The order in which items are sorted on the report or classified
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inside categories is crucial in most circumstances since reports are used to identify specific items or
as references to find information. This is especially true when creating electronic or Web-based
reporting. Web reports that are meant to be read from beginning to end should be provided in one
 long scrollable page, but reports that are primarily used to find specific information should be split into
many pages, each with its own link. For reference reports, page numbers and the date the report was

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written are also crucial.

The report's frequency may also have an impact on its design and delivery. Real-time reports deliver

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data that is precise to the second or minute in which it was generated (e.g., stock market quotes).
Batch reports report historical data that may be months, days, or hours old, and they frequently
include supplementary information in addition to the reported data (e.g., totals, summaries, historical
averages).

Real-time reports have no intrinsic advantages over batch reports. The only benefit is the

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information's value in terms of time. Realtime reports are useful when the information in a report is
time sensitive (for example, market prices or air traffic control information). This is especially
significant because real-time reports can be costly to create; unless they provide demonstrable
commercial value, they may not be worth the additional expense.

Organize the data load

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Not too little, but too much information is received by most managers (i.e., the information load
confronting the manager is too great). A well-designed report should give all of the information
required to complete the task for which it was created. This does not imply that the report should
include all accessible information on the issue; rather, it should only include the information that the

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users determine they require to execute their duties. Because they are used in different ways, this
may result in the production of numerous different reports on the same topic for the same users. This
isn't a horrible design at all.
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The most significant information should be provided first to consumers in Westernized countries, in
the top left corner of the screen or paper report. Information should be presented in a format that may
be used straight away. The user should not be required to re-sort the report's data, highlight essential
information to make it easier to identify in a sea of information, or conduct additional mathematical
calculations.
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Bias should be kept to a minimum.

No analyst intends to create a skewed report. The difficulty with bias is that it can be undetectable;
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analysts can unwittingly introduce it. Because entries that show first in a list may receive more
attention than those appearing later in the list, bias can be introduced by the way data lists are sorted.
Data is frequently arranged alphabetically, highlighting entries beginning with the letter A. Data can be
sorted in chronological (or reverse chronological) order, with older (or most recent) entries taking
precedence. Data can be sorted by numeric value, with greater or lower values being prioritised.
Consider a monthly sales report broken down by state. Should the report be organised alphabetically
by state name, numerically by quantity sold, or in some other way (e.g., by geographic region)? There
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are no simple answers to this, save to state that the sequence in which the information is presented
should correspond to how the information is used.

Graphic presentations and reports can be particularly difficult to create. In graphs, the scale on the
axes is particularly susceptible to bias. The scale should always start at zero for most types of graphs;
otherwise, comparisons between data can be deceptive. Have sales increased significantly since
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2006, as shown in Fig. 9-16? Both charts have the same data, yet the visual images they convey are
very different. A quick glance at Fig. 9-16a suggests fairly slight changes, but a quick glance at Fig. 9-
16b suggests some large increases. In reality, sales have climbed by 15%, or 3% each year, over the
last five years. Fig. 9-16a is the most accurate representation; Fig. 9-16b is skewed because the
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scale begins extremely close to the graph's lowest value, deceiving the eye into thinking there have
been significant changes (i.e., from "two lines" in 2006 to "five lines" in 2011). The default graph
created by Microsoft Excel is Fig. 9-16b, so be aware of how easy it is to introduce bias in graphs
unintentionally.

Outputs of Various Types

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Detail reports, summary reports, exception reports, turnaround documents, and graphs are among the
numerous types of reports available (Fig. 9-17). It's difficult to categorise reports because many of
 them have traits from multiple different types. Some detail reports, for example, also generate
summary totals, making them summary reports.

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Media

Reports can be created using a variety of different media. Paper and electronic media are today's
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dominating media. Paper is a more traditional media that is durable, easy to use, and available in
most settings. It's also quite portable, at least for quick reporting.

Paper, on the other hand, has a number of important disadvantages. It is unyielding. The report
cannot be filtered or restructured after it has been produced to offer a different view of the data.
Similarly, if the report's information changes, the complete report must be reissued. Paper reports are
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costly, difficult to duplicate, and necessitate a lot of supplies (paper, ink) and storage space. Paper
reports are also difficult to transport across large distances (e.g., from a head office in Toronto to a
regional office in Bermuda).
 As a result, many organisations are shifting to electronic report production, in which reports are
"produced" but saved in electronic format on file servers or Web servers for easy access by users.

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Because the expense of producing and storing numerous forms is inexpensive, the reports are
frequently available in more predesigned versions than their paper-based equivalents. Electronic
reports can also be printed on demand as needed, and they make it easier for the user to search for

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specific words.

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Furthermore, when users customise the contents of the report at the time it is prepared, electronic
reports can give a way to provide ad hoc reports. Some users may still use their own printers to print
the electronic report. The cost of local printing is usually offset by the cost of electronic delivery over
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long distances and improved user access to the reports.

2.1.10 Architectural Design

Most modern information systems consist of two or more computers. For example, a Web-based
system can run in your browser on your desktop computer, but it will communicate with the Web
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server (and presumably other computers) through the Internet. A Visual Basic programme may be
installed on your computer for a system that functions entirely within a company's network, but it
interacts with a database server located elsewhere on the network. The creation of the architecture
design, which is the strategy for how the information system components will be distributed among
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several computers and what hardware, operating system software, and application software will be
utilised on each computer, is an important step in the design phase (e.g., Windows or Linux operating
system software)

Because designing the system architecture can be challenging, many firms rely on the expertise of
experienced, professional system architects (consultants or employees) who specialise in the field.
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Anything's crucial to remember that doing it well takes a lot of practise. The architecture design is
heavily influenced by the nonfunctional requirements determined early in the analytical process.
 These needs are revisited and developed into more specific requirements that affect the architecture
of the system.

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DESIGN ELEMENTS FOR ARCHITECTURE

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The goal of architecture design is to figure out how the information system software components will
be assigned to the system's hardware units. To understand how the software might be divided into
different pieces, we first discuss the key functions of the software in this section. The major types of
hardware onto which the programme can be installed are then briefly discussed. Although there are
other ways to arrange software components on hardware components, the client–server architecture
is the most prevalent, therefore we will concentrate on it here.

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Components of Architecture

The software and hardware are the two most important architectural components of any system. The
primary software components of the system under development must be identified and then assigned
to the various hardware components that the system will run on. Each of these elements can be
mixed and matched in a variety of ways.

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There are four basic functions that all software systems have. The first is the storing of data. Whether
it's a little file like a list of lawn chemicals that are no longer permitted for residential usage or a large
database like an organization's human resources records, most information systems require data to
be stored and accessed. These are the data entities that ERDs document. The second role is data

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access logic, which is the processing necessary to access data, which is frequently represented by
database queries written in Structured Query Language (SQL) (SQL). The application logic, which is
described in DFDs, use cases, and functional requirements, is the third function. The fourth function is
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presentation logic, which involves displaying information to the user and accepting commands from
the user (the user interface). Any information system's essential building blocks are these four
functions (data storage, data access logic, application logic, and display logic).

Client computers, servers, and the network that connects them are the three main hardware
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components of a system. Client computers are the user's input–output devices. They are often
desktop or laptop computers, but they can also be mobile devices, smartphones, special-purpose
terminals, and other devices. Servers are often larger multi-user computers that contain software and
data that anyone with authorization can access. The network that connects the computers can range
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in speed from dial-up modems and cell phones to medium-speed always-on frame relay networks,
fast always-on broadband connections like cable modems, DSL, or T1 circuits, and high-speed
always-on Ethernet, T3, or ATM circuits.

Client–Server Architectures

Client–server designs, which try to balance processing between client devices and one or more
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server devices, are used or being used by the majority of enterprises today. The client is in charge of
the presentation logic in these systems, whereas the server is in charge of the data access logic and
data storage. The application logic can be on the client, on the server, or divided between the two
(Figure 8-1).
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 A thick or fat client is one that contains all or most of the application logic, as seen in Figure 8-1. Thin
clients, which include only a small fraction of the application logic, are now popular due to their

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decreased overhead and ease of maintenance. Many Web-based systems, for example, are built with
the Web browser doing display and only little application logic using programming languages like
JavaScript, while the server side handles the majority of the application logic, data access logic, and

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data storage.

Client–server architectures offer four significant advantages. They are, first and foremost, scalable.
That implies the storage and processing capabilities of the servers can be easily increased or
decreased. If one server becomes overburdened, just add another such that the application logic,

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data access logic, and data storage are distributed over multiple servers. The cost of upgrading is
gradually increasing, and you can upgrade in modest steps.

Second, client–server architectures may accommodate a wide range of client and server types. It is
feasible to link computers with multiple operating systems in order to avoid being tied to a single
vendor. Users can select their preferred computer type (e.g., combining both Windows computers and
Apple Macintoshes on the same network). Middleware is a sort of system software that is used to
translate between the software of different suppliers. On both the client and server computers,

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middleware is deployed. The client software talks with the middleware, which can reformat the
message into a standard language that the middleware can understand and use to help the server
software.

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Third, it is straightforward to clearly segregate the presentation logic, the application logic, and the
data access logic in thin client–server architectures that employ Internet standards, and design each
to be fairly independent. To indicate how the page will appear on the screen (e.g., colours, fonts,
order of items, specific phrases used, command buttons, kind of selection lists, and so on), the
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presentation logic can be designed in HTML or XML. Parts of the interface are linked to individual
application logic modules that perform various functions using simple programme expressions. The
interface's HTML or XML files can be modified without affecting the application functionality. Similarly,
the application logic can be changed without affecting the display logic or the data, which is stored in
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databases and retrieved using SQL queries.

Finally, with a client–server architecture, if a server fails, only the apps that rely on it will fail. The apps
can be restored if the failing server is swapped out and replaced.
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Client–server designs have a number of drawbacks, the most significant of which is their complexity.
Client–server computing programmes are made up of two parts: client-side software and server-side
software. It's more difficult to write this software than it is to write standard all-in-one software for
server-based architectures. It's also more difficult to update the entire system with a new version of
the software. You must update all clients and servers in client–server architectures, and you must
verify that the updates are applied to all devices.
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Tiers of Client–Server

The application functionality can be partitioned between the client and the server in a variety of ways.
The layout shown in Figure 8-1 is a common one.
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 The server is in charge of the data in this situation, while the client is in charge of the application and
presentation. Because it only employs two types of computers—clients and servers—this is referred

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to as a two-tiered architecture.

Figure 8-2 shows a three-tiered design with three sets of computers. In this arrangement,

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presentation logic is handled by the client computer's software, application logic is handled by an
application server(s), and data access logic and storage are handled by a separate database
server(s). The user interface is often installed on a desktop PC or workstation and employs a
standard graphical user interface. One or more independent modules operating on a workstation or
application server may make up the application logic. Finally, the data access logic and data storage

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are handled by a relational DBMS operating on a database server. The intermediate tier can be
broken into tier as well, resulting in a "n-tier architecture" as a result.

The work of the application (the middle tier) is distributed over numerous tiers of more specialised
server computers in an n-tiered architecture. In today's Web-based e-commerce platforms, this type
of architecture is common. See Figure 8-3 for more information. The browser software on client
computers sends HTTP requests to the Web server(s) to see pages, and the Web server(s) react with
HTML documents, allowing the user to view products for sale. While the user is shopping,

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components on the application server(s) are called as needed to allow the user to add products to a
shopping cart, determine item pricing and availability, compute purchase costs, sales tax, and
shipping charges, authorise payments, and so on. These business logic parts, also known as detailed
processing, are kept on the application server(s) and are available to any application. For example,

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the price determination business logic utilised by the e-commerce Web site could be used by the cash
register application that requires item price look-ups. Multiple, independent applications that require
that particular business logic can use the modular business logic. The data components of the system
are managed by the database server(s). Each of these four components is distinct, making it simple
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to distribute the various components across multiple servers and divide the application functionality
between a Web-oriented and a business-oriented server.

The main benefit of an n-tiered client–server architecture over a two-tiered architecture (or a three-
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tiered with a two-tiered) is that it breaks out the processing to better balance the load on the various
servers; it is more scalable. We have three different server types in Figure 8-3, a design that delivers
more power than a two-tiered architecture with only one server. If we find that the application server is
overburdened, we can either replace it with a more powerful server or add more application servers to
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distribute the load. On the other hand, if we find that the database server is underutilised, we can use
it to store data from another application.
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When opposed to a two-tiered design, an n-tiered architecture has two major drawbacks (or a three-
tiered with a two-tiered). For starters, the setup increases the network's burden. Figures 8-1, 8-2, and
8-3 show that the n-tiered approach necessitates greater communication between servers and
generates more network traffic, necessitating a higher-capacity network. Second, because more
devices must communicate successfully to complete a user's transaction, n-tiered architectures are
substantially more complicated to build and test than two-tiered structures.
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Architectures that aren't as common

 The client–server architecture is now the most widely used architecture. Two more architectures are
less prevalent, but they are nonetheless employed in some cases.

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Architectures based on servers

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The original computing designs were server-based, with a single server (typically a central mainframe
computer) handling all four application functions. Users could send and receive messages to and from
the server computer via the clients (typically terminals). The clients did little more than record
keystrokes and send them to the server for processing, accepting the server's instructions on what to
display (Figure 8-4).

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This very basic construction frequently works extremely well. All data is saved on the same computer,
and application software is produced and stored on the server. Because all messages pass through a
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single central server, there is only one point of control. Because the entire system is hosted on a
single computer, software development and management are simplified (operating system and
application software).
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The server-based design was the first in information systems, but as technology and software
improved, it was no longer the only option. Early server-based systems had a basic flaw in that the
server handled all of the work in the system. As the number of users and the number of applications
demanded increased, server computers became overburdened and unable to process all of the
requests in a timely manner. Response times slowed, and IT administrators found themselves having
to pay more money to improve the server computer. Upgrading to a larger server computer (typically
a mainframe) required a significant financial investment in the early days. Increased capacity was only
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available in large, costly pieces.

The server-based architecture is still a viable architecture option today. Zero client, also known as
ultrathin client, is a server-based computing approach commonly employed in today's virtual desktop
infrastructure (VDI). A common zero client device is a small box that connects to a remote server via a
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keyboard, mouse, monitor, and Ethernet connection. Everything is hosted on the server, including the
client's operating system and software applications. The server can be accessed wirelessly or over a
wired connection.

There are several advantages to zero client computing. When compared to fat client configurations,
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power consumption can be greatly decreased. As more businesses look at green computing, this
benefit is becoming more important. The gadgets are significantly less expensive than PCs or thin
client devices. There is no malware vulnerability because there is no software on the client device.
The zero client computing architecture allows software to be delivered to end users in a quick and
secure manner. Multiple virtual PCs can be run on server class hardware in VDI setups, reducing the
number of physical PCs that must be purchased and maintained dramatically. Furthermore, the
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server-based zero-client model restricts the usage of the client computer for non-business purposes
(e.g., no Facebook; no Farmville, etc.).
 Architectures based on clients

Client-based architectures have microcomputers on a local area network as clients and a server

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computer on the same network as the server. The display logic, application logic, and data access
logic are all handled by the application software on the client PCs; the server just stores the data

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(Figure 8-5)

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In circumstances when there are a small number of users or data access requirements, this simplistic
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architecture frequently works well. The fundamental problem with a client-based architecture is that all
server data must be sent to the client for processing. Assume the user wants to see a list of all
employees who have life insurance through the company. All of the data in the employee database
must travel across the network from the server to the client, which then runs the query to find each
record that matches the information requested by the user. The data access function would be
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conducted on the server in the previous computing models we've studied, with only the query results
being sent to the client. The data access logic is executed on the client system in the client-based
computing model. As a result, before processing can begin, the full database must be sent to the
client. This might cause the network as well as the client PCs to become overloaded.
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Architecture Configurations Have Improved

A variety of novel design possibilities have emerged as a result of advancements in hardware,

software, and networking. Virtualization and cloud computing, two recent innovations that have
received a lot of attention, will be briefly discussed here.
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Virtualization

This phrase refers to the development of a virtual device or resource, such as a server or storage
device, in the computing realm. If you've partitioned your computer's hard disc into more than one
individual hard drive, you're probably familiar with this notion. Even while your system only has one
actual hard drive, you consider each partitioned, "virtual" drive as if it were a separate physical hard
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drive. As we hear about server virtualization, storage virtualization, network virtualization, and other
forms of virtualization, this term has become a common buzz word.

The division of a physical server into smaller virtual servers is known as server virtualization. Virtual or
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private servers are created by dividing a physical server into many virtual environments using
software. This capacity eliminates the main drawback of earlier server-based designs, which relied on
single, huge, expensive monolithic machines. Today, a physical server device can be used to provide
a large number of virtual servers that are all independent of one another yet share the same physical
server. Each virtual server has its own operating system and may be rebooted separately from the
others. When compared to equivalent physical servers, less hardware is required to offer a set of
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virtual servers, lowering expenses. This configuration can help maximise the use of the physical
server, lowering operational costs.
 According to a recent Gartner poll of midsized enterprises, over 75% of midsized businesses plan to
employ server virtualization extensively by 2012. These companies claim to be aggressively looking

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for methods to reduce costs, enhance utilisation, and increase availability, and server virtualization
has shown to be a valuable tool in achieving those objectives.

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Storage virtualization refers to the process of merging numerous network storage devices into a
single storage unit. Storage virtualization is used to build a high-speed subnetwork of shared storage
devices in a storage area network (SAN). Backup, archiving, and recovery are all easier and faster in
this context.

Cloud Computing

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Organizations no longer need to own, maintain, and operate their own computing infrastructure.
Everything from computing power to computing infrastructure, apps, business processes, and human
collaboration may now be supplied as a service wherever and whenever needed. The "cloud" in cloud
computing refers to the combination of hardware, networks, storage, services, and interfaces that
enable computing as a service to be delivered. Software, infrastructure, and storage are delivered
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There are three types of cloud computing: private cloud, public cloud, and hybrid cloud. Services are
delivered "as a service" over the Internet with little or no control over the underlying technology
infrastructure with public clouds. Private clouds provide activities and functions "as a service," but

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they're delivered through an intranet or a hosted data centre. Hybrid clouds bring the best of both
public and private clouds together. Activities and tasks are assigned to private or public clouds as
needed in this situation.
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Cloud computing is still in the early stages of development. The cloud computing approach has a
variety of advantages, according to proponents. First, while using the cloud, the available resources
can be scaled up or down dependent on demand. The cloud is scalable because of this capacity,
known as elasticity, which allows it to scale up during moments of high demand and scale down
during periods of low demand. Cloud-based applications may scale up when more users are added
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and the application's requirements alter. Second, cloud consumers can access cloud resources in a
simple manner. The cloud service provider is contracted for a specific amount of compute, storage,
software, process, or other resources.
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Creating Architectural Designs

In many cases, the application architecture is simply defined by the technological environment needs
as dictated by the business requirements. In this example, the option is clear: Other concerns take a
back seat to business needs. The business requirements may, for example, state that the system
must work via the Internet, using the customer's Web browser. The application architecture in this
situation must be thin client–server. These kind of business needs are most commonly found in
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systems that service external clients. Internal systems may enforce business requirements as well,
but they are usually less stringent.

If the technical environment does not necessitate the selection of a specific architecture, the
nonfunctional criteria become more essential. Even though the architecture is driven by business
requirements, it is still necessary to work through and refine the remaining nonfunctional requirements
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because they are crucial in the design and implementation phases. The link between needs and
recommended architectures is summarised in Figure 8-10.
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Requirements for Operation

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Depending on the architecture and design of the system(s) with which the system must integrate,
system integration requirements may lead to one architecture over another. If the system must
interface with a desktop system (e.g., Excel), a thin or thick client–server architecture may be stated,
or if it must integrate with a server-based system, a server–based design may be suggested. Because
it is easier to write for Web-based standards (e.g., HTML, XML) that extend the reach of the system to
other platforms than it is to write and rewrite extensive presentation logic for different platforms in the
server-based, client-based, or thick client–server architectures, thin client–server architectures are
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best suited for systems with extensive portability requirements. Because of the necessity to reinstall
software on the desktops, client-based or thick client–server architectures may not be well suited to
systems with high maintainability needs.

Performance Expectations
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Client–server architectures are ideally suited to information systems with high performance needs in
general. Client–server architectures are more scalable, which means they can adapt to changing
capacity requirements and allow the business to better adjust the hardware to the system's speed
requirements. Client–server designs with several servers in each tier should be more dependable and
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available, as requests are simply transferred to other servers if one fails, and users may not even
notice (although response time may be worse) However, in actuality, reliability and availability are
highly dependent on the hardware and operating system, and Windows-based computers are less
reliable and available than Linux or mainframe computers.

Security Prerequisites
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In general, server-based designs are more secure than microcomputer-based architectures since all
software is stored in one area and mainframe operating systems are more secure than
microcomputer operating systems. As a result, even if the mainframe is employed as a server in a
 client–server architecture, high-value systems are more likely to be found on mainframe computers.
Authentication and encryption technologies for Internet-based client–server architectures are more

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advanced than those for mainframe-based server–based systems in today's Internet-dominated
world. Viruses pose a threat to all architectures due to their ease of spread on desktop computers.
However, the server-based zero client computing architecture eliminates software on the client

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device, resulting in a malware-free environment.

Requirements in terms of culture and politics

The ability to segregate presentation logic from application logic and data becomes increasingly vital
as cultural and political requirements grow more relevant. It's easier to develop display logic in

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different languages while keeping the application logic and data the same with this separation. It also
allows customising the presentation logic for different users and changing it to better fit cultural
conventions much easier. The presentation logic makes it easier to develop alternative versions that
enable or disable different capabilities required by laws and regulations in different countries to the
extent that it offers access to the application and data. Thin client–server designs make this
separation the easiest, thus systems with a lot of cultural and political needs frequently adopt them.
Legal requirements, like system integration requirements, have varying degrees of influence

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depending on the nature of the needs, but client-based systems are generally less adaptable.

2.1.11 Entity Relationship Model

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It is a database design strategy that aids in describing the relationship between distinct organisational
components.

The symbols used in the E-R model and their meanings are listed in the table below:
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Terms used in E-R model

ENTITY: It identifies different real-world objects in a programme. Vendor, item, student, course,
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teachers, and so on.

 RELATIONSHIP: Relationships between entities that are meaningful. For example, if a vendor
provides products and a teacher teaches courses, the relationship between the supply and the course

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is established.

ATTRIBUTES: It defines the characteristics of a relationship. Vendor code, for example, or student

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name.

One-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many relationships can occur between two collections of data.

2.1.12 Hardware and Software Specification

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During the design phase, you can start selecting and purchasing the hardware and software that will
be required for the future system. In many circumstances, the new system will simply run on the
organization's existing equipment. New hardware and software (typically for servers) must be
purchased at other times. The hardware and software specification is a document that outlines the
hardware and software requirements for running the application. The document's creation entails a
number of processes. A sample hardware and software specification is shown in Figure 8-11.

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To begin, you'll need to identify the programme that will be installed on each component. The
operating system (e.g., Windows, Linux) is usually the first step, followed by any special purpose
software on the client and server (e.g., Oracle database). Any additional expenditures, such as
technical training, maintenance, extended warranties, and licencing agreements, should be factored
in here (e.g., a site licence for a software package). Again, decisions made throughout the previous

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design phase tasks have an impact on the needs you identify.

The next step is to make a list of the hardware that will be required to support the future system.
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Database servers, network servers, peripheral devices (e.g., printers, scanners), backup devices,
storage components, and any other hardware component required to support an application are all on
the list. You should also make a note of the quantity of each item that will be required at this time.

Finally, you must specify the minimal requirements for each piece of hardware in as much detail as
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feasible. Because many businesses have standard lists of permitted hardware and software that must
be utilised, this step is often as simple as selecting items from the lists. When the team is working in
unfamiliar area, however, they are not limited to selecting from a pre-approved list. The project team
must communicate needs such as processing capacity, storage space, and any particular features
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that should be incorporated in these circumstances.

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With practice, this stage will get easier; however, there are certain pointers that can assist you in
describing hardware requirements (see Figure 8-12). Consider the hardware standards in place inside
the company or those advised by vendors. Consult with experienced system developers or firms that
have developed similar systems. Finally, consider the elements that influence hardware performance,
 such as user reaction times, data volumes, software memory needs, the number of people accessing
the system, the number of external connections, and future growth estimates.

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The project team collaborates with the purchasing department to obtain the hardware and software
after preparing the hardware and software requirements. The project team creates an RFP based on
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the purchasing department's legal and organisational policies, which is subsequently issued. On the
basis of the proposals obtained, the project team selects the most suitable vendor for the hardware
and software, possibly utilising a weighted alternative matrix. This review might take months on a
large project and requires comprehensive testing and benchmarking of the vendors' projects. The
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buying department is involved in the vendor selection process, ensuring that company policies are
followed once again. Finally, subject to project team approval, the buying department negotiates final
terms with the vendor, issues a contract, and accepts delivery of the items.

2.1.13 File/Database Design

Database design refers to a set of procedures that make it easier to plan, create, implement, and
maintain enterprise data management systems. A well-designed database is simple to manage,
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increases data consistency, and saves money on disc storage space. The database designer
determines how data items relate to one another and what information must be saved.

The primary goals of database design in DBMS are to create logical and physical models of the
database system under consideration.
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The logical model focuses on the data requirements and data to be stored without regard to physical
constraints. It is unconcerned with how the data will be saved or where it will be physically stored.
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The physical data design approach entails converting the database's logical DB design to physical
media utilising hardware and software such as database management systems (DBMS).

What is the Importance of Database Design?

It aids in the creation of database systems.

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• That satisfies the needs of the users

• Have a high level of performance.
 For a high-performance database system, the database design process in DBMS is critical.

It's worth noting that a database's genius lies in its design. SQL data operations are straightforward.

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The life cycle of a database

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When designing database systems, the database development life cycle comprises a number of
stages that must be followed.

The steps in the development life cycle do not have to be followed in a strict chronological order.

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On small database systems, the database design process is usually extremely straightforward and
does not require many phases.
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Let's take a closer look at the various components provided in each phase to get a better
understanding of the design process in DBMS.

Analyze the requirements

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Planning - The planning of the complete Database Development Life Cycle is the focus of this stage
of database design concepts. It takes into account the organization's Information Systems strategy.

The scope and boundaries of the proposed database system are defined in this step.
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Creating a database

The logical model is involved with the creation of a database model based on needs. The entire
design is based on paper, with no physical implementations or database management system
considerations.

Physical model — Taking into account the DBMS and physical implementation elements, this stage
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implements the database's logical model.

Implementation

This step of relational database architecture is focused with importing and translating data from the
old system into the new database.
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Testing - this stage focuses on identifying faults in the newly installed system. It compares the
database to the set of requirements.
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Database Techniques are divided into two categories.

Normalization

Modeling of ER
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2.1.14 Factors affecting System Complexity

 It is vital to build a good design in order to develop high-quality system software. As a result, the
quality of the software design is the key priority while building the system design. A good software

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design is one that reduces the amount of complexity and money spent on software development.

Coupling and cohesion are two essential ideas in system development that aid in defining the

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complexity of a system.

Coupling

The measure of component independence is coupling. It specifies the degree to which each system
development module is dependent on the others. In practise, this means that the more tightly a

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system's components are coupled, the more difficult it is to implement and maintain the system.

Each module should have simple, clean interface with other modules, and that the minimum number
of data elements should be shared between modules.

High Coupling

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These type of systems have interconnections with program units dependent on each other. Changes
to one subsystem leads to high impact on the other subsystem.

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Low Coupling
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These systems are made up of components that are self-contained or almost self-contained. A
change in one subsystem has no impact on the others.
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Coupling Measures

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Content Coupling − When one component genuinely modifies another, the modified component is
fully reliant on the modifying one.

Common Coupling − When the degree of coupling is decreased by structuring system design so that

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data is available from a common data store, this is referred to as common coupling.

Control Coupling − When one component passes parameters to influence the activity of another
component, this is known as control coupling.
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Stamp Coupling − When data structures are utilised to convey information from one component to
another, this is known as stamp coupling.
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Data Coupling When only data is transmitted, this coupling connects the components.

Cohesion
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The term "cohesion" refers to the closeness of a system's components' relationships. It specifies the
degree to which the components of a module are interdependent. In reality, this means that the
systems designer must avoid dividing critical processes into fragmented modules.

They don't group unrelated processes into useless modules that are shown as processes on the DFD.

Modules that are functionally coherent are the best. The modules that are coincidentally coherent are
the worst.
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The least amount of cohesion

A component with coincidental cohesiveness has elements that are unconnected to one another.

When numerous conceptually linked functions or data pieces are placed in the same component, it is
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called logical cohesion.

When a component used to establish a system or set variables performs numerous functions in a
sequence, but the functions are related by the timing involved, this is known as temporal cohesion.
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When functions are placed together in a component solely to ensure this order, this is known as
procedural cohesion.

When the output of one portion of a component is used as the input for the next section of the
component, this is known as sequential cohesion.
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 Check your Understanding

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1. _______________ is the process of merging packaged software, existing legacy systems, and new
software designed to integrate them to create new systems.

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2. The term ___________ refers to an abstract representation of a system's data flow, inputs, and
outputs.

3. ____________ are logical structures that organise facts by using ordered levels.

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4. The purpose of ___________ is to quickly and readily acquire reliable data for the system.

5. A ____________ allows the user to choose a value from a list of options.

6. The software and _________ are the two most important architectural components of any system.

7. _______________ have microcomputers on a local area network as clients and a server computer
on the same network as the server.

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8. Database design refers to a set of procedures that make it easier to plan, create, implement, and
maintain enterprise ____________ systems.

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9. __________ specifies the degree to which the components of a module are interdependent.

Summary
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• There are three main approaches to approach the design of a new system: (1) create a
custom application in-house; (2) purchase a packaged system and (potentially) customise it;
or (3) have the system built or provided by an external vendor, developer, or service provider.
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• The term "logical design" refers to an abstract representation of a system's data flow, inputs,
and outputs. It describes the inputs (sources), outputs (destinations), databases (data
storage), and procedures (data flows) in a user-friendly format.
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• Physical design refers to the system's real input and output operations. It focuses on how
data is entered into a system, validated, processed, and outputted.
• Input mechanisms make it easier to enter data into a computer system, whether it's highly
structured data like order information (item numbers, quantities, and costs) or unstructured
data like text (e.g., comments). Input design include the creation of displays for entering data
as well as any forms on which users write or type data (e.g., time cards, expense claims).
• Check boxes, radio buttons, on-screen list boxes, drop-down list boxes, combo boxes, and
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scroll bars are the six most frequent types of selection boxes.
• The reports that the system generates, whether on the screen, on paper, or in other media
such as the Web, are known as outputs. Because one of the key reasons for utilising an
information system is to access the information it creates, outputs are likely the most apparent
aspect of any system.
•
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The goal of architecture design is to figure out how the information system software
components will be assigned to the system's hardware units.
• There are four basic functions that all software systems have. The first is the storing of data,
the second role is data access logic, the application logic, which is described in DFDs, use
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cases, and functional requirements, is the third function and the fourth function is presentation
logic.
• There are three types of cloud computing: private cloud, public cloud, and hybrid cloud.
• Entity Relationship Model is a database design strategy that aids in describing the
relationship between distinct organisational components.
• The hardware and software specification is a document that outlines the hardware and
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software requirements for running the application.

• Database design refers to a set of procedures that make it easier to plan, create, implement,
and maintain enterprise data management systems. A well-designed database is simple to
 manage, increases data consistency, and saves money on disc storage space. The database
designer determines how data items relate to one another and what information must be

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saved.
• Coupling and cohesion are two essential ideas in system development that aid in defining the
complexity of a system.

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Activity

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1. Explain the role of entity relationship diagrams.

2. Prepare a report on different types of system design and how logical design differs from physical
design.

Glossary

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• System design- Systems design is the process of defining the architecture, product design,
modules, interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. Systems design
could be seen as the application of systems theory to product development

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Packaged software- Packaged software that is often called software package is a commercial
program that's obtainable to the general public and sold to them at explicit costs.
Outsourcing- obtain (goods or a service) by contract from an outside supplier.
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• Logical design- A logical design is a conceptual, abstract design. ... The process of logical
design involves arranging data into a series of logical relationships called entities and
attributes.
• Physical design- In integrated circuit design, physical design is a step in the standard design
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cycle which follows after the circuit design

• Input design- Input Design is the process of converting a user-oriented description of the input
into a computer-based system.
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• Output design- Design outputs are the work produced at the end of design efforts, such as
drawings, material specifications, or manufacturing instructions

• Architectural design- Architectural design is a discipline that focuses on covering and meeting
the needs and demands, to create living spaces, using certain tools and especially, creativity.
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• Warehouse- a large building where raw materials or manufactured goods may be stored prior
to their distribution for sale.

• Cohesion- the action or fact of forming a united whole

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• Cloud computing- the practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the internet to
store, manage, and process data, rather than a local server or a personal computer.

• Virtualization- In computing, virtualization or virtualisation is the act of creating a virtual

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version of something, including virtual computer hardware platforms, storage devices, and
computer network resources.

• Hardware- tools, machinery, and other durable equipment.

• Software- the programs and other operating information used by a computer.

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 • Database - A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data, typically
stored electronically in a computer system. ... The data can then be easily accessed,

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managed, modified, updated, controlled, and organized.

• Coupling- a device for connecting parts of machinery.

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Questions and Exercises

1. What do you understand by system acquisition strategies? Explain in detail.

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2. Explain the input and output for the system design.

3. What do you mean by architectural design?

4. Discuss the types of system design briefly.

5. Explain entity relationship model.

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6. What are the various factors affecting system complexity?

Further Readings

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Bentley, Lonnie D., Kevin C. Dittman, and Jeffrey L. Whitten. System analysis and design
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methods. (1986, 1997, 2004).
• Hawryszkiewycz, Igor T. Introduction to system analysis and design. Prentice-Hall PTR, 1994
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Check your Understanding (Answers)

1. Systems integration
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2. "logical design"

3. Hierarchies

4. input design
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5. selection box

6. hardware

7. Client-based architectures
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8. data management

9. Cohesion
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Unit 3.1 System Testing

Learning Objectives:
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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the role of testing

 • Explain unit tests
• Analyze integration test

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• Comprehend the meaning of system test
• Know about acceptance test

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3.1.1 Understanding the Role of Testing

Writing programmes is a creative and enjoyable activity. Novice programmers are more likely to
become engrossed in the development of the programmes themselves, than than the tasks of testing
and documenting their work. Because testing and documenting aren't as enjoyable as building

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programmes, they get less attention.

Programming and testing, on the other hand, are extremely comparable to writing and editing. After
the first draught, no professional writer (or serious student preparing an essential term paper) would
stop. The characteristic of successful writing is rereading, editing, and rewriting the initial draught into
a strong paper. Professional software developers, too, are known for their meticulous testing. Most
professional organisations spend more time and money on testing (as well as editing and retesting)
than they do on actually building the programmes.

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The substantial expenses associated with downtime and failures caused by software vulnerabilities
justify the attention paid to testing. It is estimated that software problems cost the US economy $59.5
billion each year. A significant issue that causes an hour of downtime can cost more than a

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programmer's annual salary—yet how often are bugs discovered and corrected in an hour? As a
result, testing is a type of insurance. Organizations are ready to invest a significant amount of effort
and money to avoid serious system failures once the system has been established. Figure 12-1
shows some predicted revenue losses for a variety of companies that would be unable to run without
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computer technology.

A software is not deemed complete until it has successfully completed its testing. As a result,
programming and testing are inextricably linked. As the system is being built, the systems analysts'
major focus is typically testing. Analysts must, however, avoid the desire to jump right into testing
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after the first programme module is finished. Spontaneously testing different events and possibilities
without spending time to develop a comprehensive test plan is dangerous, because important tests
may be overlooked. If an error does occur, it may be difficult to reproduce the exact sequence of
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events that cause it. Instead, testing must be performed and documented systematically so that the
project team always knows what has and has not been tested.
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The sections that follow detail a variety of tests that must be completed before the new system may
be installed. Until the system is finally tested for user approval, each sort of test verifies distinct
features and/or scope of the system.
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3.1.2 Test Planning

 Testing begins with the tester creating a test plan that outlines a sequence of tests to be carried out. A
typical test plan form is shown in Figure 12-2. A test plan typically has 20 to 30 pages, with one page

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for each test in the plan. Each test has a distinct aim, describes a set of very precise test scenarios to
investigate, and specifies the expected and observed findings. The test objective is derived from the
programme specification or the source code of the programme. Assume that the order quantity must

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be between 10 and 100 cases, as specified in the programme specification. Before the system
accepts the quantity, the tester would create a set of test cases to confirm that it is legitimate.

There are simply too many different possibilities to test every single combination of input and
situation. The test requires a minimum of three test cases in this example of an order quantity that

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must be between 10 and 100 examples: one with a valid value (e.g., 15), one with an invalid value
that is too low (e.g., 7) and one with an invalid value that is too high (e.g., 10). (e.g., 110). To verify
that the data types were validated, most tests would contain a test case with a non-numeric value
(e.g., ABCD). A truly effective test would include a nonsensical but perhaps valid data example (e.g.,
21.4).

In some circumstances, test cases cannot be completed by entering data values; instead, they must
be completed by selecting specific commands or menu options. For this form of test, the script field on

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the test plan is used to define the sequence of keystrokes or mouse clicks and movements.

Because not all software modules are likely to be completed at the same time, the programmer
frequently creates stubs for the unfinished modules in order to test the modules around them. A stub

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is a placeholder for a module that, when selected, usually displays a short test message on the
screen or returns a hardcoded value5. Consider an application system that offers the following five
standard functions for data items like customers, automobiles, or employees: creating, changing,
deleting, finding, and printing (whether on the screen or on a printer). Each of these functions might
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be a separate module that needs to be tested, and printing itself could be split into two modules, one
for an on-screen list and the other for the printer (Figure 12-3).

Assume the main menu module in Figure 12-3 is finished. Because the main menu's job is to browse
to the other modules, it would be hard to test it properly without them. A stub would be written for
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each of the other modules in this situation. When these stubs were triggered, they would merely
display a message on the screen (e.g., "Delete item module reached"). As a result, before the other
modules were finished, the main menu module could pass module testing.
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Unit tests, integration tests, system tests, and acceptance tests are the four stages of testing. Despite
the fact that each application system is unique, the majority of faults are discovered during integration
and system testing (Figure 12-4).
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3.1.3 Unit Tests

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Unit tests focus on a single unit—a programme or a software module that can be tested and performs
a specified function. A unit test's goal is to confirm that the module or programme does what it's
supposed to do according to the programme specification. After the programmer has developed and
tested the code and believes it is error-free, unit testing is undertaken. These tests are solely
dependent on the programme specification, and they may uncover problems caused by a
programmer's misreading of the specifications. The systems analyst or, in certain cases, the
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programmer who created the unit, conducts unit tests.

 Unit testing can be done in two ways: black-box and white-box (Figure 12-5). The most prevalent type
of testing is black-box testing. The test plan is created straight from the programme specification in

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this case: Each item in the programme specification is turned into a test, with multiple test cases
created for it. White-box testing is used when the tester wishes to look at the actual computer code,
which is frequently the case when the complexity is considerable.

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3.1.4 Integration Tests

Integration tests determine if a group of modules or programmes that must function together are able
to do so without errors. They make sure that all of the system's interfaces and linkages are working
properly. The modules have passed their respective unit tests at this point, so the focus is now on the

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flow of control and data exchanged among them. Integration testing is similar to unit testing in that the
tester creates a test plan that includes a sequence of tests. A group of programmers and/or systems
analysts is often in charge of integration testing.

User interface testing, use scenario testing, data flow testing, and system interface testing are the four
techniques of integration testing. (See Figure 12-5 for further information.) All four methodologies are
used in the majority of projects.

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3.1.5 System Tests

Systems analysts typically conduct system tests to ensure that all modules and programmes function
together flawlessly. System testing is comparable to integration testing, however it covers a much

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larger area. System tests look at how well the system meets business requirements, as well as its
usability, security, and performance under heavy load. Whereas integration testing looks at whether
the modules work together without errors, system testing looks at how well the system meets
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business requirements, as well as its usability, security, and performance under heavy load (see
Figure 12-5). It also checks the documentation for the system.
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3.1.6 Acceptance Tests

Acceptance testing is primarily done by users, with assistance from the project team. The purpose is
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to ensure that the system is complete, that it fits the business needs that inspired its development,
and that it is acceptable to the users. Acceptance testing is divided into two stages: alpha testing, in
which users test the system with fictitious data, and beta testing, in which users start using the system
with real data while closely monitoring it for faults. (See Figure 12-5 for further information.)
 The acceptance testing experiences will have a considerable impact on the users' opinions of the new
technology. Because first impressions are difficult to change, analysts should make every effort to

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guarantee that acceptance testing takes place only after thorough (and successful) system testing.
Furthermore, it will be critical to listen to and respond to user feedback in order to shape a favourable
reaction to and adoption of the new system by users.

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Check your Understanding

1. Unit testing can be done in two ways: black-box and ______________.

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2._______________ , use scenario testing, data flow testing, and system interface testing are the four
techniques of integration testing.

3. Acceptance testing is divided into two stages:_____________ , in which users test the system with
fictitious data, and_______________ , in which users start using the system with real data while
closely monitoring it for faults.

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4. Unit tests, integration tests, _____________ , and acceptance tests are the four stages of testing.

5. ______________ determine if a group of modules or programmes that must function together are
able to do so without errors.

Summary si
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• Testing begins with the tester creating a test plan that outlines a sequence of tests to be
carried out.
• A test plan typically has 20 to 30 pages, with one page for each test in the plan. Each test has
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a distinct aim, describes a set of very precise test scenarios to investigate, and specifies the
expected and observed findings. The test objective is derived from the programme
specification or the source code of the programme.
• Unit tests, integration tests, system tests, and acceptance tests are the four stages of testing.
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• Unit tests focus on a single unit—a programme or a software module that can be tested and
performs a specified function. A unit test's goal is to confirm that the module or programme
does what it's supposed to do according to the programme specification. After the
programmer has developed and tested the code and believes it is error-free, unit testing is
undertaken.
• Integration tests determine if a group of modules or programmes that must function together
are able to do so without errors. They make sure that all of the system's interfaces and
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linkages are working properly.

• Systems analysts typically conduct system tests to ensure that all modules and programmes
function together flawlessly.
• Acceptance testing is primarily done by users, with assistance from the project team. The
purpose is to ensure that the system is complete, that it fits the business needs that inspired
its development, and that it is acceptable to the users.
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Activity
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Prepare a report on the importance of system testing.

Glossary
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System test- System testing is testing conducted on a complete integrated system to evaluate the
system's compliance with its specified requirements
 Acceptance tests- In engineering and its various subdisciplines, acceptance testing is a test
conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met

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Integration tests- Integration testing is the phase in software testing in which individual software
modules are combined and tested as a group.

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Unit tests- In computer programming, unit testing is a software testing method by which individual
units of source code—sets of one or more computer program modules together with associated
control data, usage procedures, and operating procedures—are tested to determine whether they are
fit for use.

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Analyst- a person who conducts analysis.

Interface- a point where two systems, subjects, organizations, etc. meet and interact.

Questions and Exercises

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1. What do you understand by test planning?

2. Explain the meaning of unit tests.

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3. Define integration test briefly.

4. Discuss the role of acceptance tests in system testing.

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Further Reading

• Software Testing and Quality Assurance: Theory and Practice

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Book by Kshirasagar Naik and Priyadarshi Tripathy

• Introduction to Software Testing

Book by Jeff Offutt and Paul Ammann
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Check your Understanding (Answers)

1. white-box
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2. User interface testing

3. alpha testing, beta testing

4. system tests
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5. Integration tests
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Unit 4.1 Software Assurance Quality

Learning Objectives:
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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the meaning of software quality

 • Comprehend the importance of quality
• Explain the concept of software quality assurance

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4.1.1 What is Software Quality

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Software quality does not have a common definition. This is due to the complexity created by the
three or more parties who are influenced by software quality, namely the client, the developer, and the
stakeholders. Whose opinions, expectations, and desires are to be deemed ultimate is the question.
Customer happiness, according to the majority, should be the benchmark for judging software quality.
However, the consumer may be satisfied with software that isn't up to par by other standards.

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The following criteria are used to define software quality:

• Customer satisfaction and emphasis

• Functional and performance requirements

• Ease of learning, use, and upkeep

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.• Compliance with development criteria

Customer satisfaction is mostly determined by the ability to meet functional and performance
objectives as well as the ease with which activities may be carried out. Following development

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standards guarantees that these objectives are met to a large extent.

Software quality is described as the ability to satisfy customers by providing all client deliverables in
terms of performance, standards, and ease of use. The definition can be used to both software and a
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generic software product.

4.1.2 Importance of Quality

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We would expect all manufacturers of goods and services to be concerned about quality. However,
software's unique properties, particularly its intangibility and complexity, necessitate special
considerations.
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Increasing software criticality: The end user or customer is naturally concerned about the overall
quality of software, particularly its dependability. This is becoming more of a problem as businesses
become more reliant on their computer systems, and software is more used in safety-critical areas. To
control aircraft, for example.

The intangibility of software makes it difficult to determine whether a project's task has been done
satisfactorily. The outcomes of these tasks can be made tangible by requiring developers to create
'deliverables' that can be checked for quality.
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Accumulating errors during software development: Since computer system development is a series of
processes in which the output from one level is fed into the next, errors in earlier?deliverables? will be
added to errors in subsequent levels, resulting in cumulative determinable impacts. In general, the
later in a project an error is discovered, the more costly it is to correct. Furthermore, because the
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quantity of mistakes in the system is unpredictable, controlling the debugging phases of a project is
extremely difficult.

4.1.3 Software Quality Assurance

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Software quality assurance is a planned and systematic set of operations that ensures that an item or
product complies with established technical specifications.

A series of actions aimed at calculating the development or manufacturing process for products.

SQA is a broad term that refers to all aspects of quality assurance.

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• An approach to quality management

• Effective Technology for software engineering (methods and tools)
 • Formal technical reviews that are put to the test during the software development process
• A multi-tiered testing approach

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• Control over the documentation of software and the changes that are made to it.
• A technique for ensuring that software development standards are followed.
• Mechanisms for measuring and reporting

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SQA-related activities

Software quality assurance is made up of a number of functions that are divided into two groups.
Software engineers who perform technical work, as well as a SQA group in charge of quality

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assurance planning, record keeping, analysis, and reporting.

An independent SQA group performs the following tasks:

➢ Prepares a project's SQA plan: During project planning, the programme is created and
reviewed by all stakeholders. The plan oversees the software engineering team and the SQA
group's quality assurance actions.
➢ The plan specifies the calculations to be carried out, audits and reviews to be carried out,

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project-specific standards, error reporting and tracking methodologies, documentation to be
created by the SQA team, and the quantity of feedback to be given to the software project
team.
➢ Participates in the development of the software process description for the project: For the

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task to be done, the software team chooses a procedure. The SQA team examines the
process description for conformance to organisational policy, internal software standards,
externally enforced standards (such as ISO-9001), and other aspects of the software project
plan.
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➢ Examines software engineering activities to ensure adherence to the software process: The
SQA team detects, reports, and tracks process irregularities, as well as ensuring that
remedies have been made.
➢ Verifies conformity with those defined as part of the software process by auditing designated
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software work products: The SQA team examines selected work items, detects, documents,
and tracks deviations, verifies that changes have been made, and delivers its findings to the
project manager on a regular basis.
➢ Ensures that variations in software work and work products are documented and dealt with in
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accordance with a procedure: Deviations in the project technique, process description,

applicable standards, or technical work results are all possible.
➢ Any noncompliance is documented and reported to top management: Items that are out of
compliance are tracked until they are remedied.
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4.1.4 Types of Software Quality Assurance Testing

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Software testing is the process of validating and verifying the artefacts and behaviour of the software
under test. Software testing can also give a corporation with an objective, unbiased picture of the
software, allowing them to grasp and comprehend the risks associated with software implementation.

➢ Analyzing product requirements for completeness and correctness in many settings such as
industry perspective, business perspective, feasibility and viability of implementation,
usability, performance, security, infrastructure considerations, and so on are examples of test
approaches.
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➢ working with product developers on improving coding techniques, design patterns, and tests
that can be produced as part of code based on various techniques such as boundary
conditions, etc. reviewing the product architecture and general design of the product
➢ evaluating behaviour by running a programme or application
➢ reviewing the deployment infrastructure and accompanying scripts & automation, and
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➢ participating in production activities using monitoring and observability approaches

Software testing can give users or sponsors with objective, impartial information about the quality of
software and the risk of failure.
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Methodology for testing

Testing might be static, dynamic, or passive.

In software testing, there are a variety of ways to choose from. Static testing is defined as reviews,
walkthroughs, or inspections, whereas dynamic testing is defined as the execution of programmed
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code with a collection of test cases.

 When programming tools/text editors evaluate source code structure or compilers (pre-compilers)
verify syntax and data flow as static programme analysis, static testing is typically implicit. When the

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software is run, dynamic testing takes place. Dynamic testing can start before the programme is
completely finished to test specific pieces of code, and it is applied to discrete functions or modules.
Stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment are common techniques for these.

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Verification is part of static testing, while validation is part of dynamic testing.

Passive testing entails observing system behaviour without having to engage with the software. In
contrast to active testing, testers examine system logs and traces rather than providing test data. In
order to make decisions, they look for patterns and specific behaviour. This is related to log analysis

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and offline runtime verification.

Taking a risky approach

Exploratory testing is a method of software testing that entails learning, designing, and executing tests
all at the same time. "A style of software testing that emphasises the personal freedom and
responsibility of the individual tester to continually optimise the quality of his/her work by treating test-

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related learning, test design, test execution, and test result interpretation as mutually supportive
activities that run in parallel throughout the project," according to Cem Kaner, who coined the term in
1984.

The "box" method

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White-box and black-box testing are two types of software testing approaches. These two ways are
used to explain the tester's point of view when creating test cases. Grey-box testing is a hybrid
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approach to software testing methodology that can be used. This "arbitrary distinction" between black-
and white-box testing has diminished considerably as the concept of grey-box testing—which derives
tests from specific design elements—has gained traction.

Testing in a white box

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White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing, and
structural testing) evaluates a program's internal structures or workings rather than the functionality
that is visible to the end user. In white-box testing, test cases are created using an internal
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perspective of the system (the source code) and programming skills. The tester selects inputs in order
to exercise code routes and find appropriate outcomes. In-circuit testing, for example, is similar to
testing nodes in a circuit (ICT).

White-box testing can be used at the unit, integration, and system stages of the software testing
process, but it is most commonly used at the unit level. [21] During a system–level test, it can test
paths within a unit, paths between units during integration, and paths between subsystems. Though
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this technique of test design can find numerous faults or problems, it may miss elements of the
specification that haven't been implemented or criteria that haven't been met.

The following are some of the techniques used in white-box testing:

• API testing is putting the app through its paces utilising public and private APIs (application
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programming interfaces)
• Code coverage — writing tests to meet certain code coverage criteria (e.g., the test designer
can create tests to cause all statements in the programme to be executed at least once)
• Intentionally introducing defects to test the usefulness of testing procedures is known as fault
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injection.
• Methods of mutation testing
• Methods of static testing

Code coverage tools can assess the completeness of any test suite, including black-box testing, using
any approach. This allows the software team to analyse aspects of a system that are rarely tested
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while also ensuring that the most critical functions are tested. As a software metric, code coverage
can be expressed as a percentage for:

➢ Function coverage is a metric that measures how many times a function has been executed.
 ➢ The number of lines executed to fulfil the test is reported as statement coverage.
➢ Decision coverage is a metric that shows whether both the True and False branches of a test

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have been run.

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In terms of control flow, 100% statement coverage assures that all code routes or branches are
executed at least once. This is helpful in assuring proper operation, but it isn't enough because the
same code can handle various inputs appropriately or badly. Functions and methods that are covered
but not specified are known as pseudo-tested (it is possible to remove their body without breaking any
test case).

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Black-box testing

Black-box testing (also known as functional testing) examines software functionality without knowing
how it is implemented internally and without seeing the source code. The testers only know what the
software should do, not how it should do it. Equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, all-
pairs testing, state transition tables, decision table testing, fuzz testing, model-based testing, use case

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testing, exploratory testing, and specification-based testing are all examples of black-box testing
techniques.

The goal of specification-based testing is to ensure that software meets the applicable requirements.
This level of testing typically necessitates providing detailed test cases to the tester, who may then

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simply check that the output value (or behaviour) for a given input "is" or "is not" the same as the
expected value indicated in the test case. Specifications and requirements, or what the application is
supposed to do, are used to create test cases. It derives test cases from external descriptions of the
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software, such as specifications, requirements, and designs. These tests might be functional or non-
functional, however functional tests are more common.

Although specification-based testing is required to ensure proper functionality, it is insufficient to

protect against complex or high-risk circumstances.
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The black box technique has the advantage of requiring minimal programming experience. The tester
is likely to have a different set of biases than the programmers and may focus on various aspects of
functionality. Black-box testing, on the other hand, has been described as "walking through a dark
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maze without a flashlight." Because they don't look at the source code, a tester may write a lot of test
cases to verify something that could have been checked with just one, or they may leave some
aspects of the programme untested.

This test method can be used at all stages of software testing, including unit, integration, system, and
acceptability testing. It often encompasses most, if not all, higher-level testing, although it can also
dominate unit testing.
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Interface testing of components

Component interface testing is a type of black-box testing that focuses on data values rather than just
the subsystem component's operations. Beyond comprehensive integration testing between those
units, component interface testing can be used to evaluate the handling of data sent between distinct
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units, or subsystem components. The data being transmitted can be thought of as "message
packets," and the range or data types can be examined and tested for authenticity before being
passed into another unit for data generated by one unit. One approach for interface testing is to keep
a separate log file of data items exchanged, frequently with a timestamp noted, to allow examination
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of thousands of cases of data passed between units over the course of days or weeks. Checking the
processing of some extreme data values when other interface variables are supplied as regular
values is one example of a test. Unusual data values in an interface can assist explain why the next
unit performed poorly.

Visual evaluation
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The goal of visual testing is to give developers the ability to investigate what happened at the time of
software failure by displaying the data in such a way that they can readily discover the information
they need and that it is expressed clearly.
 The premise behind visual testing is that showing someone an issue (or a test failure) rather than
simply articulating it boosts clarity and understanding significantly. As a result, visual testing
necessitates filming the whole test process — capturing everything that happens on the test system in

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video format. Real-time tester input via picture-in-picture camera and audio commentary from
microphones are augmented by output videos.

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Visual assessment has a variety of benefits. Because testers can show the developer the problem
(and the events leading up to it) rather than just describe it, the quality of communication improves
dramatically, and the need to reproduce test failures disappears in many circumstances. The
developer will have all of the proof she or he needs of a test failure, allowing them to focus on the root

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of the problem and how to remedy it.

Ad hoc testing and exploratory testing are key approaches for ensuring software integrity since they
involve less setup time and allow for faster detection of critical defects. The capacity of the tester(s) to
base testing on defined techniques and then invent versions of those tests might result in a more
thorough investigation of defect solutions in ad hoc testing, where testing takes place in an
improvised, spontaneous manner. One of the limitations of ad hoc testing is its lack of reproducibility
unless adequate documentation of the methods is maintained.

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Grey-box testing

Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) entails understanding internal data structures

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and algorithms in order to build tests that are executed at the user, or black-box, level. "The source
code and the executable binary" are frequently available to the tester. Reverse engineering (using
dynamic code analysis) may also be used in grey-box testing to discover boundary values or error
messages, for example. Manipulation of input data and output formatting do not qualify as grey-
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boxing because the input and output are obviously outside the "black box" that we are referring to as
the system under test. When conducting integration testing between two modules of code authored by
two different developers, where just the interfaces are exposed, this distinction is especially essential.

The tester makes better-informed testing choices when testing the software from the outside by
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understanding the fundamental concepts of how the software works. A grey-box tester is usually
allowed to set up an isolated testing environment and do tasks like seeding a database. After taking
particular operations, such as executing SQL statements against the database and then conducting
queries to check that the intended changes have been reflected, the tester can examine the state of
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the product being tested. Grey-box testing uses minimal information to create intelligent test
scenarios. This will be especially true when dealing with data types, exceptions, and other similar
issues.

Testing types, techniques and tactics

Testing kinds, software testing methodologies, and approaches are all designations and ways of
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organising testing.

Testing of the installation

Before they may be utilised for their intended purpose, most software systems require installation
procedures. Installation testing is the process of putting these methods to the test in order to have a
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working software system.

Testing for compatibility

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A lack of compatibility with other application software, operating systems (or operating system
versions, old or new), or target environments that differ considerably from the original is a typical
cause of software failure (actual or perceived) (such as a terminal or GUI application intended to be
run on the desktop now being required to become a Web application, which must render in a Web
browser). For example, a lack of backward compatibility might occur when programmers exclusively
write and test software on the most recent version of the target environment, which not all users may
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be operating.

As a result, the latest work may not work on older versions of the target environment, or on older
technology that previous versions of the target environment could use. Such problems can
 occasionally be resolved by separating operating system functions into a distinct application module
or library.

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Testing for sanity and smoke

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Sanity testing determines whether or not further testing is appropriate.

Smoke testing is making only rudimentary attempts to use the software in order to see whether there
are any fundamental issues that will prohibit it from operating at all. These tests can be used to verify
the build.

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Regression testing

After a big code change, regression testing focuses on detecting problems. It aims to find software
regressions, such as deteriorated or missing functionalities, as well as existing bugs that have
reappeared. When software functionality that was previously working correctly ceases working as
planned, a regression occurs. Regressions typically emerge as an unintentional consequence of
software modifications, when freshly developed code collides with previously existing code. Due to

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the countless intricacies in earlier software features, regression testing is often the largest test effort in
commercial software development, and even new software can be built while leveraging certain old
test cases to test parts of the new design to guarantee prior functionality is still maintained.

Regression testing commonly entails re-running prior sets of test cases to see if previously corrected

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flaws have reappeared. The extent of testing is determined by the stage of the release process as
well as the risk of the new features. They can be thorough, consisting of positive tests on each
feature, if the changes are made late in the release or are regarded to be high risk, or they can be
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very shallow, consisting of only positive tests on each feature, if the changes are made early in the
release or are deemed to be low risk. It's critical to establish strong assertions on existing behaviour
when performing regression testing. Automatic test amplification can be used to generate and add
new assertions to existing test cases for this purpose.
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Acceptance testing

Acceptance testing can refer to either of the following:

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Prior to further testing, such as integration or regression, a smoke test is used as a build acceptance
test.

User acceptability testing is customer acceptance testing that takes place in their lab environment on
their own gear (UAT). Acceptance testing can be done throughout the hand-off procedure between
any two development phases.

Alpha testing
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At the developers' location, alpha testing is simulated or genuine operational testing by future
users/customers or an independent test team. Before going to beta testing, off-the-shelf software is
frequently put through alpha testing as a type of internal acceptance testing.
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Beta testing

Beta testing is a type of external user acceptance testing that occurs after alpha testing. Beta versions
of software are distributed to a select group of people who are not part of the programming team and
are known as beta testers. The programme is sent to groups of people in order to ensure that there
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are minimal flaws or defects in the final product. Beta versions can be made available to the general
public to expand the number of future consumers who can provide input and to give value sooner, for
a longer or even unlimited amount of time (perpetual beta)

Non-functional testing vs. functional testing

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Functional testing is a set of actions that check a code's ability to perform a certain activity or function.
Although some development techniques work from use cases or user stories, these are frequently
 found in the coding requirements documentation. Functional tests are used to answer questions like
"can the user do this?" and "does this feature work?"

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Non-functional testing covers features of software that aren't directly tied to a specific function or user
action, such as scalability or other performance, behaviour under limitations, or security. Testing will

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identify the breaking point, or the point at which extremes of scalability or performance result in
insecure execution. Non-functional requirements are those that represent the product's quality,
particularly in terms of its acceptability from the standpoint of its consumers.

Continuous testing

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Continuous testing is the technique of running automated tests as part of the software delivery
pipeline to get instant feedback on the business risks posed by a software release candidate.
Continuous testing encompasses both functional and non-functional needs, and the breadth of testing
ranges from confirming bottom-up requirements or user stories to assessing system requirements
linked to overarching business objectives.

Destructive testing

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Destructive testing aims to break a piece of software or a subsystem. It establishes the resilience of
input validation and error-management algorithms by ensuring that the software runs successfully
even when it receives erroneous or unexpected inputs. Fault injection in software, often known as
fuzzing, is an example of failure testing. The software fault injection page links to a number of

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commercial non-functional testing tools; there are also a number of open-source and free destructive
testing tools available.
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Performance testing

Performance testing is used to see how well a system or subsystem performs in terms of
responsiveness and stability when subjected to a specific workload. Other quality features of the
system, such as scalability, dependability, and resource utilisation, can also be investigated,
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measured, validated, or verified using it.

Load testing is concerned with ensuring that the system can continue to function under a given load,
such as significant amounts of data or a big number of users. Software scalability is the term used to
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describe this. When performed as a non-functional activity, the associated load testing activity is
referred to as endurance testing. Volume testing allows you to check how well software works even
when certain components (such a file or database) grow dramatically in size. Stress testing is a
method of determining reliability under unusual or unusual workloads. Stability testing (also known as
load or endurance testing) determines if software can function reliably for an extended length of time.

There is limited consensus on what performance testing's precise goals should be. Load testing,
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performance testing, scalability testing, and volume testing are all phrases that are frequently
interchanged.

Real-time software systems must adhere to rigorous deadlines. Real-time testing is performed to see
if timing limitations are met.
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Testing for usability

The purpose of usability testing is to see if the user interface is simple to use and comprehend. It is
mostly concerned with the application's use. This is not a type of testing that can be automated;
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competent UI designers must watch actual human users.

Testing for accessibility

Compliance with standards such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

Section 508 Amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

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Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium are examples of accessibility
testing (W3C)
 Testing for security

To prevent hackers from breaking into a system, security testing is required for software that

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processes confidential data.

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This is a "type of testing conducted to evaluate the degree to which a test item, and associated data
and information, are protected so that unauthorised persons or systems cannot use, read, or modify
them, and authorised persons or systems are not denied access to them," according to the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Testing throughout the development phase

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Development testing is a software development process that entails the coordinated use of a wide
range of fault prevention and detection tactics to decrease software development risks, time, and
costs. During the construction phase of the software development lifecycle, it is carried out by a
software developer or engineer. Before code is promoted to additional testing, Development Testing
seeks to eliminate construction errors; this method is designed to improve the quality of the resultant
product as well as the overall development process' efficiency.

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Development Testing may include static code analysis, data flow analysis, metrics analysis, peer
code reviews, unit testing, code coverage analysis, traceability, and other software testing
procedures, depending on the organization's expectations for software development.

A/B testing

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A/B testing is a technique for conducting a controlled experiment to see if a proposed modification is
more effective than the current strategy. Customers are directed to either a current (control) or a
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changed (treatment) version of a feature, and data is collected to evaluate which version is better at
achieving the desired result.

Simultaneous testing
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Concurrent or concurrency testing evaluates the behaviour and performance of software and systems
that use concurrent computing in real-world settings. Deadlocks, race situations, and issues with
shared memory/resource handling are common issues that this style of testing may reveal.
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Type testing or conformance testing

Conformance testing is used in software testing to ensure that a product meets its specifications.
Compilers, for example, are thoroughly examined to ensure that they meet the language's accepted
standard.
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Comparative output testing

Snapshot testing, also known as Golden Master testing, is the process of creating a display expected
output, such as data comparisons of text or images of the user interface. Unlike many other types of
testing, this does not automatically discover failures and instead requires a human to review the
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output for inconsistencies.

Property testing
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Instead of stating that certain inputs create specific predicted outcomes, the practitioner generates a
large number of inputs at random, runs the programme on all of them, and asserts the validity of
some "quality" that should be true for every pair of input and output. Every input to a sort function, for
example, should be the same length as the output. A monotonically expanding list should be the
output of every sort function.
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Property testing libraries give the user control over how random inputs are generated, ensuring that
degenerate instances and inputs with specific patterns are covered, as well as other features of the
implementation under test.
 Since it was created and popularised by the Haskell library, property testing is also known as
"generative testing" or "QuickCheck testing."

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VCR evaluation

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VCR testing, also known as "playback testing" or "record/replay" testing, is a regression testing
technique that improves the reliability and speed of regression tests using a component that is
sluggish or unreliable to connect with, usually a third-party API outside the tester's control. It entails
recording ("cassetteing") the system's interactions with the external component and then replaying the
recorded interactions in place of connecting with the external system on subsequent test runs.

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The Ruby library popularised the technique in web development.

Check your Understanding

1. ____________ is mostly determined by the ability to meet functional and performance objectives

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as well as the ease with which activities may be carried out.

2. ___________ is a planned and systematic set of operations that ensures that an item or product
complies with established technical specifications.

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3. _____________ is a hybrid approach to software testing methodology that can be used.

4. Component _______________ is a type of black-box testing that focuses on data values rather
than just the subsystem component's operations.
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5. _________________ commonly entails re-running prior sets of test cases to see if previously
corrected flaws have reappeared.

6. ________________ aims to break a piece of software or a subsystem.

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7. The purpose of usability testing is to see if the _________________ is simple to use and
comprehend.
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Summary

• Software quality is described as the ability to satisfy customers by providing all client
deliverables in terms of performance, standards, and ease of use. The definition can be used
to both software and a generic software product.
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• Software quality assurance is a planned and systematic set of operations that ensures that an
item or product complies with established technical specifications.
• Software testing is the process of validating and verifying the artefacts and behaviour of the
software under test. Software testing can also give a corporation with an objective, unbiased
picture of the software, allowing them to grasp and comprehend the risks associated with
software implementation.
m

• In software testing, there are a variety of ways to choose from. Static testing is defined as
reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections, whereas dynamic testing is defined as the execution of
programmed code with a collection of test cases.
•
)A

Dynamic testing can start before the programme is completely finished to test specific pieces
of code, and it is applied to discrete functions or modules.
• Passive testing entails observing system behaviour without having to engage with the
software.
• White-box and black-box testing are two types of software testing approaches.
• White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing,
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and structural testing) evaluates a program's internal structures or workings rather than the
functionality that is visible to the end user.
• Black-box testing (also known as functional testing) examines software functionality without
knowing how it is implemented internally and without seeing the source code.
 • Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) entails understanding internal data
structures and algorithms in order to build tests that are executed at the user, or black-box,

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level.
• There are many different types of testing like:

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• Acceptance testing
• Black box testing
• End to end testing
• Functional testing
• Interactive testing

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• Integration testing
• Load testing
• Non functional testing
• Performance testing
• Regression testing
• Sanity testing
• Security testing

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• Single user performance testing
• Smoke testing
• Stress testing
• Unit testing

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• White-box testing
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Activity

Prepare a document on different types of software testing.

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Glossary

•
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Software quality- Software quality is defined as a field of study and practice that describes the
desirable attributes of software products. There are two main approaches to software quality:
defect management and quality attributes.
• Intangibility- Intangibility refers to the lack of palpable or tactile property making it difficult to
assess service quality.
• Software quality assurance- Software quality assurance (SQA) is a means and practice of
monitoring the software engineering processes and methods used in a project to ensure
proper quality of the software.
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• Methodologies- a system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity.

• Software testing- Software testing is the process of evaluating and verifying that a software
product or application does what it is supposed to do.
• Static- lacking in movement, action, or change, especially in an undesirable or uninteresting
way.
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• Passive- accepting or allowing what happens or what others do, without active response or
resistance.
• Dynamic- of a process or system) characterized by constant change, activity, or progress.
• Code coverage- In computer science, test coverage is a measure of the degree to which the
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source code of a program is executed when a particular test suite is run.

• Compatibility- a state in which two things are able to exist or occur together without problems
or conflict.
• Sanity - the ability to think and behave in a normal and rational manner; sound mental health.
• Regression- A return to a former or less developed state.
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 Questions and Exercises

1. What do you understand by software quality?

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2. Why is software quality important? Explain briefly.

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3. Explain the meaning of software quality assurance.

4. What are the different testing approaches in software quality assurance?

5. Discuss the different types of testing in detail.

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Further Readings

• Software Quality Assurance

Book by Alain April and Claude Y. Laporte

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• Software Quality Assurance: From Theory to Implementation
Book by Daniel Galin

Unit 5.1 Documentation

Learning Objectives: si
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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the concept of documentation

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5.1.1 Introduction

There are two sorts of documentation that are essentially different. The purpose of system
documentation is to assist programmers and systems analysts in understanding the application
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software so that they can build or maintain it once it has been installed. System documentation is
developed as the project progresses as a byproduct of the systems analysis and design process.
Each stage and phase generates documents that are critical to comprehending how the system is
constructed or will be built, and these documents are kept in the project binder (s).

The purpose of user documentation (such as user manuals, training manuals, and online help
services) is to assist the user in using the system. Although most project teams anticipate that users
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will have received training and read the user guides before using the system, this is not always the
case. Users are more likely to begin using software without training or reading the user manuals
today, especially in the case of commercial software packages for microcomputers. We'll concentrate
on user documentation in this part.

User documentation is frequently postponed until the very end of a project, which is a risky tactic.
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Many people underestimate how long it takes to create decent documentation since it entails much
more than simply writing a few pages. Documentation creation necessitates the creation of
documents (on paper or online), the writing of text, the editing of the text, and the testing of the
documents. This procedure takes roughly 3 hours per page (single-spaced) for paper-based
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documentation and 2 hours each screen for online content to produce good-quality material. As a
result, a "basic" set of documentation, such as a 10-page user manual and 20 help screens, takes 7
hours to complete. Naturally, lower-quality documentation can be created more quickly.

The time it will take to create and test user documentation should be factored into the project
schedule. When the interface design and programme specifications are finished, most organisations
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expect to start developing documentation. Following the completion of the unit tests, the first draught
of documentation is normally scheduled for completion. This decreases—but does not eliminate—the
likelihood that the documentation will need to be updated as a result of software changes, while still
 allowing enough time for the documentation to be tested and altered before the acceptance tests
begin.

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Although paper-based manuals are still useful, online documentation is increasingly becoming the
standard. Because users, especially novices with little computer knowledge, are more comfortable

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with paper-based documentation, it is easier to use; online documentation needs users to learn yet
another set of commands. Paper-based documentation is also easier to thumb through to get a
general sense of its arrangement and themes, and it may be used away from the computer.

However, there are four significant advantages of online documentation that almost guarantee its
dominance for the foreseeable future. For starters, finding information is frequently easier (provided

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that the help search index is well designed). Instead of needing to search through an index or table of
contents in a paper publication, the user can enter in a range of keywords to get information almost
instantly. Second, the same information can be provided in a variety of formats, allowing the user to
find and understand the information in the most informative manner possible. (In paper
documentation, such redundancy is conceivable, but the cost and scary size of the resulting manual
make it impracticable.) Third, online documentation allows users to interact with it in a variety of
innovative ways that aren't feasible with static print documentation. For example, links or "tool tips"

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can be used to explain unfamiliar concepts, and programmers can create "show me" routines that
indicate exactly which buttons to click and what text to type on the screen. Finally, maintaining and
disseminating online documentation is substantially less expensive than maintaining and
disseminating print documentation.

5.1.2 Types of Documentation

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User documentation is divided into three categories: reference documents, procedures manuals, and
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tutorials. When a user wants to understand how to perform a given operation, reference papers (also
known as the help system) are created to be used (e.g., updating a field, adding a new record).
People usually study reference information after they have attempted and failed to execute a task.
Because users are sometimes impatient or frustrated when reading reference papers, additional care
must be taken when writing them.
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Procedures guides explain how to carry out specific company operations (for example, producing a
monthly report or taking a customer order). Each item in the procedures handbook usually walks the
user through a job that involves numerous system operations or processes. As a result, each entry is
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often significantly lengthier than a reference document entry.

Tutorials show people how to use main system components (for example, an introduction to the
system's basic operations). Each entry in the tutorial is usually longer than entries in procedures
manuals, and the entries are normally designed to be read in order, whereas entries in reference
papers and procedures manuals are designed to be read separately.
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The overall method for generating user documentation is identical to the process for developing
interfaces, regardless of the type of user documentation. The developer creates the overall structure
of the documentation before working on the individual components.

5.1.3 Designing Document Structure

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We concentrate on the development of online documentation in this part since we believe it is the
most popular type of user documentation. Developing a set of documentation navigation controls that
bring the user to documentation subjects is the general structure utilised in most online
documentation, whether reference pages, procedures manuals, or tutorials. The navigation controls
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are how users locate and access a certain topic, whereas the documentation topics are the material
that users wish to read.

Identifying the various sorts of subjects and navigation controls that must be included in the
documentation is the first step in designing the structure. A popular structure for online reference
documents is shown in Figure 12-6. (i.e., the help system). The documentation topics are typically
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derived from three different sources. The user interface's set of commands and menus is the first and
most evident source of subjects. This series of subjects is highly helpful if the user wants to learn how
to utilise a specific command or menu.
 Users, on the other hand, frequently don't know where to seek for commands or where they are in the
system's menu structure. Users instead have jobs to complete, and instead of thinking in terms of

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orders, they think in terms of their business tasks. As a result, the second and frequently more helpful
group of subjects concentrates on how to do certain actions, typically those in the user interface
design's usage scenarios. These topics guide the user through the steps required to complete a task

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(sometimes including numerous keystrokes or mouse clicks).

The definitions of key phrases are the third group of topics. These terms primarily refer to the
system's entities and data pieces, but they can also refer to commands.

There are five different types of subject navigation controls, however not all systems employ all of

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them. (For more information, see Figure 12-6.) The table of contents, for example, organises the
information in a logical order, as if the users were reading the reference documentation from
beginning to end. The second, the index, allows access to the themes by key phrases, similar to how
the index at the back of a book aids in topic discovery.

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Third, text search allows users to search across subjects for any text they input or for words that
match a developer-specified set of words that is far bigger than the index's list of words. Text search,
 unlike the index, usually does not organise the terms (other than alphabetic). Fourth, certain systems
allow you to use an intelligent agent to assist you in your search. The Web-like links between topics,

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which allow the user to click and move between subjects, are the fifth and final navigation control for
topics.

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Procedure manuals and tutorials are similar in structure, however they are often shorter. These
resources are critical when the new system fundamentally alters how things are done. The use
scenarios generated during interface design and other basic actions that users must accomplish are
frequently the sources of topics for procedures manuals. Tutorial topics are usually grouped around
important system areas and the user's level of experience. Most lessons begin with the most basic,

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frequently used commands and progress to more complicated, less often used ones.

Topics for Documentation Writing

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Across application systems and operating systems, the general format for themes is very consistent
(Figure 12-7). Topics usually begin with a distinct title, followed by some introduction language that
describes the topic, and then thorough, step-by-step directions on how to do the task at hand (where
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appropriate). Many subjects feature screen graphics to assist the user in finding items on the screen;
others offer "show me" examples that display the sequence of keystrokes and/or mouse movements
and clicks required to perform the function. Most contain navigation options for moving between
subjects, which are normally located at the top of the window, as well as links to other topics. Some
offer connections to similar topics with options or additional commands and actions that the user
might want to do in conjunction with the item being read.
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It can be difficult to come up with topic content. It necessitates a thorough awareness of the users (or,
more precisely, the spectrum of users) as well as a comprehension of the abilities the users presently
 possess and can be expected to import from other systems and tools they use or have used
(including the system the new system is replacing). Topics should always be written from the user's

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perspective, describing what the user wants to achieve rather than what the system can do. Some
general suggestions for improving the quality of documentation text are shown in Figure 12-8.

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Identifying Terms for Navigation

You start identifying the terms that will be used to help users find subjects as you write the
documentation topics. Because it is derived from the logical structure of the documentation themes,
whether reference topics, process topics, or tutorial topics, the table of contents is usually the
simplest. Because they are produced from the key sections of the system and the users' business

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operations, the items for the index and search engine demand extra care. When you write a topic, you
must also include a list of the terms that will be used to find it. There are four different types of terms
that can be used in the index and search engine.

The user interface actions such as open file, modify customer, and print open orders are the first
place to look for index phrases. There are two elements to every command (action and object). It's
critical to create an index for both portions because consumers can use either to search for

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information. A person looking for information on saving files, for example, would enter the terms save
or files in their search.

The second source is the system's major concepts, which are commonly represented in data flow

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diagrams as entities, data stores, and data components. For example, in the instance of Tune Source,
this may comprise music genre, artist, and tune.

The user's collection of business tasks, such as buying replacement units or booking an appointment,
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is a third source. These are frequently included in the command set, but they can also require many
commands and involve terminology that aren't necessarily found in the system. The usage scenarios
produced by interface design are a good source for these phrases.
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The set of synonyms for the three categories of objects listed above provides a fourth, and frequently
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contentious, source. Users don't always think in terms of the system's clearly defined concepts. They
might look for advice on how to halt or quit instead of exiting, or how to erase rather than delete.
Including synonyms in the index increases the documentation system's complexity and size, but it can
considerably improve the system's usefulness to users.
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Check your Understanding

 1. ______________ is developed as the project progresses as a byproduct of the systems analysis
and design process.

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2. ______________ guides explain how to carry out specific company operations.

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3. Tutorials show people how to use main system ____________.

4. Identifying the various sorts of subjects and _______________ that must be included in the
documentation is the first step in designing the structure.

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Summary

• System documentation is developed as the project progresses as a byproduct of the systems

analysis and design process. The purpose of system documentation is to assist programmers
and systems analysts in understanding the application software so that they can build or
maintain it once it has been installed.
•

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User documentation is frequently postponed until the very end of a project, which is a risky
tactic. The purpose of user documentation (such as user manuals, training manuals, and
online help services) is to assist the user in using the system.
• User documentation is divided into three categories: reference documents, procedures
manuals, and tutorials.
•

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There are five different types of subject navigation controls, however not all systems employ
all of them. The table of contents, for example, organises the information in a logical order, as
if the users were reading the reference documentation from beginning to end. The second,
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the index, allows access to the themes by key phrases, similar to how the index at the back of
a book aids in topic discovery. Third, text search allows users to search across subjects for
any text they input or for words that match a developer-specified set of words that is far bigger
than the index's list of words. Text search, unlike the index, usually does not organise the
terms (other than alphabetic). Fourth, certain systems allow you to use an intelligent agent to
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assist you in your search. The Web-like links between topics, which allow the user to click and
move between subjects, are the fifth and final navigation control for topics.
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Activity

Write down the steps to design a document structure.

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Glossary

• Contentious- causing or likely to cause an argument; controversial.

• Navigation- the process or activity of accurately ascertaining one's position and planning and
following a route.
• Terminology- the body of terms used with a particular technical application in a subject of
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study, profession, etc

• Documentation- material that provides official information or evidence or that serves as a
record.
• Manual- relating to or done with the hands.
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• Tutorial- relating to a tutor or a tutor's tuition.

Questions and Exercises

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1. Explain the meaning of documentation.

2. What are the various types of documentation.

 3. How will you design a document structure?

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Check your Understanding (Answers)

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1. System documentation

2. Procedures

3. components

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4. navigation control

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Module V: System Implementation/Maintenance
Unit - 1: Sy st em I mpl e ment at ion

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to: si

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• De f in e t he in tr od uc t i o n to s y s t e m i m pl e m en t at i on .
• Dis c us s t he i mp or t a nc e of s y s t e m i m pl e m en t at i on .
• Ex pl a i n th e s uc c es s p l an f or s o ft wa re im p l e me n ta t io n .
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• Dis c us s us er tr a in i n g .
• Ex pl a i n th e tr a in i n g m et h ods .

Int rodu ct ion

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Th e pr oc es s o f s y s t em i m p le m en t at i on e n ta i l s :
 • De ter m i n in g h ow t h e i nf or ma t io n s y s t e m s ho u ld b e c o ns t ruc te d (i . e .,
phy s ic a l s y s te m d es i g n) , e ns ur in g t ha t t he i nf or ma t io n s y s t e m is o per a ti o n al

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an d i n us e, an d e ns ur i ng t h at t h e i nf or ma t io n s y s t em f u lf i ls q u a li ty s ta n dar ds
(i. e ., q u al i ty as s ur a nc e) .

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Sy s t e m I mp l e me nt a ti o n b ui l ds s y s t em el e m e nts t h at m e et s t ak e h o l der an d s y s t em
req u ir e me nts de f in e d i n th e e ar ly l if e c y c le p has es us i ng t h e s tr uc t ure c r ea t ed
dur i n g arc hi t ec t ur al de s i gn a n d th e res u lts of s y s t em an a ly s is . T he s e s y s te m
p iec es ar e t he n c o mb i ne d t o pr od uc e i nt er m ed i at e a g gre g at es , w h i c h ar e u lt i ma t ely
c om b i ne d t o m ak e t h e wh o le s y s t e m - of- i nt er e s t ( S oI) . S e e Sy s t e m I nt e gra t io n f or

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mo re in for m at i o n.

Us ers c a n t ak e ov er t h e o per at i o n of t h e s y s t em f or us e a n d a s s es s me n t af te r it
has be e n i mp l e me n te d . I t i nc l ud e t eac h in g u s ers h ow t o ut i l is e th e s y s t em an d
p la n ni n g fo r a s m oo t h tr a ns it i o n.

W e'v e fi n is he d t he s y s te ms a na ly s is s t e p of t he SD LC at t h is p oi n t (th e s y s t em
s s urv ey an d s tr uc t ur e d s y s te ms a n a ly s is ) . W e'v e a ls o f i n is h e d th e s y s te ms d es i gn

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proc es s , wh ic h i nc lu d e d p ic k in g h ar dw ar e an d s of tw ar e (s y s t ems s e lec t io n) a n d
pro d uc in g t he s y s t e ms d es ig n a n d i mp l e me n t at i on pl a n (s tr uc t ur ed s y s te ms
des i g n). I t's t im e t o p u t our ne w or m o d if i ed s y s te m i n p l ac e an d s t ar t us i n g it .

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Sy s t e ms i m pl e m en ta t i on r ef er s t o th e s t eps tak e n to f i n is h t h e des i gn ( if n e ed e d) i n
th e a ut h or iz e d s y s t em s d es ig n d oc um e nt , as w e ll as tes t, ins ta l l , a nd s t ar t us in g
th e n ew or up gr ad e d I nf or ma t io n S y s t em .
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1.1.1 Introduction

Implementation is the process of producing the system hierarchy's lowest-level system parts (system
breakdown structure). System components are handcrafted, purchased, or repurposed. The
hardware fabrication operations of forming, removing, joining, and finishing, the software realization
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processes of coding and testing, and the operational procedures development processes for
operators' responsibilities all fall under the category of production. If a production process is
involved, a manufacturing system that follows established technical and management procedures
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may be required.

The implementation process' goal is to design and build (or fabricate) a system element that
complies with its design attributes and/or requirements. The element is built using industry-standard
technology and procedures. This procedure connects the system definition and integration
processes. The diagram below shows how the outputs of system definition are related to system
implementation, which results in the implemented (system) pieces needed to generate aggregates
and the SoI.
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Simplification of How the Outputs of System Definition Relate to System Implementation, which
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Produces the System Elements Required to Produce Systems and Subsystems.

Source:https://www.sebokwiki.org/wiki/System_Implementation
 Process Approach

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Purpose and Principle of the Approach
Engineers use the design properties and/or requirements assigned to a system element to create

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and produce a full description during the implementation process. They then fabricate, code, or
construct each individual element based on precise descriptions of materials, processes, physical or
logical arrangements, standards, technologies, and/or information flows (drawings or other design
documentation). A system element's properties will be checked against the thorough description and
its requirements will be validated.

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Recursive interactions occur if subsequent verification and validation (V&V) operations or
configuration audits reveal disparities, requiring predecessor activities or processes to mitigate the
differences and change, repair, or fix the system element in question. From the standpoint of the
United States Defense Acquisition University, Figure below depicts the context for the
implementation process (DAU).

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Context Diagram for the Implementation Process (DAU 2010).

Source:https://www.sebokwiki.org/wiki/System_Implementation

Such diagrams provide a valuable overview of the perspectives of the systems engineering (SE)
community on what is necessary for implementation and what the general outcomes of
implementation might be. These are backed up by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration's (NASA) Systems Engineering Handbook's explanation of implementation inputs,
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outputs, and activities (NASA 2007). It's critical to recognize that these viewpoints are process-
oriented. While this is a valuable concept, merely looking at implementation in terms of process can
be restrictive.

The implementation process outcomes may generate constraints to be applied on the architecture of
the higher-level system, depending on the technologies and systems chosen when a decision is
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made to produce a system element; those constraints are normally identified as derived system
requirements and added to the set of system requirements applicable to this higher-level system.
Those limits must be considered in the architectural design.
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If an existing system element is purchased or reused, it must be recognized as a constraint or

system need that applies to the architecture of the higher-level system. In order to be incorporated
into a higher-level system or aggregate, the implementation process may require some adaptation or
adaptations to the system requirement.

Depending on the technologies involved and when or when the system requirement needs to be
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integrated into a higher-level aggregate, implementation also includes packaging, handling, and
storage. The implementation process also includes creating supporting documentation for a system
requirement, such as manuals for operation, maintenance, and/or installation; these artefacts are
 used during the system deployment and usage phase. The requirements for system elements, as
well as the accompanying verification and validation criteria, are inputs to this phase; these inputs

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come from the detailed outputs of the architectural design process.

Industrial and government standards, as well as the conditions of all applicable agreements,

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determine the implementation process. This could involve packing and storage conditions, as well as
activities that prepare the product for usage, such as operator training. In addition, considerations for
packaging, handling, storage, and transportation (PHS&T) will limit the implementation activities.
Refer to the PHS&T section of the System Deployment and Use document for more details.
Enterprise-level safety standards and guidelines must also be considered by the developing or

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integrating organization.

Activities of the Process

During this procedure, the following important activities and tasks are carried out:

• Define the implementation strategy - The implementation process starts with detailed design
and includes creating an implementation strategy that specifies fabrication and coding
procedures, tools and equipment to be used, implementation tolerances, and the means and

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criteria for auditing the configuration of resulting elements against the detailed design
documentation. The implementation strategy is created and refined in the case of repeated
system element implementations (such as for mass manufacturing or replacement elements)
in order to achieve consistent and repeatable element production; it is saved in the project

•
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decision database for future use. The arrangements for packing, storing, and supplying the
implemented element are included in the implementation strategy.

Realize the system element - Using the implementation strategy components listed above,
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realise, adapt, and produce the relevant system element. Standards that regulate applicable
safety, security, privacy, and environmental rules or legislation, as well as the practises of the
relevant implementation technology, are followed during implementation or adaptation.
Fabrication of hardware pieces, software development, specification of training capabilities,
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production of training documents, and first operator and maintainer training are all required.

• Record evidence that the system element complies with its requirements, as well as the
associated verification and validation standards and the law policy. Peer reviews and unit
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testing, as well as scrutiny of operation and maintenance manuals, are all required. Acquire
attributes that characterise the implemented element that can be measured (weight,
capacities, effectiveness, level of performance, reliability, availability, etc.).

• The implementation strategy should specify how to package, store, and supply the
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Checking and Validation of the Implementation

Testing to see if the implemented element (i.e., piece of software, hardware, or other product) works
in its intended purpose should be part of proper implementation checking and accuracy. Mockups
and breadboards, as well as modelling and simulation of a prototype or completed system elements,
could all be used in testing. The next step would be system integration once this has been achieved
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satisfactorily.
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1.1.2 Importance of System Implementation

The following are the system's implementation objectives:

• Complete the design in the approved systems design document as necessary.

• The contents of new or altered documents, computer screens, and databases, for example,
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must be drawn out and constructed in detail.

• The approved systems design document requires you to write, test, and record the
programmes and procedures.
 • Ensure that the organization's staff can run the new system by completing the development of
user manuals and other documentation, as well as training personnel.
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Determine whether the system meets the users' requirements by thoroughly testing it with
them.
• Plan, control, and execute an orderly installation of the new system to ensure a successful

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conversion.

1.1.3 Success plan for Software Implementation

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One of a company's most difficult operations is software implementation. Especially when the new
programme is extensive and is being implemented across numerous locations.
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Is it true that you've made your purchasing decision and are about to put it into action? You and your
team are now faced with a complicated set of tasks with various opportunities for errors and
stumbling obstacles. The launch of new software is on shaky ground without strong planning, well-
thought-out training, smooth data movement, and a well-planned deployment.
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You and your team are the most important part of a well-executed software deployment. The IT
department's early involvement is critical to the project's success.
Early on, all project participants must be informed and brought on board, and they must not be
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overburdened with new tasks. Only if every team member is focused on the task at hand can
implementation be properly managed. Avoid worker turnover during the software implementation
unless absolutely essential. Your judgments should be documented, justified, and communicated to
your team. If you're stuck, seek help from a professional.

5 Critical Steps for Your Software Implementation Plan

1. Keep vendors accountable with a detailed needs document
2. Control your scope—or it will control you
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3. Assign realistic teams to drive software implementation plan

4. Encourage user adoption with a proactive, engaging strategy
5. Focus on continuous improvement

Keep vendors accountable with a detailed needs document

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In your software implementation strategy, your vendor is an important player. The degree to which
your vendor will support your implementation (and at what cost) varies, but that doesn't mean you
shouldn't try to get as much help as possible from them.
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According to our findings, getting the most out of your vendor and new system begins throughout the
selection process. The process begins by involving employees who will be using the new system on
a regular basis in order to create a needs document to share with vendors.

Make a list of everyone who will use the new tool, including individuals, teams, and departments:
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• Include any day-to-day users as well as leaders who will consume the data generated by the
platform.
• Make a list of who your stakeholders are.
• Examine how those stakeholders will be affected and when they will be affected.
 • Work together to create a list of features that the programme must have in order to meet the
demand for which it is being purchased.

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Gather all of this information from your stakeholders and compile it into a needs document to share
with suppliers so that the new system meets all of your requirements.

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After then, this document should be used again throughout the implementation phase. Your vendor
will know which features your system champions (workers picked to pilot and become comfortable
with the system before everyone else) will need the most experience with based on the identified
pain points.

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Control your scope, or it will control you
Your needs document identifies the capabilities that your new system requires so that you may
concentrate on the most critical aspects of the selection process.

Your needs paper also aids you in avoiding scope creep during the implementation and training
stages.

Scope creep is the danger of adding requirements and objectives to a project until it becomes an

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unmanageable jumble that you can't reasonably deliver on.

Scope creep will occur in your software implementation strategy if you decide to build up and
personalise all of the features of each capability at the same time. There's no doubting that the bells

and put your new system to work.

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and whistles are alluring, but you must keep focused on your goals, stay true to your requirements,

Start by prioritising the skills that need to be learned initially to support the long-term implementation
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of your new system. This will have an impact on training and serve as a standard for regular check-
ins.

You'll want to incorporate certain project management tools and best practises into your software
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deployment plan to avoid scope creep. There are a few possibilities available here:

• Larger companies (those with 50 or more staff) may consider implementing formal project
management systems (which, ironically, you'd also have to do).
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• Free project management tools could undoubtedly help midsize enterprises (11-50
employees) coordinate and assign implementation responsibilities.
• Google Sheets, Calendars, and other manual digital approaches can help small
organizations (10 or less people) stay organised.

Make sure your capabilities contain the top project management features that our project
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management software buyers have highlighted.

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These collaborative tools will eventually assist implementation team members in collaborating to
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maximize software adoption and utilization for their particular teams.

Assign realistic teams to drive software implementation plans

Assembling the team(s) required for success is the next essential step in your implementation
journey. The composition of an implementation team will differ for each company, depending on the
specific demands of the company and the scope of the project.
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Establish how many business units will be using the new system and the overall number of users to
determine your requirements. The larger your installation team, the more business units/users who
will be using the product.
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But be wary of cramming the kitchen with too many cooks.

Begin with a two-person team:

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Acting administrator for the new system: Most likely an IT administrator who has previously
collaborated with the vendor. If you don't have somebody in IT on staff, choose someone
who spent time talking to vendors or testing software throughout the selection process.
Anyone with past expertise managing vendor integrations/relationships is a fantastic fit.
• For the new system, the training lead is: The new software's point person. Probably leads
the/a team that will utilize the system on a regular basis and has been a driving force behind
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adoption from the start.

This could be the size of your implementation team, depending on the size of your company. If
you're a solopreneur, you'll be working on your own.
 Larger companies may require a larger staff to push the new system for their specific business unit.

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An IT lead should be part of the extended team to manage demands and concerns about
configuration and integration with other systems, as well as a small group of end users (e.g.,

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employees, customers, and channel partners) for testing and feedback.

Each member of this extended team should take on the role of system champion for their business
unit, serving as the go-to person for system questions, training on new features, and onboarding
new employees.

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These champions must also be in sync with one another and with the system administrator.
Consider holding workshops to guarantee alignment and to keep everyone up to date on the
software implementation plan's modifications and revisions.

Encourage user adoption with a proactive, engaging strategy

Implementation does not equal adoption, no matter how fantastic and intuitive the new system and

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tools you've chosen are. You'll need to devise techniques for gaining user approval and adoption of
the new system.

You run the danger of the adoption falling flat if there isn't positive engagement with the product. You

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may fall behind on your implementation schedule, or you may see that staff are not using the product
as intended.

There are a few basic phases to achieving successful organizational changes, such as the
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implementation of new software, that you may repeat time and time again:

Adopt a proven methodology to set guidelines for change

Your organization may already have a change management strategy in place. If you don't already
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have one, now is an excellent moment to start. This technique outlines the measures that must be
taken to achieve long-term user acceptance of the newly established system.

The ADKAR change model is recommended:

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The ADKAR model's steps aid in the transition, drawing on both hard skills and emotional appeals to
facilitate a smooth transfer to a new way of thinking.
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ADKAR can assist you manage other organizational changes while also increasing user
engagement for your software implementation.
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Define clear goals that the newly implemented software will help achieve
This phase requires you to return to your needs document.

• Determine which of the new software's pain issues it addresses.

• Consider what the best business outcome would be if those pain spots were eradicated.
Make your statement as specific as possible.
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• The goal that this programme will assist in achieving should be whatever the best case
scenario is.
 • Instead of saying "lower the average backlog of work orders by 50% within six months,"
challenge your business to "reduce the average backlog of work orders by 50% within six

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months." Be specific once more.

Users are held accountable when they have a defined purpose in mind, and it gives them a reason

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to use the new product efficiently.

Personalize messaging and communication about the implementation for each team
You've gone through the bother of identifying pain areas, developing a change process, and creating
a list of implementation objectives.

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These must be appropriately communicated to the teams that will be using the new software, as well
as the rest of the business.

At the team level, it's best to personalize messaging. Each team will most likely have its own set of
objectives that the new system will aid in achieving. When engaging with individual teams, focus on
those team-specific goals. This sense of individuality will go a long way toward encouraging
adoption.

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Focus on continuous improvement

Though you may be eager to go sprinting with your new programme, you must first master walking

the software every day.

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with it. It may take some time to get up to speed, but that's fine—just keep improving your skills with

Continuous improvement relies heavily on training. The idea is to avoid one-size-fits-all training and
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instead personalize each session to the needs of your stakeholders, much like vendor demos.
Consider that not every user group will be able to devote the same amount of time to training, and as
a result, offer stakeholders a variety of training options.
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Experiment with various types of training to use throughout your software implementation strategy:

• Introduce workshop-style instruction in a casual setting with lunch and learns. This is best
suited for group learning.
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• Open house: Facilitate brainstorming sessions in which users share their successes and
collaborate to address problems.
• Peer-to-peer: Request one-on-one coaching from your power users and champions to
describe how the tool has improved their productivity.
• Self-training: Encourage users to take use of the vendor's free webinars and reference
materials to gain a better grasp of the product.
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You can track the training that resonates the best with specific teams in your business, just like you
can track actual adoption and usage rates. Remember that the goal is to make the biggest difference
possible.
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1.1.4 User Training

The process of ensuring that the information system is functioning is known as implementation. It
has to do with
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• Creating a new system from the ground up

• Creating a new system based on an existing one.

Users can take over the operation of the system for use and assessment after it has been
implemented. It include teaching users how to utilize the system and planning for a smooth
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transition.

Training
 Personnel in the system must understand their jobs, how to utilize the system, and what the system
will and will not do in detail. The way well-designed and technically elegant systems are operated

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and used can determine their success or failure.

Training Systems Operators

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Operators of systems must be thoroughly trained so that they can handle all types of operations,
both routine and spectacular. Operators should be taught how to identify common malfunctions, how
to recognize them, and what to do if they occur.
Creating troubleshooting lists to identify potential problems and solutions, as well as the names and
phone numbers of people to call when unexpected or unusual difficulties develop, is part of training.

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Training also includes familiarization with run procedures, which is going over the steps required to
operate a new system.

User Training

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• End-user training is a crucial aspect of the development of computer-based information systems,
and it must be provided to employees so that they can solve problems on their own.
• User training entails learning how to use the equipment, diagnosing system issues, and evaluating
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whether a problem is due to the equipment or software.

• The majority of user training is on how to utilize the system. The training courses must be created
in such a way that the user can quickly mobilize for the organization.
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Training Guidelines
The following guidelines should be followed during the training process:
• Setting quantifiable goals
• Using appropriate training methods
• Choosing appropriate training locations
• Using easily understood training materials
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1.1.5 Training Methods

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There are a variety of training strategies that can be applied. The following are a few of them:

1) Instructor-led training
 It entails both trainers and trainees meeting at the same time, but not always in the same location. A
one-on-one or group training session is possible. There are two types:

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Virtual Classroom
Trainers must meet the learners at the same time in this programme, although they are not obliged to

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be in the same location. Video conferencing, text-based Internet relay chat tools, or virtual reality
packages, among other things, are the principal technologies utilized here.

Normal Classroom
Trainers and trainees must meet at the same time and at the same location. Blackboards, overhead

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projectors, LCD projectors, and other similar items are commonly utilized in this setting.

2) Self-Paced Training

It involves both trainers and trainees, who are not required to meet at the same time or in the same
location. The trainees gain the abilities on their own time by taking the courses at their leisure. There
are two types of it.

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Multimedia Training

Courses are given in multimedia format and preserved on CD-ROM in this training. It reduces the

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expense of creating an in-house training course without the need for outside programmers.

Web-based Training
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Courses are frequently given in hypermedia format and built to complement the internet and intranet
in this training. It allows organizations to adjust training requirements and provides just–in–time
training for end users.
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Check your Understanding

1. __________ is the process of producing the system hierarchy's lowest-level system parts
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(system breakdown structure).

2. The degree to which your vendor will support your implementation (and at what cost) varies,
but that doesn't mean you shouldn't try to get as much help as possible from them. State true
or false.
3. Operators of systems must be thoroughly trained so that they can handle all types of
operations, both routine and spectacular. State true or false.
4. ________ entails both trainers and trainees meeting at the same time, but not always in the
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same location. A one-on-one or group training session is possible.

5. _________ in this trainers must meet the learners at the same time in this programme,
although they are not obliged to be in the same location. Video conferencing, text-based
Internet relay chat tools, or virtual reality packages, among other things, are the principal
technologies utilized here.
6. In ________ trainers and trainees must meet at the same time and at the same location.
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Blackboards, overhead projectors, LCD projectors, and other similar items are commonly
utilized in this setting.
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Summary

• System Implementation builds system elements that meet stakeholder and system
requirements defined in the early life cycle phases using the structure created during
architectural design and the results of system analysis.
•
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Systems implementation refers to the steps taken to finish the design (if needed) in the
authorized systems design document, as well as test, install, and start using the new or
upgraded Information System.
 • Implementation is the process of producing the system hierarchy's lowest-level system parts
(system breakdown structure). System components are handcrafted, purchased, or

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repurposed. The hardware fabrication operations of forming, removing, joining, and finishing,
the software realization processes of coding and testing, and the operational procedures
development processes for operators' responsibilities all fall under the category of production.

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• The implementation process outcomes may generate constraints to be applied on the
architecture of the higher-level system, depending on the technologies and systems chosen
when a decision is made to produce a system element; those constraints are normally
identified as derived system requirements and added to the set of system requirements
applicable to this higher-level system. Those limits must be considered in the architectural

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design.
• Personnel in the system must understand their jobs, how to utilize the system, and what the
system will and will not do in detail. The way well-designed and technically elegant systems
are operated and used can determine their success or failure.
• Coding, testing, installation, and user training are all part of the system's implementation.
• The specifications for the system are translated into computer programmes, and database
structures are built. The applications are put to the test through a code walkthrough and the

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creation of several test cases. After individual modules have been evaluated, system testing
is used to test the software as a whole. Various conversion plans, such as software and
hardware installation, are described. Moving from an old system to a new system is
commonly referred to as system installation.
• For conversion/installation, different methodologies are used, such as direct conversion,

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parallel conversion, phased conversion, and single location conversion. A user manual is a
written document that contains both visual and textual information about an application and
how to use it. The cost of training can be reduced if user documentation is well-designed.
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User training is critical to the success of any technology. After any significant changes to the
system, training should be provided.
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Activity

1. “System Implementation” this is a vital aspect of system analysis and design. Comment.
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Questions & Exercises

1. What is systems implementation?

2. What are the systems implementation goals?
3. What are the three major approaches to implementing an Information System?
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4. State the importance of system implementation.

5. What is the success plan for software implementation?
6. What is training in system implementation?
7. Briefly discuss user training.
8. What are the various training methods?
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9. Differentiate between Instructor-led training and Self-Paced Training.

10. State training guidelines.
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Glossary

1. Implementation: it is the process that actually yields the lowest-level system elements in the
system hierarchy (system breakdown structure).
2. Systems implementation: it is a set of procedures performed to complete the design (as
necessary) contained in the approved systems design document and to test, install, and begin
to use the new or revised Information System.
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3. Instructor-led training: It entails both trainers and trainees meeting at the same time, but not
always in the same location. A one-on-one or group training session is possible.
 4. Virtual Classroom: Trainers must meet the learners at the same time in this programme,
although they are not obliged to be in the same location. Video conferencing, text-based

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Internet relay chat tools, or virtual reality packages, among other things, are the principal
technologies utilized here.
5. Normal Classroom: Trainers and trainees must meet at the same time and at the same

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location. Blackboards, overhead projectors, LCD projectors, and other similar items are
commonly utilized in this setting.
6. Self-Paced Training: It involves both trainers and trainees, who are not required to meet at the
same time or in the same location. The trainees gain the abilities on their own time by taking
the courses at their leisure.

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7. Multimedia Training: Courses are given in multimedia format and preserved on CD-ROM in
this training. It reduces the expense of creating an in-house training course without the need
for outside programmers.
8. Web-based Training: Courses are frequently given in hypermedia format and built to
complement the internet and intranet in this training. It allows organizations to adjust training
requirements and provides just–in–time training for end users.

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Further Readings

1. DAU. 2010. Defense Acquisition Guidebook (DAG). Ft. Belvoir, VA, USA: Defense Acquisition
University (DAU)/U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). February 19, 2010.

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2. Grady, J.O. 1994. System Integration. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Inc.
3. Faisandier, A. 2012. Systems Architecture and Design. Belberaud, France: Sinergy'Com.
4. Gary B. Shelly, Thomas J. Cashman and Harry J. Rosenblatt; System Analysis and Design,
Sixth Edition, Publisher: shelly cashman sewies.
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5. Senn; Analysis and Design of Information Systems, TMH.
6. Alan Dennis, Barbara Haley Wixom; Systems Analysis and Design, 2002, John Wiley & Sons.
7. Awad: System Analysis and Design.
8. Whitten, Bentley; System Analysis and Design Methods
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9. Joey George, J. Hoffer and Joseph Valacich; Modern Systems Analysis and Design, Third
Edition, 2001, Pearson Education.
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Check your Understanding – Answers

1. Implementation
2. True
3. True
4. Instructor-led training
5. Virtual Classroom
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6. Normal Classroom
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Unit - 2: Sy st em M a int en an ce

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:
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Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

• De f in e t he in tr od uc t i o n of ma i nt e na nc e .
• Dis c us s t he ne e d for ma i nt e n anc e .
• Ex pl a i n th e c a te g or ies o f m ai n te n anc e .
• Dis c us s r ev er s e e ng i n eer i n g.
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• Dis c us s t he c aus es o f s of tw ar e m ai n te n anc e pro b l ems .

• Ex pl a i n th e s o ft war e ma i nt e n anc e pr oc es s .
• Ex pl a i n th e s o ft war e ma i nt e n anc e c os t fac t ors .
 Int rodu ct ion

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The next step is to manage the information system once it has been successfully implemented and is

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producing results. The importance of system maintenance is demonstrated by the fact that it accounts
for more than 80% of the total life of a software product. The task of monitoring, reviewing, and
modifying an information system in order to make essential and desirable changes during the
software's entire life cycle is known as system maintenance. Changes in organizational requirements
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as perceived during the analysis phase must be accommodated by the system in order for it to remain
current and valuable to the organization. System maintenance also addresses failures and flaws that
develop during end-user use of the information system. During the implementation phase, a member
of the system maintenance group is designated to collect data from users for maintenance purposes.
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Collecting requests for changes, translating these requests into changes, designing the changes to be
implemented, and implementing the changes in the system are all part of the maintenance activity.
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2.1.1 Introduction
The establishment of a maintenance concept kicks off system maintenance planning early in the
acquisition process. Maintenance planning is carried out to evolve and establish requirements and
tasks that must be completed in order to achieve, restore, and maintain operational capability during
the system's lifetime. The maintenance process must run concurrently with the operations process
for a system to be supported throughout its life cycle.
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The next step is to manage the information system once it has been successfully implemented and is
producing results. The importance of system maintenance is demonstrated by the fact that it accounts
for more than 80% of the total life of a software product. The task of monitoring, reviewing, and
modifying an information system in order to make essential and desirable changes during the
software's entire life cycle is known as system maintenance. Changes in organizational requirements
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as perceived during the analysis phase must be accommodated by the system in order for it to remain
current and valuable to the organization. System maintenance also addresses failures and flaws that
develop during end-user use of the information system. During the implementation phase, a member
of the system maintenance group is designated to collect data from users for maintenance purposes.
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Collecting requests for changes, translating these requests into changes, designing the changes to be
implemented, and implementing the changes in the system are all part of the maintenance activity.

The process of upgrading, modifying, and updating software to stay up with client needs is known as
software maintenance. After a product has been released, software maintenance is performed for a
variety of purposes, including improving the software overall, addressing faults or bugs, increasing
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performance, and more.

The SDLC includes software maintenance as a natural element of the process (software
development life cycle). Software developers don't have the luxury of releasing a product and then
 leaving it alone; they must constantly correct and enhance their code in order to be competitive and
relevant.

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The appropriate software maintenance procedures and tactics are essential for keeping any
software running for a long time and keeping customers and users satisfied.

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The four important stages of any maintenance effort are as follows:
• Help Desk: A formal change request is submitted by the user with the problem. The change
request will be subjected to a preliminary analysis, and if the issue is reasonable, it will be accepted.
• Analysis: Managerial and technical assessments of the problems are carried out in order to

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determine cost variables and other possible solutions. The purpose of a feasibility analysis is to
determine the impact of a change, research alternative alternatives, analyse immediate and long-
term costs, and calculate the value of making the change.
• Implementation: The maintenance team will put the chosen change/solution into action and test it.
All affected components must be identified and included in the change's scope. There are
methodologies for unit testing, integration testing, user-oriented functional acceptance testing, and
regression testing.
• Release: The modifications are made available to the customer, together with a release note and

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any necessary documentation.

Overview

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The initial maintenance requirements must be defined throughout the stakeholder needs and
requirement definition process, and they must continue to evolve during the system's development
and operation. Consider the following:

• Increasing system availability in order to satisfy operational needs. This must take into
account the system's built-in reliability and maintainability, as well as the available
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resources.

• Maintaining the system's operating potential through adequate maintenance planning. This
necessitates a reliability-centered maintenance strategy that includes preventative
maintenance to avoid failures, hence prolonging the mean time between corrective
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maintenance and increasing system availability.

• Maintenance activities are being segmented for possible outsourcing of non-critical tasks to
approved maintenance subcontractors in order to maximize finite technical labor resources
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and maintenance/repair turnaround times.

• Using information technology to manage maintenance. This entails documenting and

tracking operational and maintenance actions in a methodical and systematic manner in
order to assist analysis and planning.
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The preparation and revision of maintenance plans, as well as procuring and managing resources
such as budget, service parts procurement, and management of supporting tasks, are all part of
maintenance management (e.g., contract administration, engineering support, and quality assurance).
 As part of the system acquisition process, maintenance planning is based on level of repair analysis
(LORA). Initial planning focuses on the actions and support needed to keep life cycle costs to a

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minimal (LCC).

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2.1.2 Need for Maintenance

Developing new software and releasing it to the public is an exciting step for any business. There's a
lot that goes into developing and launching software, including the actual building and coding,

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licencing models, marketing, and so on. Any excellent piece of software, on the other hand, must be
able to evolve with the times.

This entails adequate monitoring and upkeep. Software must keep up with market changes and
needs as technology evolves at the speed of light.

The goal of the maintenance process is to keep a system's ability to offer service intact. This process
keeps track of the system's ability to deliver services, logs issues for later study, implements

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corrective, adaptive, perfective, and preventative actions, and verifies that capability has been
restored. As a result of the maintenance process's successful implementation:

• A strategy for maintenance is devised.

•

•
•
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Maintenance limitations are offered as requirements inputs, and replacement system
Elements are made available. Services that meet stakeholder needs are maintained.
Corrective design improvements are required, according to the assessment.
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Data on failure and lifetime are kept track of.

In terms of the maintenance process, the project shall carry out the following actions and tasks in
compliance with appropriate organization policies and procedures:
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• Daily inspections/checks, servicing, and cleaning are examples of scheduled maintenance.

• Unplanned maintenance (carrying out fault detection and isolation to the faulty replaceable
unit and replacement of the failed unit)
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• System reconfiguration for different roles or functions

• Scheduled maintenance (higher level scheduled servicing but below depot level)
• Unplanned maintenance (carrying out more complicated fault isolation to the faulty
replaceable unit and replacement of the failed unit)
• Minimal alterations
• Repairs to minor damage
•
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Substantial planned maintenance (e.g., overhaul and corrosion treatment)

• Substantial renovations (beyond normal removal and replacement tasks)

The maintenance plan covers both regular and unscheduled servicing jobs and intervals (preventive
maintenance) (adaptive or corrective maintenance). The many maintenance agencies are assigned
tasks under the maintenance plan. The maintenance jobs are assigned to the appropriate
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maintenance agencies using a maintenance allocation table. In-service or in-house work centres,
approved contractors, affiliated maintenance or repair facilities, original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs), and so on are examples of these. The maintenance plan also specifies the support
resource requirements.
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Resource planning, budgeting, performance monitoring, upgrades, longer-term supportability, and

sustenance are all operations that must be managed. These actions are planned, controlled, and
carried out over a longer time horizon and are concerned with the system's overall health over its life
cycle.
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The availability of support resources, such as support and test equipment (STE), technical data and
documentation, employees, spares, and facilities, is critical for proper system maintenance
 (including maintenance-free system designs). These must be taken into account during the
negotiation of the acquisition agreement.

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Training and Certification
The technical workers who maintain the system must have enough training. While initial training may

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have been provided during the deployment phase, additional workers may be required to deal with
the increased number of systems deployed as well as staff turnover. As part of system upgrades and
evolution, timely changes to training materials and trained staff may be required. As part of the
supply agreement, it's critical to set certification criteria and contract for training materials.

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Practical Considerations
Clear thresholds should be established by the organisation responsible for maintaining the system to
determine whether a change requested by end users, changes to correct latent defects, or changes
required to fulfil the evolving mission are maintenance changes or require a more formal project to
step through the entire systems engineering life-cycle. Cost, time, risk, and criticality features all all
be used as reasons for making such a selection.

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2.1.3 Categories of Maintenance

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The four types of software maintenance are carried out for a variety of causes and purposes.
Throughout its lifetime, a piece of software may require one, two, or all sorts of maintenance.

The four types are as follows:

• Corrective Software Maintenance
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• Preventative Software Maintenance

• Perfective Software Maintenance
• Adaptive Software Maintenance

The maintenance phase begins once the system is fully implemented and operational. The initial
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complexity of operating the system decreases as the user becomes more familiar with it.
Modifications to the system may be necessary owing to changes in the business environment,
government legislation, new company endeavors, and the enhancement of functionalities.
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The majority of Software Maintenance work is focused on evolution as a result of user-initiated

modifications. A programme that is utilized in a real-world setting must change or become less
helpful in that environment as time passes. The structure of a growing software tends to become
more complex as it evolves. Maintaining the semantics and simplifying the structure will require
additional resources.
(c

The many sorts of maintenance activities are as follows:

 • Corrective Maintenance: This sort of maintenance is used to address design, coding, and
implementation issues that arise after the System has been installed. This type of issue usually

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arises soon after the system is put in place. This type of issue requires rapid response because it
interferes with the end user's day-to-day operations.Corrective Maintenance can be reduced with
proper planning and contact with the end user during the system development process. Despite all

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of these types of maintenance, they account for more than 60% of overall maintenance effort.
Corrective maintenance is something that no one wants to do. It adds no further value to the
software. It must be ensured that routine business operations are not disrupted as a result.

• Adaptive Maintenance: Upgraded versions or modifications in the operating system, hardware, or

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database management system necessitate updates. Because business functions in a social setting,
adaptive maintenance is required when the organization's needs alter as it expands into new areas,
changes in government regulation policy, and so on. Adaptive maintenance refers to software
maintenance that adapts to these types of changes. This type of action, unlike corrective
maintenance, adds value to the information system and affects just a tiny portion of the company.
This operation is not as urgent as corrective maintenance because the modifications are gradual and
provide the system group enough time to implement software updates.

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• Perfective Maintenance: This type of maintenance entails adding new features and functionalities
to the software in order to make it more versatile and user-friendly. Changes are occasionally
performed to improve the software's performance.
This maintenance can be regarded of as a fresh development activity in some ways.

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This improves the information system's value and is necessary to stay competitive.
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Comparative figures of maintenance effort.

• Preventive Maintenance: Changes to software are made to make it easier to maintain and to
prevent future system failures. As a result, the demand for corrective maintenance is reduced.
Because corrective maintenance may disrupt normal operations, preventive maintenance is
performed on a regular basis to reduce the risk of system failure. Preventive maintenance may
enhance the number of transactions that the system can manage. When the system isn't in use or
isn't used at all, preventive maintenance is performed. Although this does not add value to the
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system, it does reduce the cost of corrective maintenance.

The maintenance efforts to be put in during each maintenance activity are depicted in the diagram
above (Comparative figures of maintenance effort).
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2.1.4 Reverse Engineering

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The process of recovering a product's design, required specifications, and functionality from an
analysis of its code is known as software reverse engineering. It creates a software database and
uses it to generate data.

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The goal of reverse engineering is to make maintenance easier by making a system more
understandable and producing the essential papers for a legacy system.
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The act of deconstructing a thing to see how it works is known as reverse engineering. It is done
mostly to examine and learn how something works, but it is also frequently used to reproduce or
improve the object. Software, physical machinery, military technologies, and even biological
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functions linked to how genes work can all be reverse-engineered.

Reverse engineering is a technique used in older industries to improve computer hardware and
software. The machine code of a programme — the string of 0s and 1s transmitted to the logic
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processor — is the focus of software reverse engineering. To convert the machine code back to the
original source code, programme language statements are employed.

Reverse-engineering expertise can be used to repurpose old objects, do a security analysis, obtain a
competitive advantage, or just teach someone how something works, depending on the technology.
Reverse-engineering is the process of extracting knowledge from a completed product, regardless of
how it is utilized or what it pertains to.
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Reverse engineering (also known as backwards engineering or back engineering) is a method or

process for attempting to understand how a previously manufactured device, process, system, or
piece of software accomplishes a task using deductive reasoning with little (if any) insight into how it
does so.
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Computer engineering, mechanical engineering, design, electronic engineering, software

engineering, chemical engineering, and systems biology are all domains where reverse engineering
can be used.
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Nowadays, software maintenance is a generally accepted aspect of the SDLC. It refers to all
changes and updates made to a software product after it has been delivered. Modifications are
required for a variety of reasons, some of which are briefly listed below:

• Market Conditions - Policies that change over time, such as taxation, and newly presented
constraints, such as how to keep track of bookkeeping, may necessitate modifications.
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• Client Requirements - Customers may request new features or functions in the product over
time.
 • Modifications to the Target Host's Hardware and/or Platform (such as the Operating System)

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- If the target host's hardware and/or platform (such as the operating system) change,
software adjustments are required to maintain flexibility.

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• Organizational Changes - Any business level change at the client end, such as a reduction
in organisation strength, the acquisition of another company, or the organisation entering a
new business, may need changes to the original programme.

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Program Restructuring

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It is a method of reorganising and reconstructing existing software. It's all about rearranging source
code, either inside the same computer language or between programming languages. Restructuring
can include source code reorganisation, data reorganisation, or both.

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Restructuring has no effect on the software's operation, but it does improve its dependability and
maintainability. Program components that commonly generate mistakes can be modified or updated
by re-structuring.
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Restructuring can be used to remove software's reliance on outmoded hardware platforms.

Forward Engineering
Forward engineering is the process of creating desirable software using existing specifications that
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have been reduced through reverse engineering. It is assumed that some software engineering has
previously been completed in the past.

Forward engineering is similar to software engineering, with the exception that it is always done after
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reverse engineering.
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Overview
Reverse engineering is used for a variety of purposes in many fields. The beginnings of reverse
engineering can be traced back to the investigation of hardware for commercial or military purposes.
The reverse engineering technique, on the other hand, isn't concerned with making a copy or
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altering the artefact in any manner. It's just a process of deducing design elements from items with
little or no prior knowledge of the techniques used in their manufacture.

The purpose of the reverse engineering process might often be as simple as redocumenting legacy
systems. Even if the reverse-engineered product is that of a competitor, the purpose may be to
undertake competition analysis rather than to imitate it. Reverse engineering can also be used to
(c

create interoperable products, and the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for
that purpose has been hotly debated in courts around the world for more than two decades, despite
some narrowly tailored United States and European Union legislation.
 Software reverse engineering can aid in the understanding of the underlying source code for the
purposes of software maintenance and improvement, relevant information can be extracted to aid in

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software development decisions, and graphical representations of the code can provide alternate
views of the source code, which can aid in the detection and correction of a software bug or
vulnerability. As software evolves, design information and enhancements are frequently lost;

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however, this information can typically be recovered by reverse engineering. The procedure can also
help to reduce the amount of time it takes to understand the source code, lowering the overall cost of
software development. With stronger code detectors, reverse engineering can also help discover
and delete harmful code written to software. Reversing source code can be used to discover
alternative uses for the code, such as discovering illicit replication of the code in places where it was

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not meant to be used or showing how a competitor's product was constructed. That method is widely
used to "crack" software and media in order to remove copy protection, generate a potentially better
copy, or even a copycat, which is normally the goal of a rival or a hacker.

Malware developers frequently employ reverse engineering techniques to identify operating system
flaws in order to create a computer virus that can take advantage of those flaws. In cryptanalysis,
reverse engineering is also used to uncover flaws in substitution cyphers, symmetric-key algorithms,
and public-key cryptography.

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Reverse engineering has various applications:

• Interfacing. When a system must connect with another system, reverse engineering can be

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done to determine how the two systems will communicate. Interoperability often has such
requirements.
Either military or commercial espionage is possible. By stealing or capturing a prototype and
disassembling it, you can learn about an enemy's or competitor's newest research, which
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could lead to the development of a similar product or a stronger countermeasure.
• Obsolescence. Integrated circuits are frequently designed on proprietary technologies and
manufactured on assembly lines that become obsolete in a few of years. When those parts
are no longer manufactured, the only option to incorporate the capability into new
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technology is to reverse-engineer the previous chip and then redesign it using modern tools,
utilizing the knowledge obtained as a guide. Another obsolescence-related concern that
reverse engineering can handle is the necessity to support existing legacy devices that are
no longer serviced by their original equipment manufacturer (maintenance and supplies for
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continued operation). In military operations, the problem is very serious.

• An examination of the product's security. This evaluates how a product works by
determining component specifications and estimating expenses, as well as detecting
potential patent infringement. Obtaining sensitive data by dismantling and studying the
design of a system component is also part of product security analysis. Another goal could
be to get rid of copy protection or get around access limitations.
• Technical intelligence that is competitive. That is, to know what a competitor is truly doing
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rather than what it claims to be doing.

• Spending less and saving more. Knowing what a piece of electronics can accomplish can
save a consumer money on a separate purchase.
• Repurposing. Obsolete objects are then repurposed in a new, yet still useful, way.
• Design. Reverse Engineering was used in the practical craft-based manufacturing process
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by production and design companies. Through 3D scanning, 3D re-modeling, and re-design,

the companies can work on "historical" manufacturing collections. Baldi and Savio Firmino,
two Italian manufacturers, collaborated with the University of Florence in 2013 to improve
their invention, design, and manufacturing processes.
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Why Reverse Engineering?

• Providing proper system documentation.
• Recovery of lost information.
• Assisting with maintenance.
• Facility of software reuse.
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• Discovering unexpected flaws or faults.

Goals of Reverse Engineering:

 • Be able to deal with a high level of complexity.
• Recover data that has been lost.

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• Identify potential adverse effects.
• Higher abstraction should be synthesised.
• Reuse should be made easier.

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 Purpose of Reverse-Engineering

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The goal of reverse engineering is to figure out how something or someone functions. There are
numerous reasons to do so. Reverse engineering is a technique for figuring out how something
works and then recreating it or creating a similar object with improvements.

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Reverse-engineering software or hardware is frequently done to find a cheaper alternative to make a
similar product or because the original product is no longer available. In information technology,
reverse-engineering is also used to solve compatibility issues and make hardware or software
operate with other hardware, software, or operating systems that it wasn't designed to work with.

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A good example is Apple's Logic Pro software, which allows musicians to compose, record, arrange,
edit, and mix music. Logic Pro is only available on Mac computers and is somewhat pricey. Several
proprietary digital instruments are included in the programme. A programmer might reverse-engineer
those digital instruments, figure out how they function, and tweak them for usage in Logic Pro or to
make them interoperable with other Windows-compatible music applications with a little
investigation.

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How does the reverse-engineering process work?
The reverse-engineering procedure is unique to the object being reverse-engineered. Regardless of
the context, all reverse-engineering attempts follow the same three general processes. They are as
follows:

•
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Extraction of information: The reverse-engineered object is inspected, design information is
taken, and that information is reviewed to see how the pieces fit together. This may
necessitate obtaining source code and related design papers for analysis in software
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reverse engineering. It could also entail the use of tools like a disassembler to disassemble
the software into its component elements.
• Modeling: The gathered data is abstracted into a conceptual model, with each component
describing its role in the broader framework. The goal of this step is to abstract specific
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information from the original into a general model that may be used to guide the creation of
new objects or systems. This could be a data flow diagram or a structure chart in software
reverse engineering.
• Review: This entails looking at the model and putting it through its paces in various settings
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to ensure that it is a true representation of the original object or system. This could take the
shape of software testing in software engineering. The model can then be used to
reengineer the original thing once it has been tested.
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Steps of Software Reverse Engineering:

1. Gathering Information: This step focuses on gathering as much information about the software
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as possible (for example, source design documentation).

 2. Examining the data consists of the following steps: The data gathered in step one was studied
in order to become familiar with the system.

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3. Extracting the structure: This stage entails determining the programme structure in the form of
a structure chart, with each node corresponding to a certain procedure.

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4. Processing information of each module of the structure, charts are documented using
structured language such as decision tables, etc. during this step.

5. Data flow recording: A collection of data flow diagrams is created using the information

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extracted in steps 3 and 4 to show the flow of data among the operations.

6. Control flow recording: The software's high-level control structure is captured.

7. Review the extracted design: The extracted design document is checked numerous times to
guarantee consistency and accuracy. It also ensures that the design accurately reflects the
content of the programme.

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8. Finally, in this step, the entire documentation, including the SRS, design document, history,
overview, and so on, is documented for future use.

Reverse Engineering Tools

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Reverse engineering, if done manually, would take a long time and require a lot of human labour,
hence it must be aided by automated technologies. The following are some of the tools:
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• CIAO and CIA: A graphical navigator for software and web repositories along with a
collection of Reverse Engineering tools.
• Rigi: A visual software understanding tool.
• Bunch: A software clustering/modularization tool.
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• GEN++: An application generator to support development of analysis tools for the C++
language.
• PBS: Software Bookshelf tools for extracting and visualizing the architecture of programs.
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2.1.5 Causes of Software Maintenance Problems

 The software development team's and clients' responsibilities do not end once the product is
launched for implementation and installation. A well-documented and cleanly designed system might

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deteriorate into a poorly documented and ill-kept system if software is not adequately maintained.
During the maintenance process, further venerability may be introduced. A defect in a network
environment has consequences that go beyond poor performance or functionality. A bug can provide

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an entry point for a malicious attacker.

It is critical that the software be simple to maintain. Maintainability is influenced by factors like as
source code availability, system manual availability, and so on. The cost of software maintenance is
one of the most critical considerations. The cost of maintenance is influenced by a number of things.

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While performing maintenance, it is possible that new bugs will emerge.

The following are some of the factors that influence maintenance ease:
• Number of Defects: The number of problems or bugs discovered in the system after it has been
installed. The cost of maintenance rises as the number of problems rises.
• Number of Customers: A larger customer base equals more requests for system adjustments after
installation.
• System Documentation Availability: The quality and availability of system documentation are critical

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for performing maintenance. The cost of maintenance rises when system documentation is poorly
written. Most of the time, the development team differs from the maintenance team, and the latter
frequently finds it difficult to comprehend a programme built by the former.
Structured programming and software documentation are extremely helpful in keeping the system

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running smoothly.

The following are some of the challenges that arise during software maintenance:
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1. Organizational Concerns
• The maintenance activity must be in line with the organization's goals.
• The majority of Software Maintenance is resource-intensive and provides no apparent quantitative
benefit to the enterprise.
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• Software maintenance can be outsourced.

2. Problems with the Process

• Software maintenance necessitates a lot of additional tasks that aren't included in the development
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process. The importance of impact assessments and regression tests for software modifications
cannot be overstated.

3. Technical Challenges
The question of how to build software that is simple to understand is a huge one, and the technology
to do so is still unavailable. However, the following are some guidelines to follow:
• Convert the problem into software terms to see if it's feasible.
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• Identify the source of the change request and offer possible remedies.
• All remedies are examined to ensure that they are applied to all affected software components.
• Choose the optimal implementation path or make no changes at all.
• Ripple effect propagation is a phenomena in which modifications to a software component have a
tendency to be felt in other components across the software life cycle.
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Legacy System
A legacy system is usually a very old and huge system that has been substantially updated after it
was first implemented. Legacy systems rely on outdated technology with scant or no documentation.
Working with a legacy system might be challenging.
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Solutions to the above-mentioned issues with a legacy system include:

• Reverse engineer the legacy system and build a new software suite
• Replace software with a package
• Re-implement from scratch
• Discard software and discontinue
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• Freeze maintenance and phase in new system

• Reverse engineer the legacy system and develop a new software suite
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2.1.6 Software Maintenance Process

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The software maintenance process entails a variety of software maintenance procedures, which vary
depending on the type of maintenance and the software maintenance strategy in place.
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The following steps are included in most software maintenance process models:

1. Identification and Tracing - This is the process of figuring out which element of the software has
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to be changed (or maintained). Depending on the situation and individual issue, this can be user-
generated or discovered by the programme developer.
2. Analysis - The process of studying the proposed change, which includes determining the
probable implications of the change. This step usually involves a cost analysis to determine
whether or not the modification is financially viable.
3. Design – Using need specifications, create new adjustments.
4. Implementation - The process of programmers putting new modules into place.
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5. System Testing - The software and system must be thoroughly tested before being released.
This applies to the module itself, the system as a whole, and the entire system.
6. Acceptance Testing: Users evaluate the changes to see if they are acceptable. Users can detect
ongoing concerns and provide recommendations for more effective implementation and
adjustments in this step.
7. Delivery — Software updates or, in some situations, a new software installation. This is the point
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at which the changes are communicated to the customers.

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Software Maintenance Cost
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The expense of software upkeep might be rather substantial. This isn't to say that software
maintenance isn't important. Software maintenance can cost up to two-thirds of the entire software
process cycle, or more than half of the SDLC processes, in some situations.
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The expenses of software maintenance are determined by a variety of factors and vary based on the
circumstance. Because technology (and coding languages) develop over time, the older the software
is, the more upkeep it will cost. In some cases, updating an old piece of software to fit today's
technology can be an extremely costly procedure.

Furthermore, while attempting to upgrade or maintain a certain piece of software, engineers may not
always be able to pinpoint the exact flaws. This forces them to utilise a trial-and-error approach,
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which can take a long time.

There are a few things you may take to reduce software maintenance costs. These include
optimising the software's top-level programming, strong typing, and functional programming.

Software firms must consider software maintenance costs when developing new software and
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undertaking maintenance operations for older models. Any programme that is not maintained will
become obsolete and ultimately worthless over time.

Software Maintenance Strategies

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Every software company should have a plan in place to deal with software maintenance in an
efficient and comprehensive manner.

In software development, documentation is an important tactic. Upgrading software might be difficult

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if the documentation is out of current. The documentation should include details on how the code
works, as well as answers to any potential issues.

A software maintenance strategy should include QA as well. While quality assurance is essential
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prior to a software launch, it may also be incorporated far earlier in the process (as early as the
design stage) to ensure that the programme is produced appropriately and to provide insight into
making modifications as needed.

2.1.7 Software Maintenance Cost Factors

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According to reports, the expense of maintenance is substantial. According to a study on predicting

software maintenance costs, maintenance can account for up to 67 percent of the total cost of the
software production cycle.
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The cost of software maintenance accounts for more than half of the total cost of all SDLC stages.
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There are a number of causes that cause maintenance costs to rise, including:

Real-world factors affecting Maintenance Cost

• Any programme can be considered old if it has been around for 10 to 15 years.
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• Older softwares, which were designed to run on slow machines with limited memory and
storage, are unable to compete with freshly released upgraded software on current
technology.
•
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Maintaining old software becomes more expensive as technology improves.

• Most maintenance engineers are inexperienced and rely on trial and error to solve problems.
• Frequently, updates can easily harm the software's original structure, making subsequent
changes difficult.
• Changes are frequently left unreported, which may lead to future issues.
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Software-end factors affecting Maintenance Cost

• Structure of Software Program

• Programming Language
• Dependence on external environment
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• Staff reliability and availability

In software maintenance, there are two sorts of cost concerns to consider.

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Following are the ones:

• Non-Technical Factors
• Technical Factors
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Non-Technical Factors
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1. Application Domain

• The system requirements may be final and maintenance due to changing demands reduced if
the program's application is defined and thoroughly understood.
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• If the form is brand new, the initial conditions are likely to be changed regularly as users gain
familiarity with the system.

2. Staff Stability

• It is easier for a program's original author to understand and update a programme than it is for
someone who must learn the programme by studying reports and code listings.
•
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Maintenance expenses will be reduced if a system is implemented and then maintained.

• In practise, one of the characteristics of the programming profession is that people move
employment frequently. It's uncommon for a single user to create and maintain an application
over the duration of its useful life.

3. Program Lifetime
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• When a programme or its original hardware becomes obsolete, conversion costs outweigh
rewrite expenses, the programme becomes obsolete.
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4. Dependence on External Environment

• If an application is reliant on its surroundings, it must be updated as the climate shifts.

• Changes in a taxation system, for example, may necessitate changes to payroll, accounting,
and stock management processes.
• Changes in taxation are essentially constant, and the expense of maintaining these
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programmes is proportional to the frequency of these changes.

• In most cases, a programme used in mathematical applications does not rely on people
changing the assumptions on which it is built.
 5. Hardware Stability

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No maintenance charges will be required if an application is built to run on a specified
hardware configuration and that configuration does not change during the program's lifetime.
• This is a rare occurrence due to the rapid advancement of hardware.

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• The application must be updated to make use of new hardware that replaces outdated
hardware.

Technical Factors

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Following are the technical factors:

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Independency of modules

A system's programme unit should be able to be changed without affecting the others.
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Programming Language

High-level programming languages are often easier to understand than low-level programming
languages.
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Programming Style
 The way a programme is written influences its readability and, as a result, the ease with which it may
be updated.

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Validation and Testing of Programs

• In general, the more time and effort spent on design validation and programme testing, the
fewer defects in the programme and, as a result, the cheaper the maintenance costs
associated with bug rectification.
• The cost of bug fixes is determined by the sort of defect that needs to be fixed.

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• While coding faults are often inexpensive to fix, design flaws are more costly because they
may necessitate the rewriting of one or more software units.
• Because of the drastic design that is normally involved, bugs in software requirements are
frequently the most expensive to fix.

Documentation

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• The functions of knowing the application can be associatively straight-forward if a programme
is accompanied by clear, full, yet brief documentation.
• Maintenance expenses for well-documented systems are often lower than for systems with
little or incomplete documentation.

Configuration Management Techniques

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Keeping track of all system documentation and ensuring that they are kept constant is one of
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the most important costs of maintenance.
• Configuration management can help you keep these costs under control.
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Check your Understanding

1. At _________, the problem is received from the user through a formal change request, a
preliminary analysis is done, and if the request is sensible, it is accepted.
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2. _________ is performed to rectify problems in design, coding etc. detected after the
implementation of the System.
3. A _________, is typically a very old and large system which has been modified heavily since
it started operation.
4. The importance of system maintenance is demonstrated by the fact that it accounts for more
than 80% of the total life of a software product. State true or false.
5. The maintenance process must run concurrently with the operations process for a system to
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be supported throughout its life cycle. State true or false.

6. The process of upgrading, modifying, and updating software to stay up with client needs is
known as___________.
7. The eight types of software maintenance are carried out for a variety of causes and purposes.
State true or false.
8. _____________ is the sort of maintenance is used to address design, coding, and
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implementation issues that arise after the System has been installed.
9. _______ is the upgraded versions or modifications in the operating system, hardware, or
database management system necessitate updates.
10. A _________ is usually a very old and huge system that has been substantially updated after
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it was first implemented.

Summary

• Software maintenance is the process of altering software after it has been given to the client
in order to meet the customer's needs or to add new functionalities to the software. In
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general, software maintenance does not give a measurable advantage to the firm. Adaptive
maintenance, corrective maintenance, perfective maintenance, and preventive maintenance
are examples of different maintenance operations. Corrective maintenance accounts for more
 than 60 percent of total maintenance work. Technical, organizational, and procedural
challenges all affect software maintenance.
•

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The process of recovering a product's design, required specifications, and functionality from
an analysis of its code is known as software reverse engineering. It creates a software
database and uses it to generate data.

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• The goal of reverse engineering is to make maintenance easier by making a system more
understandable and producing the essential papers for a legacy system.
• Reverse engineering is a technique used in older industries to improve computer hardware
and software. The machine code of a programme — the string of 0s and 1s transmitted to the
logic processor — is the focus of software reverse engineering. To convert the machine code

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back to the original source code, programme language statements are employed.
• Developing new software and releasing it to the public is an exciting step for any business.
There's a lot that goes into developing and launching software, including the actual building
and coding, licencing models, marketing, and so on. Any excellent piece of software, on the
other hand, must be able to evolve with the times.

Activity

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1. Formulate a presentation on the topic ‘System Maintenance’.

Questions & Exercises

1. What is the meaning of maintenance? si

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2. State the need of maintenance in system analysis and design.
3. What are the various categories of maintenance?
4. Write a short note on software maintenance process.
5. Briefly discuss all the aspects of reverse engineering.
6. Define software reverse engineering.
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7. What are the software maintenance cost factors?

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Glossary

1. System Maintenance: planning begins with the creation of a maintenance concept early in the
acquisition process. Maintenance planning is carried out to evolve and establish requirements
and tasks that must be completed in order to achieve, restore, and maintain operational
capability during the system's lifetime. The maintenance process must run concurrently with
the operations process for a system to be supported throughout its life cycle.
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2. Reverse engineering: (also known as backwards engineering or back engineering) is a

method or process for attempting to understand how a previously manufactured device,
process, system, or piece of software accomplishes a task using deductive reasoning with
little (if any) insight into how it does so.
3. Software Reverse Engineering: it is the process of recovering the design and the
requirements specification of a product from an analysis of it’s code. Reverse Engineering is
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becoming important, since several existing software products, lack proper documentation, are
highly unstructured, or their structure has degraded through a series of maintenance efforts.
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Further Readings

1. Blanchard, B.S. and W.J. Fabrycky. 2011. Systems Engineering and Analysis, 5th Edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.
2. DAU. 2010. Defense Acquisition Guidebook (DAG). Ft. Belvoir, VA, USA: Defense Acquisition
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University (DAU)/U.S. Department of Defense.

3. INCOSE. 2012. INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook: A Guide for System Life Cycle
Processes and Activities. Version 3.2.2. San Diego, CA, USA: International Council on
Systems Engineering (INCOSE), INCOSE-TP-2003-002-03.2.2.
 4. Institute of Engineers Singapore. 2009. Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge, Provisional
version 2.0. Singapore: Institute of Engineers Singapore.

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5. IISO/IEC/IEEE. 2015.Systems and Software Engineering - System Life Cycle
Processes. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)/International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), Institute of Electrical and Electronics

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Engineers (IEEE).ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2015.
6. Thayer, Ken. "How Does Reverse Engineering Work?". globalspec. IEEE Global Spec.
Retrieved 26 February 2018.
7. Andrea Gilli and Mauro Gilli, "Why China Has Not Caught Up Yet: Military-Technological
Superiority and the Limits of Imitation, Reverse Engineering, and Cyber Espionage,

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International Security 43:3 (2019 141-189.
8. Karwowski, Waldemar; Trzcielinski, Stefan; Mrugalsk, Beata; DiNicolantonio, Massimo; Rossi,
Emilio (2018). Advances in Manufacturing, Production Management and Process Control.
pp. 287–288.
9. W. Cui, J. Kannan, and H. J. Wang. Discoverer: Automatic protocol reverse engineering from
network traces. In Proceedings of 16th USENIX Security Symposium on USENIX Security
Symposium, pp. 1–14.
10. Lee, Newton (2013). Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information

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Awareness (2nd ed.). Springer Science+Business Media. p. 110.
11. Eilam, Eldad (2005). Reversing: Secrets of Reverse Engineering. Wiley Publishing.
p. 595. ISBN 978-0-7645-7481-8.
12. Elvidge, Julia, "Using Reverse Engineering to Discover Patent Infringement," Chipworks,

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Sept. 2010.
13. Hausi A. Müller and Holger M. Kienle, "A Small Primer on Software Reverse Engineering,"
Technical Report, University of Victoria, 17 pages, March 2009.
14. Messler, Robert (2013). Reverse Engineering: Mechanisms, Structures, Systems &
er
Materials. McGraw Hill.
15. Raja, Vinesh; Fernandes, Kiran J. (2008). Reverse Engineering – An Industrial
Perspective. Springer.
16. Samuelson, Pamela and Scotchmer, Suzanne, "The Law and Economics of Reverse
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Engineering," 111 Yale L.J. 1575 (2002).

17. Schulman, Andrew, "Open to Inspection: Using Reverse Engineering to Uncover Software
Prior Art," New Matter (Calif. State Bar IP Section), Summer 2011 (Part 1); Fall 2011 (Part 2).
18. Thumm, Mike (2007). "Talking Tactics".
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19. Joey George, J. Hoffer and Joseph Valacich; Modern Systems Analysis and Design, Third
Edition, 2001, Pearson Education.
20. Alan Dennis, Barbara Haley Wixom; Systems Analysis and Design, 2002, John Wiley & Sons

Check your Understanding – Answers

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1. Help Desk
2. Corrective Maintenance
3. Legacy System
4. True
5. True
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6. software maintenance
7. False
8. Corrective Maintenance
9. Adaptive Maintenance
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10. legacy system

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 Unit- 3: Tr an si t io n t o t he N ew S y ste m

Le ar nin g O b j ect i ve s:

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Afte r st ud yin g t h i s c hapt e r, y ou w il l be a ble to:

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• De f in e t he in tr od uc t i o n to tr a ns it i on t o t he n ew s y s t e m .
• Dis c us s t he m igr at i o n p la n .
• Ex pl a i n th e p os t - i m p le me n ta t io n ac t iv i t ies .
• Dis c us s t he c onv er s i o n m et ho ds .
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Dis c us s i n te gr at i ng ol d s y s te m i n to n e w s y s t em .
• Ex pl a i n th e A M C r ev i e w of or g an iz a ti o na l e ff ec t iv en es s .
• Ex pl a i n th e r e as ons f o r E R P f ai l ur e a nd s uc c es s .

Int rodu ct ion

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The activities required to establish the information system and successfully convert the organization
to its use are examined in this chapter. It also goes into post-implementation tasks like system
support, system maintenance, and project evaluation. From a technological standpoint, installing the
system and making it available for use is relatively simple. The training and organizational challenges
surrounding the installation, on the other hand, are more complex and difficult since they concern
humans rather than technology.
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“It must be remembered that there is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor
more dangerous to manage than the creation of a new system. For the initiator has the animosity of
all who would profit by the preservation of the old institution and merely lukewarm defenders in those
who would gain by the new”.
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—Machiavelli, The Prince, 1513

Machiavelli's observations are still relevant today, despite the fact that they were penned
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approximately 500 years ago. Managing the transition to a new system, whether computerised or
not, is one of the most difficult responsibilities in any company. In order to prepare for and
successfully adapt to the change, there are business, technical, and personnel challenges that must
be addressed. Because of these difficulties, the transfer from old to new systems is planned while
the programmers are still working on the software. It's a recipe for disaster if you wait until the last
minute to plan.
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This chapter explains how to make the transition from the current system to the desired system and
how to do so successfully. The migration plan outlines the activities that will be carried out in order to
prepare for the technological and commercial transitions, as well as the transition of people. We also
 go over a few critical support and follow-up tasks that should be completed after the new system is
installed.

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3.1.1 Introduction

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Using a computer system or set of work processes is similar to driving on a gravel road in many
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ways. The road develops ruts in the most frequently used portions of the road over time as a result
of regular use. These ruts indicate where to drive, but also make change difficult. When people
utilise a computer system or a set of work procedures, those systems/work processes become
habits or norms; people learn and become accustomed to them. These systems or work processes
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then begin to restrict people's activities and make it difficult for them to change since they learn to
think of their occupations in terms of these processes rather than the end aim of serving clients.

Kurt Lewin created one of the first frameworks for managing organizational transformation. Change,
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according to Lewin, is a three-step process: unfreeze, move, and refreeze. To begin, the project
team must unfreeze current habits and conventions (the as-is system) in order to allow for change.
To this point in the SDLC, the majority of the work has been done to lay the groundwork for
unfreezing. Users are aware of the new system in development; some have participated in an
analysis of the present system (and so are aware of its flaws), and some have assisted in the design
of the new system (and thus have some idea of the new system's potential benefits). These activities
have aided in the defrosting of existing habits and conventions.
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Source:www.saigontech.edu.vn/faculty/huynq/SAD/Systems_Analysis_Design_UML_5th%20ed.pdf
Implementing Change
 The transition from the old to the new system is the second step in Lewin's three-step paradigm.
Many difficulties must be addressed as part of the migration plan in order to make the shift go

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smoothly. First, determine the manner of the transition from the old to the new system, as well as
which portions of the organization, will be converted when and how much of the system will be
converted at a time. The business contingency plan should include plans for dealing with the

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anticipated business disruption caused by technological issues during the conversion.
The hardware and software installation should be completed, and decisions should be made
regarding how the data will be translated into the new system. The migration plan's final significant
part entails assisting those who will be affected by the new system in comprehending the change
and motivating them to embrace it. These parts of the migration plan are discussed in the next

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section of this chapter.

The new system is referred as the habitual manner of doing work processes in Lewin's third stage,
ensuring that the new system becomes the usual way of performing the business operations it
supports. The refreezing procedure is one of the main goals of the post-implementation activities
outlined in the chapter's last section. The organization helps consolidate the new system as the new
habitual method of doing business by providing continuing support and immediately starts to identify
improvements for the next version of the system.System support, which entails providing help desk

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and telephone support to users with issues; system maintenance, which entails fixing bugs and
improving the system after it has been installed; and project assessment, which entails evaluating
the project to determine what went well and what could be improved for the next system
development project.

3.1.2 Migration Plan

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A number of business, technological, and human concerns will be addressed to assist the transition
from old business processes and computer programmes to new business processes and computer
programmes. The migration plan lays out the decisions, plans, and procedures that will govern the
move. As the transfer from the old to the new system is made, the migration plan describes what
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activities will be completed when and by whom.

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Elements of a Migration Plan

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Source: www.saigontech.edu.vn/faculty/huynq/SAD/Systems_Analysis_Design_UML_5th%20ed.pdf

The project team must establish the optimal conversion plan to employ once the new system is
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introduced to the organization in order to ensure that the business is ready to make the change.
Also, strategies should be created to ensure that the business can continue to operate even if the
new system experiences technical difficulties. Business contingency plans are the name given to
these measures.

Technical preparedness is achieved through procuring and installing any necessary hardware and
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software, as well as transforming data to the new system's specifications. While necessary, these
arrangements are frequently the easiest of all the concerns addressed in the migration strategy.
The most difficult aspect of the migration plan is ensuring that the people who will be affected by the
new system are ready and able to utilize it. Understanding the possibility for resistance to the new
 system, developing organizational support and encouragement for the change, and preparing the
users through suitable training activities are all part of managing the "people" side of change.

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Selecting the Conversion Strategy

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The conversion strategy is the method by which a new system is introduced into an organization.
Those using this method must examine three characteristics of the system's introduction: the
abruptness with which the change is made (conversion style), the organizational span of the
introduction (conversion locations), and the scope of the system that is introduced (conversion

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modules). As discussed in the sections that follow, the choices taken in these three dimensions will
affect the cost, time, and risk associated with the shift.

Conversion Style - The transition from the old to the new system might be performed quickly or
slowly. Direct conversion is an abrupt shift that entails the immediate replacement of the old system
with the new one, as the name implies.
In essence, the old system is switched off and the new one is turned on, which frequently occurs in
conjunction with a fiscal year change or another calendar event.

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Direct conversion is straightforward and simple, but it is also hazardous. Any issues with the new
system that aren't discovered during testing could have a major impact on the organization's
capacity to function.

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Parallel conversion, in which both the old and new systems are used simultaneously for a period of
time, allows for a more progressive introduction. Users must work with both the old and new systems
because they are operated side by side. If a new accounting system with a parallel conversion style
is introduced, data must be entered into both systems. To confirm that the new system is working
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correctly, the output from both systems is carefully compared. The old system is turned off after a
time of parallel operation and thorough comparison between the two systems (usually one to two
months).
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Parallel conversion decreases risk by giving the business a backup plan in case the new system
fails. However, it increases cost because users must repeat their job responsibilities twice: once with
each system that performs the same function.
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Conversion Strategies
Source: www.saigontech.edu.vn/faculty/huynq/SAD/Systems_Analysis_Design_UML_5th%20ed.pdf
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Conversion Locations - The new system can be rolled out to different portions of the business at
different periods, or it can be rolled out to the entire organization at once. As part of a pilot test, a
pilot conversion selects one or more locations (or units or work groups within a site) to be converted
initially. If the pilot location's conversion is successful, the system will be installed at the remaining
locations.

The benefit of pilot conversion is that it limits the impact of the new system to only the pilot location.
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In other words, before the new system is implemented across the organization, it undergoes extra
testing. Only organizations that can tolerate different locations employing different technologies and
business processes for a period of time can execute this type of conversion. It will also take some
time until the system is installed in all of the organization's sites.
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In some cases, it is advantageous to introduce the technology in stages to different places. A first set
of locations is converted, followed by a second set, a third set, and so on, until all locations have
been transformed. There is sometimes a purposeful lag between phases so that any system flaws
are discovered before too much of the organization is impacted. In some cases, the project team
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may immediately begin a new phase after the preceding one has been completed.

Pilot conversion provides the same benefits and drawbacks as phased conversion. It also requires
fewer workers to complete the conversion (and any associated training) than if all locations were
converted at the same time.
It's possible that all locations will need to be converted at the same time, implying the requirement
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for simultaneous conversion. The new system is implemented at all sites at the same time, removing
the issue of separate organizational units employing distinct systems and processes. The
disadvantage of this strategy is that adequate people must be available to execute the conversion
and teach users at all sites at the same time.
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Conversion Modules - While we usually expect whole systems to be installed, this is not always the
case. It may be necessary to determine how much of the new system will be implemented in the
organization at a given moment. When the system's modules are independent and unique,

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organizations can use modular conversion to migrate to the new system one module at a time.
Because each module must be developed to work with both the old and new systems, modular
conversion necessitates extra effort and expense while building the system. This is difficult to
achieve when modules are tightly connected, hence it is rarely done. It becomes easier, though,
when the software is developed with loose associations between components.

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Since users only need to be trained for the new module being installed, modular conversion
decreases the amount of training required for people to begin utilizing the new system. Modular
conversion takes a long time because each module of the system must be introduced in order.
The most frequent method is whole-system conversion, which entails installing the entire system at
once. If the system comprises of tightly integrated modules, this approach is easy and
uncomplicated. However, if the system is vast and/or exceedingly complicated (for example, an
enterprise resource planning system like SAP or Oracle), users may find the entire system too

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challenging to understand in one conversion step.

Taking a Closer Look at the Strategy Options - since each of the segments in Figure (Conversion
Strategies) is self-contained, a conversion strategy can be devised by combining any of the

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previously described possibilities.
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Characteristics of Conversion Strategy

Source: www.saigontech.edu.vn/faculty/huynq/SAD/Systems_Analysis_Design_UML_5th%20ed.pdf
One frequent strategy is to start with a pilot conversion of the entire system, followed by parallel
conversion in a few test areas.
Once the system has passed the pilot test at these locations, it is incrementally converted with direct
cutover to the remaining locations. Risk, money, and time are three crucial elements to consider
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while deciding on a conversion approach.

Risk - The implementation of the new system exposes the company to the danger of difficulties and
faults that could stymie corporate operations. After passing a battery of unit, integration, system, and
acceptance tests, the system should be bug-free—maybe. Undiscovered bugs may exist as a result
of human error. The conversion process provides a last step in which issues can be found and
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repaired before the system is widely used, depending on the choices taken.Since the old system can
continue to function, the parallel conversion technique is less dangerous than direct conversion. If
bugs are found, the new system can be turned off and addressed while the old one continues to
work.
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Since the impact of bugs are limited to the pilot location, converting a pilot location is less dangerous
than phased or simultaneous conversion. Those participating anticipate bugs because the
installation is a pilot test. Finally, converting in modules is less dangerous than converting all at
once.When a few modules at a time are converted, the number of bugs encountered at any given
moment should be lower, making it easier to deal with issues as they arise. When multiple flaws are
found at the same time during conversion, the overall effect may be more disruptive than if the bugs
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are encountered one at a time.

 The importance of the risk factor in deciding on a conversion approach is determined by the system
being used. The team must balance the likelihood of undetected bugs staying in the system against

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the risks of those undetected bugs. The likelihood of undetected flaws is lower if the system has
undergone extensive methodical testing, including alpha and beta testing, than if testing was less
rigorous. However, there is still a potential that mistakes were made during the study and that the

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new system will fail to meet the business requirements.

It's difficult to estimate the repercussions (or expense) of a problem. Most analysts and senior
managers, on the other hand, can make a decent judgement about the severity of a bug. The
significance of negative repercussions of a flaw in an automated stock market trading system or a

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medical life-support system, for example, is obviously far bigger than in a computer game or word
processing programme.As a result, if the system has undergone minimal testing and/or the impact of
flaws is large, risk is likely to play a big role in deciding on a conversion method. Risk becomes less
essential in the conversion strategy decision if the system has been properly tested and/or the cost
of bugs is not too great.

Cost - The expenses of various conversion processes vary. Salaries for system users, trainers,
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communication costs, and hardware leases, are all examples of these costs. Parallel conversion is
more expensive than direct cutover since it necessitates the simultaneous operation of two systems
(the old and the new). Employees are now required to do twice as much work as before, as well as
cross-check the outcomes of the two systems.

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The costs of a pilot conversion and a phased conversion are similar. Simultaneous conversion
involves higher expenses since it requires more employees to support all of the sites when they
convert from the old to the new system at the same time.
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Because modular conversion takes more programming, it is more expensive than whole-system
conversion. Modules in the new system must be programmed to work with selected modules in both
the old and new systems, and the old system must be modified to function with selected modules in
the new system.
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Time - The time it takes to switch from the old to the new system is the final consideration. Because
it is instantaneous, direct conversion is the fastest. Because the full benefits of the new system do
not become available until the old system is shut off, parallel conversion takes longer. Because all
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locations are converted at the same time, simultaneous conversion is the fastest.Phased conversion
takes longer than pilot conversion because, once the pilot test is completed (although not always),
all remaining locations are converted at the same time. Conversion is done in stages, and it can take
months for all of the places to be converted. Similarly, because the modules are introduced one after
the other, modular conversion takes longer than whole-system conversion.

Preparing a Business Contingency Plan

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It's tempting to imagine that rigorous research and design, as well as proper IT project management,
will result in a successful system deployment. It is usual for the squad to be upbeat about their
chances of success.
However, with new systems, it may be more prudent to constantly assume the worse.
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Company contingency planning is the process of preventing minor technological problems in the
new system from becoming big business disasters. Contingency plans assist the company deal with
minor issues with the new technology in order to avoid large business disruptions.
Some may argue that because corporate disasters can be avoided by proper project management
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and migration planning, building disaster contingency plans is unnecessary. Large projects covering
several business processes and using large quantities of code, on the other hand, provide a plethora
of seemingly minor technical issues that, when combined, might have disastrous
implications.Projects involving enterprise resource planning software are ideal examples.
When a $30 million SAP project in Hewlett-Industry Packard's Standard Server division ran into
minor programming difficulties in 2004, the company lost an estimated $160 million. Nike suffered
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minor IT issues in a SAP installation in 2001, which cost the corporation $100 million in missed
revenue. It may be less dangerous to plan for how to deal with system failure (contingency plan)
rather than relying just on project management strategies to avoid failure.
 One method of contingency planning is to use parallel conversion. When the old and new systems
are used together for a period of time, a fallback system is provided in case the new system fails.

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However, parallel conversion is not always possible. As a result, the worst-case scenario—no
system at all—should be anticipated and planned for, with the possibility of reverting to manual
methods.

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The ongoing pressure of money limits and restricted time that most projects experience is one of the
limitations of problem prevention through ideal project management strategies. It may be possible to
avoid problems if there is no financial or time constraint, but this is rarely the case.

As a result, the project team should devote some time during the development of the migration plan

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to identifying the project's worst-case scenarios, understanding the total business impact of those
worst-case scenarios, and developing procedures and workarounds that will enable the business to
withstand those events. Because the contingency plan's goal is to keep the business running in the
event of an IT outage, it'll be crucial to include key business managers and users in the planning
process.

Preparing the Technology

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Installing the hardware, installing the software, and converting the data are the three key processes
in preparing the technical parts of the new system for operations. Although some of these stages
might be completed in concurrently, they must normally be completed in order at each location.

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The first step is to purchase and install any hardware that is required. In many circumstances, no
new hardware is required, although new servers, client PCs, printers, and networking equipment
may be required. During design, the new hardware needs should have been defined in the hardware
and software specifications and leveraged to obtain the resources required. Working closely with
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vendors who supply needed hardware and software to ensure that deliveries are coordinated with
the conversion timetable so that the equipment is accessible when it is needed is now critical.
Nothing can put a conversion strategy on hold as quickly as a vendor's failure to provide necessary
equipment.
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The second stage is to install the software after the hardware has been installed, tested, and
certified as functioning. This comprises the to-be system in development, as well as any additional
software that may be required to get the system up and running. The Tune Source Digital Music
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Download system, for example, requires Web server software. The system is usually checked again
at this point to ensure that it is working properly.

The data must be converted from the as-is system to the to-be system in the third stage.
The most technically difficult stage in a migration plan is usually data conversion. Separate
programmes are frequently required to convert data from the existing system to the new forms
required in the to-be system, as well as to store it in the to-be system files and databases.
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The fact that the files and databases in the to-be system do not perfectly match the files and
databases in the as-is system makes this procedure difficult (e.g., the to-be system may use several
tables in a database to store customer data that was contained in one file in the as-is system). For
data conversion projects, formal test strategies are always required.
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Preparing People for the New System

People who will utilize the new system in the context of a systems development project will require
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assistance in adopting and adapting to the new system. Change management is the process of
assisting them in adjusting to the new system and its new work practices without undue stress. Any
big organizational change involves three critical functions.
The first is the change sponsor, or the individual who desires the change. This is the corporate
sponsor who requested the new system in the first place.
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Typically, the sponsor is a senior executive from the department that will be responsible for
implementing and using the new system. Because a change that is clearly led by the sponsor, rather
than the project team or the IS organization, has greater validity in the eyes of the users, it is vital
 that the sponsor be active in the change management process. The sponsor has direct control over
those who will implement the scheme.

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The second role is that of the change agent, or the individual or people in charge of the change
initiative. The change agent, who is in charge of actually planning and implementing the change, is

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usually from outside the business unit that will be using the technology, and hence has no direct
management control over the potential adopters. The change agent lacks the confidence of the
sponsor and other members of the business unit since he or she is an outsider from a distinct
corporate culture. After all, the change agent normally leaves after the system is installed and thus
has no ongoing impact.

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The third function is that of a potential adopter or change target—those who must actually change.
These are the people for whom the new system was created, and they are the ones who will
ultimately decide whether or not to use it.
Many project teams in the early days of computing simply assumed that their job was done once the
old system was converted to the new system on a technical level.
"Build it and they will come," was the thinking. Regrettably, that only happens in movies. In most
organizations, resistance to change is frequent. As a result, the change management plan is an

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essential component of the entire migration strategy, as it connects the main elements in the change
management process.

People must want to change and be able to change in order for change to be successful. The four

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main steps in the change management plan are: changing management policies, assessing potential
adopters' cost and benefit models, inspiring adoption, and allowing individuals to adopt through
training. However, before we can explore the change management strategy, we must first
comprehend why people are resistant to change.
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Understanding Resistance to Change

For very good reasons, people resist change, even if it is for the benefit. What's beneficial for the
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company isn't always good for the people who work there. Consider an order-processing clerk who
used to receive orders to be dispatched on paper shipping documents but now receives the same
information through a computer. Instead of typing shipping labels on a typewriter, the clerk now
presses the computer's print button, and the label is printed automatically.The clerk can now mail a
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lot more orders each day, which is obviously beneficial to the company. The clerk, on the other
hand, is unlikely to care how many packages are delivered. His or her compensation remains
unchanged; the only difference is whether the employee decides to type on a computer or a
typewriter. Even if the change is minimal, learning to utilise the new system and work processes
takes more effort than continuing to use the previous, well-understood system and work processes.

So, why do individuals embrace change in the first place? Simply said, every shift comes with its
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own set of costs and advantages. People change when the benefits of accepting the change
outweigh the costs of the change. And, in some cases, the advantage of change is the avoidance of
the suffering that would occur if you did not embrace the change (for example, if you do not change,
you will be fired, hence one of the benefits of embracing the change is that you will keep your job).

When people are presented with a change opportunity, they typically undertake a cost–benefit
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analysis (sometimes consciously, sometimes subconsciously) to determine how much of the change
they will embrace and implement. They assess the system's costs and advantages before deciding if
the change is worthwhile.
However, it is not so straightforward because the majority of costs and benefits are unknown.
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Because there is some uncertainty about whether a particular benefit or cost will occur, both the
costs and benefits of the new system will need to be weighed according to the degree of confidence
associated with them. Unfortunately, most people have a tendency to overestimate the likelihood of
expenses while underestimating the likelihood of rewards.

In addition, there are expenses and benefits associated with the transformation process itself.
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Assume you've found a nicer house or apartment than the one you're in now. Even if you preferred
it, you may decide not to relocate since the cost of relocation outweighs the benefits of the new
home or apartment. Similarly, adopting a new computer system may necessitate the acquisition of
 new skills, which may be perceived as a cost by some but as a gain by others who believe that such
abilities will give further benefits beyond the system's use. Any costs and advantages associated

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with the transition process must be weighed against the likelihood of their occurrence.

While these two sets of costs and benefits (and their relative certainty) are combined, they have an

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impact on project teams' acceptance of change or resistance to change when implementing new
systems in organizations. Understanding the elements that stymie change—the factors that
influence the perception of costs and benefits, as well as the certainty that they will be provided by
the new system—is the first step in change management. It's crucial to recognize that "actual" costs
and benefits are significantly less relevant than perceived costs and benefits.People act based on

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their beliefs, not on what is factual. As a result, any knowledge of how to encourage change must be
established from the perspective of individuals who will be affected, not from the perspective of
those who will be leading the change.

Revising Management Policies

The first significant stage in the change management strategy is to switch from the as-is system's
management policies to new management policies that will support the to-be system. Management

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policies establish objectives, specify how work procedures should be carried out, and regulate how
organizational members should be compensated. No computer system will be deployed successfully
unless management policies encourage it. Many new computer systems alter corporate processes
and enable new modes of operation. Potential adopters will be unable to use the system until the

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policies that give the rules and rewards for those procedures are altered to reflect the new
opportunities that the system provides.

For structuring labour processes in companies, management uses three main instruments. The first
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are standard operating procedures (SOPs), which have become routines for how work is done. Both
formal and informal SOPs exist. Formal SOPs spell out what is and is not acceptable behaviour.
Informal SOPs are the established guidelines for how processes are really carried out over time. The
formal SOPs must be changed to meet the to-be system, according to management. The informal
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SOPs will then develop to polish and fill in the specifics that are missing from the formal SOPs.

The second component of management policy is determining how people interpret events. What
does "success" or "doing good work" imply? By specifying measurements and rewards, policies
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assist people in comprehending meaning. Because they provide clear and concrete evidence about
what is significant to the organization, measurements expressly establish meaning. Because "what
gets measured gets done," rewards reinforce measurements (an overused, but accurate, saying). To
drive desired behaviour, measurements must be carefully constructed. The IBM credit example
exemplifies the issue that arises when inaccurate measurements lead to inappropriate conduct.
(When credit analysts were too busy to answer credit requests, they would "discover" nonexistent
faults so that the requests could be returned unprocessed.)
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The allocation of resources is a third part of management policy. Allocating resources allows
managers to have a direct and immediate impact on behaviour. They can move money and people
from one project to another, build a new system's infrastructure, and invest in training programmes.
Each of these actions has a direct as well as a symbolic impact. The actual reallocation of resources
has a direct effect. The symbolic impact demonstrates that management is serious about its goals.
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When potential adopters see resources being committed to support a new system, there is less
uncertainty about management's long-term commitment to it.

Assessing Costs and Benefits

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The next step in creating a change management plan is to create two lists of expenses and
advantages given by the new system (and the transition to it) vs the current system. The first list is
based on the organization's perspective, and it should flow naturally from the business case created
during the feasibility study and refined throughout the project's life cycle.
This list of organizational costs and advantages should be widely published so that everyone who is
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expected to embrace the new system understands why it is beneficial to the company.The second
set of costs and benefits is derived from the perspectives of the various potential adopters, or
 stakeholders, who are expected to change. One group of potential adopters could be front-line
employees, another could be first-line supervisors, and still another could be middle management.

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Each of these potential adopters or stakeholders may have a unique set of costs and advantages
connected with the change, which may differ significantly from the organization's costs and benefits.
Unions may be significant stakeholders in particular contexts, with the ability to make or break

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effective change.

Many systems analysts assume that front-line workers are the ones whose costs and benefits are
most likely to differ from those of the company, and hence are the most resistant to change.
However, these employees are frequently the ones that suffer the most from the current system's

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flaws. When difficulties arise, kids frequently witness them personally. Middle managers and first-line
supervisors are the most likely to have conflicting costs and advantages; as a result, they resist
change because new computer systems often reduce the amount of control they have. A new
computer system, for example, may improve the organization's control over a work process (a
benefit to the organization), but it may limit middle management's decision-making ability (a clear
cost to middle managers).

An examination of the costs and advantages for each group of possible adopters or stakeholders will

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aid in identifying those who are likely to support the change and those who are more likely to fight it.
At this point, the issue is to try to rebalance the costs and advantages for people who are predicted
to resist change so that they support it (or at least do not actively resist it).
This examination may reveal some severe issues that could stymie the system's successful

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implementation. To ensure that the balance of costs and benefits is such that important potential
adopters are encouraged to use the system, it may be required to reevaluate management policies
and make significant adjustments.
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The diagram below illustrates some of the key elements of successful transition. The first and most
significant reason to change is a strong personal motive. Individuals, not organizations, are the
agents of change. If the primary groups of individual stakeholders have strong reasons to want the
change, the change is more likely to succeed. Increased pay, less uncomfortable working conditions,
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and — depending on the individual — prospects for advancement and personal growth can all be
powerful motivators. Individuals may resist change if it reduces the value of current skills because
they have invested a lot of time and energy in gaining those talents, and anything that reduces the
value of those skills may be regarded as reducing the individual (because important skills bring
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respect and power).

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Major Factors in Successful Change

There must also be a compelling reason for the company to need the change; otherwise, people will
question whether the change is necessary and will be less confident that it will take place. The most
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difficult organization to change is one that has been successful, because people come to assume
that what has worked in the past will continue to work in the future. In an organization on the verge
of bankruptcy, on the other hand, it is easier to persuade people that change is required. Credible
corporate sponsors and top management commitment and support are also critical in improving the
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likelihood that the change will occur.

When the cost of the transition to those who must change is low, the likelihood of successful
transformation increases. Resistance may arise as a result of the demand for considerably different
new abilities or disturbances in operations and work routines. A detailed migration strategy
established by a competent change agent with the help of the business sponsor is a key aspect in
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raising certainty about the transition expenses.

Motivating Adoption
 Providing clear and convincing proof of the need for change is the single most critical aspect in
driving a change. Simply said, everyone who will be required to accept the new system must be

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convinced that the benefits of the new system outweigh the costs of change.
Informational and political initiatives are the two most common ways to encourage adoption. Both
tactics are frequently used in tandem. The purpose of an informational strategy is to persuade

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potential adopters that the change will be beneficial. This method succeeds when the target
adopters' cost–benefit set contains more advantages than costs. To put it another way, there are
compelling reasons for potential adopters to embrace the change.
The project team uses this method to present clear and convincing evidence of the costs and
benefits of switching to the to-be system. The project team creates memos and presentations that

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detail the costs and benefits of adopting the system from both the organization's and the target
group of potential adopters' perspectives. Similar to an advertising or public relations campaign, this
material is broadly disseminated among the target demographic.It must underline the advantages
while also increasing the likelihood that these advantages will be realised in the minds of potential
adopters. In our opinion, selling painkillers is usually simpler than selling vitamins; that is, convincing
potential adopters that a new system will solve a severe problem (or other cause of pain) is easier
than convincing them that it will give new benefits (e.g., increase sales).
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the creation of new opportunities are more likely to be successful.
A political strategy is another way to inspire change. Organizational power, not information, is
utilised to motivate change in a political approach. When the target adopters' cost–benefit set
contains more costs than benefits, this strategy is frequently adopted. To put it another way, while

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the change may benefit the company, there are no compelling reasons for potential adopters to
embrace it.
The political strategy is frequently beyond of the project team's control. It takes someone with
legitimate control over the target group in the organization to persuade them to accept the change.
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This can be done in a coercive fashion (e.g., "accept the system or you'll be fired") or in a negotiated
manner (e.g., "adopt the system or you'll be fired"), or in a negotiated manner (e.g., "adopt the
system or you'll be fired") (e.g., linking system adoption to increased training opportunities).
By connecting income to certain behaviours required under the new system, management policies
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can play a crucial role in a political strategy.

In general, roughly 20% to 30% of potential adopters will be ready adopters for any change that
provides true organizational benefits. They see the advantages, immediately adopt the method, and
become advocates for it. Another 20% to 30% of people are slow to adopt new technology. They
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simply refuse to accept the change and resist it, either because the new system has more costs than
advantages for them individually or because they place such a high value on the transition process
that no amount of new system benefits can exceed the transition costs.
The remaining 40% to 60% of people are hesitant to adopt. They are apathetic and will go with the
flow to support or oppose the system, depending on how the project progresses and how their
coworkers react to it. The actors participating in the change management process are depicted in
the diagram below.
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Actors in the Change Management Process

The purpose of change management is to actively promote and encourage ready adopters while
also assisting them in winning over hesitant adopters. Because their expenses and advantages may
differ from those of the company, there is usually nothing that can be done about the resistive
adopters. It is frequently advisable to overlook this tiny minority of resistant adopters and focus on
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the bigger majority of ready and hesitant adopters unless there are easy steps that can be made to
counterbalance their costs and benefits or the organization chooses to embrace a strong political
strategy.
 Enabling Adoption: Training

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Potential adopters may wish to make the shift, but unless they are capable of doing so, they will not
be able to.

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They will not adopt it. Providing employees with the necessary expertise facilitates adoption.
required rigorous training to adapt the shift Training is most likely the most important factor.
Any change management initiative's most self-evident component. How can a company expect its
employees to adopt a new system if they haven't been trained?
However, we've discovered that training is one of the most frequently disregarded aspects of the

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process. Many companies and project managers just assume that future adopters will find the
technology simple to understand. Because the system is assumed to be so basic, it is assumed that
future adopters will be able to pick it up quickly. Regrettably, this is sometimes an unnecessarily
pessimistic assumption.
Every new system necessitates the acquisition of new abilities, either because the core work is
different.
Procedures have evolved (in the case of business processes, sometimes dramatically).
The more fundamental the changes to the business, the more reengineering [BPR]; or because the

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computer system utilised to support the operations is different.
The more important it is to ensure that the organization has the new skills required to operate the
new business processes and supporting information system, the more important it is to ensure that
the organization has the new skills required to operate the new business processes and supporting

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information system. In general, there are three ways to obtain these new skills: one is to hire new
employees who have the needed skills that the existing staff does not.
Another option is to outsource the processes to a company that possesses the skills that the current
personnel lacks. Both of these approaches are contentious, and they are often considered only in
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the situation of BPR, when the new talents required are expected to be the most dissimilar from the
current staff's skill set. Most businesses opt for the third option, which entails retraining existing
employees in the new business processes and the to-be system. Every training strategy must
address what to teach and how to teach it.
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What to Train
What kind of training should you give system users? It's self-evident: how to operate the system.
Isn't it true that the training should cover all of the new system's capabilities so that users understand
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what each module does?

Wrong. Business system training should focus on assisting users in completing their tasks rather
than on how to use the system. The system is merely a means to an end, not its own end. This
emphasis on doing the job (i.e., business operations) rather than using the technology has two major
consequences. To begin, the training must concentrate on both the activity surrounding the system
and the system itself.
Users must be able to see how the computer fits into the bigger picture of their jobs during training.
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The system's utilisation must be considered in the context of both manual and computerised
business operations, as well as the new management rules that came with the new computer
system.

Second, rather than focusing on what the system can accomplish, the training should focus on what
the user needs to perform. This is a subtle—but critical—difference. Most systems will offer many
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more features than users will require (for example, when was the last time you developed a macro in
Microsoft Word?).
Rather of aiming to teach users all of the system's functions, training should concentrate on a much
smaller set of tasks that users conduct on a daily basis, ensuring that users are true experts in
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those. Users gain confidence in their abilities to utilise the system when the focus is on the 20% of
features that they will use 80% of the time (rather than trying to cover all functions). Other little-used
functionalities should be mentioned in training, but just enough that users are aware of their
existence and know how to learn about them when they are needed.
Usage cases and use scenarios are one source of inspiration for creating training materials. Users'
common behaviours are outlined in use cases and use scenarios, which can aid in understanding
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the business processes and system functions that are most likely to be essential to them.

How to Train
 Training can be delivered in a variety of methods. Classroom training is the most popular method.
This provides the advantage of training a large number of users at once with only one instructor,

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resulting in a shared experience among them.
One-on-one training, in which one trainer works closely with one user at a time, is also conceivable.
This is clearly more expensive, but it allows the trainer to tailor the training programme to the needs

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of individual users, ensuring that they truly get the subject. This method is usually employed only
when the users are really important or when there are a small number of them.
Another increasingly popular method is to employ computer-based training (CBT), in which the
training programme is given through computer, either on DVD or via the Internet. Text presentations,
music, and even video and animation can be used in CBT sessions. CBT is often more expensive to

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produce, but it is less expensive to provide because no instructor is required to conduct the training.

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Selecting a Training Method
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Four crucial aspects to consider while choosing a training strategy are summarised in the diagram
above. CBT costs more to produce than one-on-one or classroom training, but it costs less to
deliver. Because it can be tailored to the user's specific needs, knowledge, and abilities, one-on-one
training has the greatest impact, whereas CBT has the least. However, because it is so much easier
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to spread than classroom and one-on-one training, CBT has the largest reach—the potential to train
the most users over the widest distance in the shortest time—it has the greatest reach.

For the most part, the figure shows a clear pattern. One-on-one training is most effective when there
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are only a few users to train. Many organizations employ CBT when there are a large number of
users to train. We anticipate that CBT will become more popular in the future. Large firms frequently
utilise a combination of all three strategies. Regardless of the method utilised, it is critical to provide
users with a set of easily accessible materials that can be referred to long after the training is
completed (often a quick reference guide and a set of manuals, whether printed or electronic).
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3.1.3 Post Implementation Activities

The purpose of postimplementation activities is to institutionalise the new system's use—that is, to
make it the standard, recognised, and usual means of carrying out business procedures. After a
successful transfer to the new system, postimplementation efforts seek to refreeze the organization.
Although the project team's work naturally slows after implementation, the business sponsor and, in
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some cases, the project manager are actively involved in the refreezing process. These two—and,
ideally, a large number of additional stakeholders—promote the new system and keep track of its
adoption and use. They normally give a continual stream of system information and encourage users
to contact them with questions or concerns.
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In this section, we look at three key post-implementation activities: support (helping users with the
system), maintenance (continuing to refine and improve the system), and project assessment
(looking at the project to see what activities worked well and should be repeated, as well as what
activities need to be improved in future projects).
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System Support
The system is officially turned over to the operations group once the project team has installed it and
completed the change management tasks. This group is in charge of the system's operation,
 whereas the project team is in charge of the system's development. Because they are the ones who
must ensure that the system actually works, members of the operations group are frequently heavily

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involved in the installation activities. The project team departs after the system is installed, while the
operations group remains.

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Providing system assistance entails assisting users in their use of the system. Typically, this is
answering questions and assisting users in understanding how to do a specific job; this can be
thought of as on-demand training.

The most prevalent type of on-demand training is online support. This includes the system's

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documentation and help screens, as well as independent Web sites that answer commonly asked
questions (FAQs), allowing users to discover answers without having to contact a human. Obviously,
the goal of most systems is to give adequate online help so that the user does not need to contact a
human, because providing online support is significantly less expensive than providing human
support.

Most businesses provide a help desk where customers can speak with someone who can address
their questions (usually over the phone, but sometimes in person). Because the help desk serves all

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systems rather than just one, it gets calls about a wide range of software and hardware. The help
desk is staffed by level 1 support employees that have a broad variety of computer abilities and can
handle a wide range of requests, from network and hardware issues to issues with commercial
software and in-house built business application software.

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Most help desks aim for their level 1 support workers to resolve 80% of the help requests they
receive on the first call. If level 1 support personnel is unable to remedy the issue, a problem report
is created (typically using a special computer system designed to manage problem reports) and
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forwarded to a level 2 support staff member.

Level 2 support personnel are well-versed in the application system and can offer expert guidance.
They are frequently chosen during the implementation phase of a new system and become familiar
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with it while it is being tested. During the change management process, level 2 support staff
members may be required to attend training in order to gain a better understanding of the system,
new business processes, and the users themselves.
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The level 2 support team assists users in resolving issues. The majority of issues are successfully
resolved by level 2 personnel. However, the problem may turn out to be a software bug that needs to
be repaired in the first few months after the system is installed. In this situation, the problem report is
converted into a change request, which is forwarded to the system maintenance team.
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Elements of a Problem Report

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System Maintenance
The practise of refining a system to ensure that it continues to satisfy business needs is known as
system maintenance. Because a system continues to alter and evolve as it is utilised, more money
 and effort is spent on system maintenance over the course of its lifespan than on its initial
construction. Most new systems analysts and programmers start with maintenance projects and are

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only assigned to new development projects after they have earned some expertise.
A project manager in the IS group "owns" each system (Figure below).
This person is in charge of coordinating that system's system maintenance effort. A change request

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is produced and delivered to the project manager whenever a potential change to the system is
detected.

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Processing a Change Request

Changes can be minor or significant. Change requests that are expected to necessitate a large
amount of effort are usually handled in the same way that system requests are:
A "smaller" version of this process usually follows minor adjustments. The change proposal is
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prioritised after an initial review of feasibility, costs, and benefits. Then, before programming begins,
a systems analyst (or a programmer/analyst) performs the study, which may include interviewing
users, and develops an initial design. After then, the new (or changed) programme is thoroughly
tested before going into production.
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Change requests usually come from five different places. Problem reports from the operations
group, which identify system bugs that need to be rectified, are the most typical source. Because a
defect can cause major problems, these are normally given top priority. Even a little bug can cause
huge issues by agitating users and lowering their acceptance and trust in the system.
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Users' enhancements to the system are the second most prevalent source of modification requests.
Users frequently identify modest design improvements that can make the system easier to use or
extra functions that are required as they interact with the system. These innovations are critical in
 pleasing users and in ensuring that the system adapts to changing business requirements.
Enhancements are frequently pushed to the back burner in favour of bug fixes.

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Other system development initiatives are a third source of modification requests. Tune Source, for
example, may have had to make small changes to its current Web-based CD sales system as part of
its Digital Music Download effort to ensure that the two systems would work together. These

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changes, which are usually necessitated by the need to combine two systems, are becoming more
typical as system integration initiatives grow more common.
Change requests that occur as a result of changes to the underlying software or networks are a
fourth source of change requests. A new version of Windows, for example, may necessitate an
application changing how it interacts with Windows or enabling application systems to take

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advantage of new capabilities that increase efficiency.While most changes are internal to the system
and have no impact on the user interface or functionality, they can be among the most difficult to
implement because analysts and programmers must learn about the new system characteristics,
understand how application systems use (or can use) those characteristics, and then make the
necessary programming changes.

Senior management is the fifth source of change requests. These modifications are made.
Major changes in the organization's strategy (e.g., the Tune Source Digital Music Download project)

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or operations are frequently the source of demands. These major changes are usually considered as
different projects, but the project manager in charge of the original system is frequently assigned to
the new project.

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Project Assessment
The purpose of project evaluation is to determine what aspects of the system and project activities
were successful (and so should be continued in the next system or project) and what aspects need
to be improved. Most organizations do not do project evaluations on a regular basis, with the
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exception of military organizations, which are used to writing after-action reports. Assessment, on
the other hand, can be a crucial part of organizational learning since it helps people and
organizations understand how to better their job. It is especially crucial for junior employees since it
facilitates faster learning. Project evaluation is divided into two parts: project team review and
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system review.

Project Team Review

The project team review examines how the project team carried out its tasks. Each project member
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writes a two- to three-page report that summarises and assesses his or her work. The emphasis is
on improving performance rather than imposing punishments for faults incurred. Project team
members will, it is hoped, be better prepared for the next time they encounter a similar situation—
and less likely to repeat the same mistakes—by openly identifying faults and understanding their
causes. Team members will also be able to understand why their actions worked successfully and
how to duplicate them in future projects by identifying great performance.
The project manager evaluates the documents generated by each team member and meets with
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them to help them understand how to enhance their performance. The project manager then creates
a summary paper that summarises the project's important takeaways. This summary highlights what
activities should be taken to improve performance in future projects, but it is not designed to identify
team members who made mistakes. The summary is extensively distributed to all project managers
in order to assist them in better understanding how to manage their projects. It's frequently shared
with ordinary staff employees who weren't involved in the project so that they, too, can learn from
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projects that aren't in their purview.

System Review
The goal of the system review is to determine how well the proposed costs and advantages of the
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new system that were established at the start of the project were recognised in the implemented
system. While project team reviews are typically held shortly after the system is deployed, while
major events are still fresh in team members' thoughts, system reviews are frequently conducted
many months after the system is established, as it takes time to thoroughly examine the system.
The system request and feasibility study performed at the start of the project serve as the foundation
for the system review. After the system has been deployed, the extensive studies conducted for
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predicted business value (both tangible and intangible), as well as the economic feasibility analysis,
are reexamined, and a fresh analysis is prepared. The goal is to compare the expected business
value to the actual business value realised by the system. This aids the organization in determining if
 the system delivered the value it was intended to deliver. Whether or not the technology delivers the
projected value, a better understanding of the underlying costs and benefits can help future projects.

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In addition to behavioural effects, a formal system review has major behavioural implications for
project initiation. Everyone involved in the project has an incentive to be conservative in their
assessments because they know that all assertions about business value and financial estimations

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provided during project start will be assessed at the end of the project. No one wants to be the
project sponsor or manager for a project that goes much over budget or doesn't deliver on its
promises.

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3.1.4 Conversion Methods

The four methods of conversion are −

• Parallel Conversion
• Direct Cutover Conversion

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• Pilot Approach
• Phase-In Method

Method
Parallel Conversion
Description
Old and new systems
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Advantages Disadvantages
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Provides fall back Causes cost overruns.
are used
when new system
simultaneously. New system may not
fails.
get fair trail.
Offers greatest
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security and ultimately

testing of new system.
Direct Cutover New system is
Forces users to make No fall back if
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Conversion implemented and old

new system work problems arise with
system is replaced
new system
completely. Immediate benefit
from new methods Requires most careful
and control. planning.
Pilot Approach Supports phased A long term phasein
Allows training and
approach that gradually causes a problem of
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installation without
implement system whether conversion
unnecessary use of
across all users goes well or not.
resources.
Avoid large
contingencies from
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risk management.
Phase-In Method Working version of Gives impression that
Provides experience
system implemented in old system is
and line test before
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one part of erroneous and it is not

implementation
organization based on reliable.
feedback, it is installed When preferred new
throughout the system involves new
organization all alone technology or drastic
or stage by stage. changes in
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performance.

File Conversion
 It is the conversion of one file format to another. A WordPerfect file, for example, can be converted to
Microsoft Word.

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A conversion plan, which comprises the following elements, is essential for effective conversion.

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• Understanding of the current system and knowledge of the target system
• Teamwork
• Parallel operations, testing, and automated methods
• Continuous assistance in resolving issues
• System/user documentation updates, etc.

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Many popular programmes can open and save files in other file formats of the same type. Microsoft
Word, for example, can open and save files in a variety of alternative word processing formats.

Post-Implementation Evaluation Review (PIER)

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PIER is a tool or standard approach for assessing a project's result and determining whether it is
delivering the intended benefits to processes, products, or services. It allows the user to check that
the project or system met its objectives within the stated time frame and budget.

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PIER evaluates the project's development and management procedures to ensure that it has attained
its objectives.

Objectives of PIER
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The following are the goals of having a PIER:

• To assess a project's success in terms of predicted costs, benefits, and timescales.

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• To find ways to improve the project by adding more value.

• To identify the project's strengths and flaws for future reference and action.
• By improving cost estimating tools, make recommendations for the project's future.
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The following members of staff should be included in the review:

• Project team and Management
• User staff
• Strategic Management Staff
• External users
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3.1.5 Integrating Old System into new System

System integration, or SI for short, is the process of installing a new system that can still connect
and interact with the previous system or systems, whether they are basic or complex. System
integration is a time-consuming procedure that needs extensive setup and development, as well as
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an implementation and optimization phase. System integration has only one goal: to solve problems
that can't be solved by current systems. Management system integration, business system
integration, and even software system integration are examples of distinct types of System
integration.
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When attempting to implement software system integration, the job that the existing system does,
that is, the problems that the current system addresses, must first be established. When the
system's flaws in the problem-solving area are uncovered, the new system's designers must explain
how the system they want to implement will help and whether it is financially viable. The new system
must either generate profits for the company or at the very least prevent losses.
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Integration of management systems reveals new techniques for achieving goals and makes use of
previously untapped possibilities that the prior system could not exploit. For example, giving wifi
 connections to field employees allows for timely responses, such as when conducting a survey in a
remote location. As a result, decision-makers will be able to make swift decisions about which path

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to take. This method of system integration is effective as well as efficient.

To have your business's system upgraded, simply submit a proposal to a system integration firm,

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which will perform research to aid them in the system integration process. They may conduct
surveys regarding the challenges that those who come into contact with the system face after
dissecting the existing system. This is because underlying issues may exist that even the system
owners are unaware of.Additionally, newer ways might be brought to the notice of the firm,
particularly for organizations that do not support research into new technical breakthroughs. The

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results of the survey will be used to determine the direction in which the new system should go. If the
survey is not conducted, the business will be required to undergo new system integration activities
on a regular basis. Because the system integration procedure is time-consuming, it should only be
done when absolutely necessary and at the organization's earliest convenience.

As a business, system integration will always have a lot of potential, and any company will never run
out of projects to work on. New, faster, and sharper approaches will constantly be invented to
produce the same result as science, technology, and even business and economic models advance.

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So, rather than reinventing the wheel and developing a whole new system, which is rather
expensive, one can just tweak the existing system to meet the new requirements. This method can
save a significant amount of money.

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Following Lewin's three-step model of organizational change: unfreeze, move, and refreeze, the
transition to the new system is made easier. Attachment to the present system will be unfrozen
through activities performed during systems analysis and design.
The migration plan directs the transition from the current system to the future system.
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The support and maintenance offered for the new system aid in the integration of the new system
into the organization's daily operations.

Equipment, employees, data, and financial resources are all used in the conversion process.
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Depending on the criticality of the system and other connected difficulties, the conversion from the
old system (manual or automated) to the newly built system can be done in a variety of methods.
• Direct Conversion: This is a jarring method. The old system is turned off, and the new one
begins. Although this type of conversion is cost-effective, users are at the mercy of the new
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system, therefore direct installation can be dangerous. This type of conversion is sometimes
the only choice due to procedural factors that prevent two systems from running in parallel.
Because the old system has been shut down, there is no way to restart it as a backup if the
new system fails. For key business applications, this type of conversion plan is frequently
the least recommended.

• Pilot Conversion: This is the approach that takes the centre ground. Rather of converting
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the entire organisation at once, this type of pilot installation entails the conversion/installation
of the system at a single pre-determined location. It's possible that the location is a company
branch office. The pilot site must be able to undertake a true conversion process in order to
evaluate all of the new system's features, so it must be chosen carefully. The pilot
conversion has the advantage of limiting the possible harm in the event of system failure to
a single area.Once the user has determined that the system's implementation has been
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successful in one site, it is suggested that the system be replicated in other locations.
Although this type of trial conversion plan benefits the user, it causes a significant burden on
the implementation team because it must run two systems at the same time.
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• Parallel Conversion: it is the safest option. The old system is permitted to continue
alongside the new system in this type of conversion until management and the end user are
pleased with the new system's results. It is compared to the new system to see if the old
system's functionalities are adequately covered in the new system by comparing the
outputs. The new system's errors and flaws are not disruptive to the organization's normal
operation because the new system is replaced and the old system resumes normal
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functions. Because two systems are performed in parallel, but only one system's findings are
used for business operations, parallel conversion is expensive.
 • Phased Conversion: it is a method of transitioning to a new system in stages. Various sub-
systems of the new system are employed in tandem until the entire new system has been

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transformed. This type of conversion strategy reduces the likelihood of the new system
failing. Actual results are visible in a phased installation as each subsystem is made
functional before the entire new system is made functional.

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Each conversion plan requires not just data and software, but also humans, hardware, and other
resources. Before beginning the conversion, it's critical to think about which hardware and software
you'll need.

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3.1.6 AMC Review of organizational effectiveness

The efficiency with which an organization is able to fulfill its objectives can be defined as
organizational effectiveness. This refers to a company that achieves a targeted result or is
productive without wasting resources. Organizational effectiveness is defined as each employee
doing everything they know how to do and doing it effectively; in other words, organizational
efficiency is defined as an organization's ability to achieve its goals with the least amount of energy,

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time, money, and human and material resources.The desired effect will be determined by the
organization's objectives, which could include creating a profit by producing and selling a product, for
example. If a company performs efficiently, it will generate a product that is waste-free. The
organization will fulfill its goal of creating a profit by manufacturing and selling a waste-free product if

economics and the business sector.

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it has both organizational effectiveness and efficiency. This is known as profit maximization in

The main metric of a company's organizational effectiveness is how well its net profitability compares
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to its desired profitability. Data on growth and the outcomes of customer satisfaction surveys could
be used as additional indicators.
Leadership, decision-making and structure, people, work processes and systems, and culture are all
areas where highly productive businesses excel. An organization must adapt to its changing
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environment in order to achieve and maintain success. One technique for ensuring an organization's
continuing growth and development is to evaluate and improve its effectiveness and efficiency.

Measuring organizational success is an inexact science because each institution has its own set of
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criteria and priorities to weigh and examine during self-evaluation. Understanding a company's
organizational effectiveness is important for several reasons: it serves as a check-in to see how well
internal procedures are meeting an initial vision, it gives investors, donors, or employees a sense of
the company's strengths, and it highlights areas of ineffectiveness that can be improved.

In many circumstances, a company's success or failure cannot be determined just by its financial
performance. Even a profitable company might be unproductive if it fails to match the mission
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statement's basic principles, attract and retain talented employees, and plan for the next generation
of initiatives.

Organizational effectiveness assesses a company's overall performance based on a variety of

factors. Financial success, long-term planning, internal structure, and commitment to fundamental
principles may all be important factors in determining how effective a company is.
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It is critical to construct a precise set of criteria to examine in order to gain a clear picture of an
organization's effectiveness. Because no two organizations have the same set of criteria, many for-
profit and non-profit organizations use self-assessment to determine their effectiveness. Employees
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and company personnel are frequently in the best position to understand their organization's needs,
goals, and performance. Self-evaluation of effectiveness can also assist employees in reconnecting
with the organization's original objective. Workers may create a better sense of loyalty, purpose, and
passion to the workplace by working imaginatively to invent new business strategies for areas of
ineffectiveness.
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Due to the difficulty of expressing organizational performance in a formula, a corporation may

choose to communicate the outcomes of an assessment through specific goals achieved or sought.
Identifying ineffective regions can also be quite valuable to a business. Areas in need of
 improvement provide a company with a clear vision for the future, allowing employees, owners,
donors, and customers to become excited about the improvements on the horizon. Treating present

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flaws as a springboard for future improvements is a wonderful strategy to boost efficiency.

Organizational effectiveness grew more significant in the 1980s, and it transitioned from a construct

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to a concept (Henry, 2011). This idea is related to difficulties such as an organization's ability to
access and absorb resources and, as a result, fulfil its objectives (Federman, 2006). A unit that is
individually unsuccessful in terms of interaction with the rest of the organization, as Gigliotti (1987)
put it, is doomed to fail. According to Cameron (1978), organizational effectiveness is defined as the
organization's ability to obtain critical resources. McCann (2004), on the other hand, identified it as a

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criterion for an organization's success in achieving its goals through key strategies.

According to Vinitwatanakhon's (1998) research, organizational effectiveness should focus on

human resources and organizations, as well as assisting individuals in developing skills and self-
esteem in order to gain control over their new surroundings and find security and support. According
to Baker and Branch (2002), scientific research organizations, laboratories, and universities suffer
the most since they must display effective management, behave more responsibly, and complete
tasks with limited resources in order to increase their efficacy.Managers in these businesses

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perceive themselves first as scientists, then as managers, despite their desire to increase their
effectiveness.
They must, however, cope with organizational and system effectiveness issues. They must be
creative in their research, conduct, sponsorship, as well as the design and management of their

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businesses.

Main Models of Organizational Effectiveness

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1. The Goal Approach

The goal method is the most often utilised strategy in organizational success. Its focus is on the
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output in order to determine the most important operational goals, such as profit, innovation, and,
lastly, product quality (Schermerhorn, Hunt, R. N. Osborn, & R. Osborn, 2004). The goal approach is
predicated on a few fundamental assumptions.
One of them is that the exact goals should be agreed upon by all parties involved, and everyone
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should be dedicated to achieving them.The next assumption is that the number of goals is restricted,
and that fulfilling them necessitates the use of specific resources that are required (Robbins, 2003).
The diminished significance of the goal-based strategy for evaluating the performance of research
organizations and academic establishments is depicted in the accurate and unambiguous
measurement of the results, according to Altschuld and Zheng (1995).It is, in fact, critical to the clarity
of the goals and output metrics. Only when these requirements are met is the goal model appropriate.
However, this is not frequently the case for educational research institutions, particularly in situations
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where they are accountable to goals and must justify their large-scale societal roles. Furthermore, any
research is exploratory in character, and independence is necessary for the work of inquiry. These
are realities that should not be constrained by narrow objectives. The goal-oriented approach will only
be partially appropriate in this scenario.

2. The System Resource Approach

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The second strategy is known as the system resource approach, and it focuses on the figure's input. It
defines effectiveness in terms of the ability to gather necessary resources from settings outside of the
company (Schermerhorn et. al., 2004). The use of system resources can be beneficial if there is a
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clear link between the resources received by an organization and the commodities or services it
provides (Cameron, 1981). Managers are encouraged to regard the organization not only as a whole,
but also as a part of a wider group. The dominant viewpoint is that any aspect of an organization's
operations has an impact on all other aspects (Mullins, 2008).In addition, the use of input and output
measures of effectiveness in the system resource approach appears desirable due to its quantitative
qualities. They will not, however, show the complete storey of the performance because new ideas
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and discoveries do not always have an immediate and direct observable influence. Even after a long
period of support, it is possible that academic and research organizations would not produce
spectacular outcomes. Founders may continue to contribute support if they believe they can make
 significant contributions in the future, even if there is no adequate evidence of effectiveness (Altschuld
& Zheng, 1995).

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3. The Process Approach

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The third approach, known as the process approach, focuses on the transformation process and
examines the extent to which resources are formally used to provide services or manufacture things
(Schermerhorn et al., 2004). When an organization is effective, it means that it is internally healthy
and efficient, and that its internal processes and procedures are well-oiled. There is no evidence of

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stress or strain in an effective company. The members are fully integrated into the system, which
functions well.The members' connection is built on trust, honesty, and good will. Finally, information
flows both horizontally and vertically (Cameron, 1981). The current tendency in higher educational
institutions is to achieve objectives by giving timely and adequate information to students and
academicians. Information gathering and communication management are critical in this case
(Kleijnen, Dolmans, Muijtjens, Willems, & Van Hout, 2009).

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4. The Strategic Constituency Approach

The strategic constituency approach is the fourth strategy. It is concerned with the organization's
impact on key stakeholders and their interests (Schermerhorn et. al., 2004). Effectiveness, according

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to this perspective, is defined as the minimal satisfaction of all of the organization's strategic
constituents. The strategic constituency includes everyone who is connected to the organization in
some way.These people can play a variety of roles, including customers of the organization's services
or goods, resource providers, facilitators of the organization's output, primary supporters, and
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organization dependents (Cameron, 1981). The strategic constituency method, according to T. Dalton
and L. Dalton (1988), is useful in academic and research institutions where cost-benefit relationships
are difficult to identify.
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This method implies a thorough approach to effectiveness and assesses aspects in the environment
as well as within the business. The concept of social responsibility is taken into account in this
perspective. This is a concept that was not formally addressed in traditional techniques, but it is
critical for academic and research institutions that are financially supported by public funds. Because
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the resources available for research and development have been shrinking at all levels of
organizations, policymakers continue to pay attention to social responsibility. As a result, in order to
assess how accountable an institution is to society, the subject of research activities and outputs in
connection to public expectations must be addressed.

Aside from these approaches, the legitimacy and ineffectiveness models are also engaged, each
dealing with a different aspect of the overall issue of organizational effectiveness (Altschuld & Zheng,
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1995). Although many various effectiveness models and approaches have evolved based on
Cameron's (1978) formulation, there have been few studies on organizational effectiveness in higher
education settings. Similarly, Karagoz and Oz (2008) pointed out that there is a research gap in this
area.
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3.1.7 Reasons for ERP Success

ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) software automates fundamental business processes such as
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finance/accounting, supply chain, sales & marketing, and human resource management. ERP data
makes it easier for businesses to analyse data and make data-driven choices. Many businesses
implement ERP because of its benefits, yet they fail miserably to use it efficiently and obtain a return
on investment (ROI). The processes of ERP adoption are examined in this section, as well as
possible failure/success situations.
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ERP Implementation Process

 The process of integrating ERP software into your organization's infrastructure, moving
open/historical data to the new system, and educating users is known as ERP implementation. The

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length of the process is determined by the modules, the complexity and experience of the
implementer, and the resources available.

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The following are the steps in an ERP implementation:

• Discovery and Planning

• Design and Development
• Testing
• Deployment

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• Support

1. Discovery and Planning

Individual or group questionnaires, use-case preparation, documentation, prototyping, and
observation are all used by a team of subject matter experts to examine the new system's
requirements and needs. After you have a good understanding of these SMEs' business processes,
procedures, and policies, make a plan. A well-thought-out strategy makes the process go more

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smoothly. Planning identifies the types of activities that take place at each stage of the process, as
well as their duration, budget, and risk considerations.

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2. Design and Development
They can develop a more efficient system if they have a thorough grasp and analysis of the current
business workflow. Customizing software to support the new process, setting the system, and
integrating with it are all part of the development step.
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3. Testing
Examine the new features that have been introduced to the system to see if they are working
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properly. This method greatly decreases the chances of making a mistake. Businesses must conduct
multiple tests to ensure the system's many functional features and performance, including
functionality tests, integration tests, performance tests, and validation tests.
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4. Deployment
Go live, load your final data, and validate your business process are all part of the deployment
process. Companies are often encouraged to hire implementation partners who are well-versed in
ERP implementation and can assist you in adopting ERP at your corporation that is precisely aligned
with your business processes.
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5. Support
Businesses may find it difficult to adjust to the new system after it goes online. Post-implementation
support alleviates their concerns, allowing them to have a better user experience and reap the
greatest benefits.
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People frequently inquire about how they may secure a successful ERP adoption. The truth is, with
the introduction of cloud ERP, ERP deployment methodologies and best practises have evolved. It's
critical to develop and evolve your process as industries change in order to achieve a successful go-
live. In this article, we'll provide some of our exclusive tips for implementing ERP successfully.
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To get a new system up and operating, it takes a lot of hard effort from a lot of dedicated people. You
may have noted that we have yet to discuss software. That's because we recognise that ERP
initiatives aren't just about installing software; they're also about people, and how employees accept
or reject a company's new ERP system can determine whether the project succeeds or fails.
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Seven Aspects of a Successful ERP Implementation

• Executive support
• Employee involvement
 • Clearly defined project scope
• Plan to optimize business processes

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• Proactive change management
• Project management tools
• A partner that knows your industry

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Technology plays a critical role in boosting an organization's effectiveness. There are a variety of
project data programming bundles available all over the world. ERP is one of the most significant.
ERP stands for enterprise resource planning software, which enables a company to manage its
operations through the use of a set of coordinated applications. ERP unifies all parts of a company's

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operations, including product planning, development, manufacturing processes, sales, and
marketing. ERP, for the most part, provides firms with three important benefits: business process
automation, easy access to board data, and production and supply chain enhancement through the
use of electronic communication/commerce.

Implementation Strategies of ERP

According to the findings, the three approaches of preimplementation, implementation, and post-

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implementation are responsible for the successful implementation of ERP. These stage methods can
be extremely complex.

A. Pre-Implementation (Planning) Strategies

• Incorporate the hazard and quality management strategy into the board change plan.

useful correspondence development.

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• Break down the task into basic stages or subsystems for limited orchestration and cross-

• Instead of radical philosophy, consider a phase-based system for dynamic execution.

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• Use varied arranging strategies for different jobs, a detailed errand plan for large projects,
iterative frameworks for project creation, and specific correspondence plans for executives
who are changing.
• Prepare strategies for the enrollment, selection, and training of the venture group's critical
faculty.
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B. Implementation Strategies
• Create a framework for client requirements and input for social events.
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• Set up an observation and critique system for social event-controlled data at each stage of
the execution technique.
• Prepare to deal with crises that are predicted or unexpected, as well as deviations from
plans.
• Provide a strong authority with stipulations for government support in the form of personnel
and assets.
• Create a professional working environment.
• Obtain top-level support for the project and make plans for a well-resourced and well-
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executed dispatch.
• Encourage client interviews and customer support, and solicit support from interested
individuals throughout the project.
• Use professional unique correspondence to organize levelheaded suspicions about the
inventive restrictions and send them on to each division or unit in a custom-tailored manner.
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• Encourage customers and designers to strengthen the communitarian framework.

• During the task's entire existence, use multi-utilitarian venture groupings to bring together
reciprocal abilities.
• Familiarize the personnel with the process of moving toward innovation, and train them on
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their jobs and how to use the framework.

• For innovation, use intra-adventure gatherings and intra- and bury industry organizing.
• Provide partners with a detailed strategy of the execution technique, explain how it meets
business objectives, and keep them informed about the framework and progress of its
implementation.
• Propose methods for adjusting work force and frameworks to accommodate the new
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innovation, such as increasing system blend and interfacing.

C. Post-Implementation Strategies
 The validation (gathering) of ERP frameworks requires post-implementation processes. After

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completing an assignment, the need for IT framework and architecture will almost always change. A
post-execution review technique could be utilized to analyse the reasonableness of ERP
frameworks, with the addresses listed below being used for further improvement:

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Whether the ERP structure's objectives were fully acknowledged; whether the arrangement decision
was appropriately studied; whether the assessments and errand information were accurate; whether
or not the agreed methods and approaches were consented to; and any other reasonable factor.

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Quotes against real and the aim behind varieties could be the focus of such evaluations.
Furthermore, the evaluation may suggest any potential advancements in the IT framework. Finally,
the level of staff satisfaction and meeting might be examined, with suggestions for improvement.
Finally, post-execution evaluation can offer better frameworks for maintaining a critical good way
from unhappiness in relative affiliation exercises.

3.1.8 Reasons for ERP Failure

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ERP implementations can fail totally or partially in some cases. Lack of internal planning, restricted
implementation design and requirements, and unprofessional implementation are all factors for ERP
implementation failures.

• Insufficient Requirements
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Companies frequently make mistakes when gathering requirements; it is the implementation team's
obligation to have a clear picture of the internal and external resources required to complete the
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project and avoid implementation failure.

• Frequent Missing of the Timeline

When it comes to implementation, timing is crucial. Missing deadlines frequently results in inefficient
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decision-making, stress among team members, and failure to accomplish the desired goal.

• Lack of Training
Training is frequently overlooked by businesses. To avoid wasting time, you must train your key
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stakeholders and staff on the new system. Because an ERP encompasses all functional areas,
users must have a basic understanding of how the system works.

• Ineffective Communication between Departments

Internal conflicts and inefficiencies can arise as a result of a lack of communication between
management, the project team, employees, and vendors. Employees become perplexed when their
inquiries and concerns regarding the system are not addressed.
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• Frequent Updates in Previously Defined Goal

The objective is the foundation of every project. A fair update is okay, but a frequent update that
impacts the whole system is unacceptable. New changes cannot be praised in a continuous
process.
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• Unrealistic Customization
Customization of ERP suits a firm's individual needs in a Gap-fit scenario. Unrealistic customization,
on the other hand, leads to complex processes and misaligned business processes.
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• Lack of a Steering Committee

The lack of a steering committee to approve feature/customization requests and process flow
enablement is one of the cardinal faults underlying every ERP failure. Employees and managers
frequently make modifications that are convenient for them rather than based on their function or
business procedure. This leads to a never-ending stream of feature requests and scope shifts. This
problem can only be managed by a well-informed steering group.
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• Unprofessional Implementation
 System failures are frequently caused by sloppy implementation. The first step in deploying an ERP
is to assemble a knowledgeable team. One of the most typical reasons for failed ERP installations is

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that corporations dare to form an internal team to handle the project. Members of the team may not
have firsthand experience with implementation. They have experience with the business process,
but not with implementation.

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The cost of implementing an ERP system is both time and money for the company. Each phase of
ERP deployment should be given equal weight. As even a minor modification can have a significant
impact.

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Check your Understanding

1. ERP __________ software automates fundamental business processes such as

finance/accounting, supply chain, sales & marketing, and human resource management.
2. _________ is the switch from the old system to the new system can be made abruptly or
gradually. An abrupt change is called direct conversion, and, as the name implies, involves
the instant replacement of the old system with the new system.

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3. According to ______________ (1998) research, organizational effectiveness should focus on
human resources and organizations, as well as assisting individuals in developing skills and
self-esteem in order to gain control over their new surroundings and find security and support.
4. According to _________ (2002), scientific research organizations, laboratories, and

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universities suffer the most since they must display effective management, behave more
responsibly, and complete tasks with limited resources in order to increase their
efficacy.Managers in these businesses perceive themselves first as scientists, then as
managers, despite their desire to increase their effectiveness.
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5. The goal method is the most often utilized strategy in organizational success. Its focus is on
the output in order to determine the most important operational goals, such as profit,
innovation, and, lastly, product quality. The goal approach is predicated on a few fundamental
assumptions. State true or false.
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6. ________ is an incremental approach to switch over to the new system.

7. ________ is nothing but creating computer readable files from the existing
systems/documents.
8. A _________ is a document, which spells out detailed requirements for a successful
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conversion.

Summary

Making the Switch to the New System:

• Following Lewin's three-step model of organizational change: unfreeze, move, and refreeze,
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the transition to the new system is made easier. Attachment to the present system will be
unfrozen through activities performed during systems analysis and design.
• The migration plan directs the transition from the current system to the future system.
• The support and maintenance offered for the new system aids in the integration of the new
system into the organization's daily operations.
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The Migration Plan

• The migration plan consists of several components that will guide the move from the old to
the new system. The conversion strategy chosen and business contingency planning can
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help to develop the organization's readiness. Installation of hardware and software, as well as
data conversion, are used to prepare the technology. Many channels, including management
policies, adoption motivation strategies, and training, have been used to prepare individuals to
embrace and operate the new system. Analysts will be able to build a successful migration
plan if they understand the drivers of change resistance as well as the costs and benefits that
users perceive.
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Post-implementation Activities
 • The operations group is in charge of system support, which includes online and help-desk
support for users. Level 1 support staff answers the phone and answers the majority of

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questions, whereas level 2 support staff follows up on difficult situations and occasionally
generates change requests for bug solutions. System maintenance responds to requests for
changes (from system support employees, users, other development project teams, and

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senior management) in order to fix bugs and improve the system's business value.The
purpose of project evaluation is to determine what aspects of the system and project activities
were successful (and so should be continued in the next system or project) and what aspects
need to be improved. The focus of a project team review is on how the project team carried
out its tasks, and it usually results in the documentation of critical lessons learned. The goal of

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a system review is to determine how well the proposed expenses and advantages from the
new system that were established at the start of the project were acknowledged in the
implemented system.

Activity

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1. Suppose that you are leading the conversion from one word processor to another at your
university. Develop a conversion strategy. You have also been asked to develop a conversion
strategy for the university’s new Web-based course registration system. How would the
second conversion strategy be similar to or different from the one you developed for the word

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processor?
2. COMPARING CONVERSION STRATEGIES:
• Develop the combination of conversion strategy dimensions that produces the least
risk; the most risk.
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• Develop the combination of conversion strategy dimensions that produces the least
cost; the most cost.
• Develop the combination of conversion strategy dimensions that requires the least
time; the most time.
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Now, compare these strategies. Do you see any relationships? Based on your
analysis, what advice might you give a team selecting a conversion strategy?
3. Identify and explain three standard operating procedures for the course in which you are
using this book. Discuss whether they are formal or informal.
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4. Suppose that you are leading the conversion from one word processor to another in your
organization. Develop an outline of topics that would be included in the training. Develop a
plan for training delivery.
5. How would you motivate adoption if you were the developer of a new executive information
system designed to provide your organization’s top executives with key performance
measures and economic trend information?
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Questions & Exercises

1. What are the three basic steps in managing organizational change?

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2. What are the major components of a migration plan?

3. Compare and contrast direct conversion and parallel conversion.

4. Compare and contrast pilot conversion, phased conversion, and simultaneous conversion.
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5. Compare and contrast modular conversion and whole-system conversion.

6. Explain the trade-offs among selecting between the types of conversion in Questions 3, 4, and 5.

7. What are the three key roles in any change management initiative?
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8. Why do people resist change? Explain the basic model for understanding why people accept or
resist change.
 9. What are the three major elements of management policies that must be considered when
implementing a new system?

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10. Compare and contrast an information change management strategy with a political change
management strategy. Is one better than the other?

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11. Explain the three categories of adopters you are likely to encounter in any change management
initiative.

12. How should you decide what items to include in your training plan?

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13. Compare and contrast three basic approaches to training.

14. What is the role of the operations group in the systems development life cycle (SDLC)?

15. Compare and contrast two major ways to provide system support.

16. How is a problem report different from a change request?

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17. What are the major sources of change requests?

18. Why is project assessment important?

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19. How is project team review different from system review?

20. What do you think are three common mistakes that novice analysts make in migrating from the
as-is to the to-be system?
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21. Some experts argue that change management is more important than any other part of the SDLC.
Do you agree or not? Explain.

22. In our experience, change management planning often receives less attention than conversion
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planning. Why do you think this happens?

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Glossary

1. Conversion Style: The switch from the old system to the new system can be made abruptly or
gradually. An abrupt change is called direct conversion, and, as the name implies, involves
the instant replacement of the old system with the new system. In essence, the old system is
turned off and the new is turned on, often coinciding with a fiscal-year change or other
calendar event.
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2. Conversion Locations: The new system can be introduced to different parts of the
organization at different times, or it can be introduced throughout the organization at the same
time. A pilot conversion selects one or more locations (or units or work groups within a
location) to be converted first as a part of a pilot test. If the conversion at the pilot location is
successful, then the system is installed at the remaining locations.
3. Conversion Modules: Although we typically expect that systems are installed in their entirety,
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this is not always the case. It may be desirable to decide how much of the new system will be
introduced into the organization at a time. When the modules within the system are separate
and distinct, organizations may convert to the new system one module at a time, using
modular conversion. Modular conversion requires special care in developing the system (and
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usually adds extra cost), because each module must be written to work with both the old and
the new systems. When modules are tightly integrated, this is very challenging and is
therefore seldom done. When the software is written with loose association between modules,
however, it becomes easier.
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Further Readings
 1. Kurt Lewin, “Frontiers in Group Dynamics,” Human Relations, 1947, 1:5–41; and Kurt Lewin,
“Group Decision and Social Change” in E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley,

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eds., Readings in Social Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958, pp. 197–
211.
2. Christopher Koch, “When Bad Things Happen to Good Projects,” CIO Magazine, December

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1, 2004.
3. Altschuld, J. W., & Zheng, H. Y. (1995). Assessing the effectiveness of research
organizations. Evaluation Review, 19(2), 197-216.
4. An, J. Y., Yom, Y. H., & Ruggiero, J. S. (2011). Organizational culture, quality of work life,
and organizational effectiveness in Korean university hospitals. Journal of Transcultural

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Nursing, 22(1), 22-30.
5. Anderson, J. A. (2000). Explanatory roles of mission and culture: Organizational
effectiveness in Tennessee's community colleges. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of
Mephis.
6. Baker, K., & Branch, K. M. (2002). Concepts underlying organizational effectiveness: Trends
in the organization and management science literature. Management Benchmark Study.
USA: Office of Planning & Analysis, Department of Energy
7. Cameron, K. (1978). Measuring organizational effectiveness in institutions of higher

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education. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 604-632.
8. Cameron, K. (1981). Domains of organizational effectiveness in colleges and universities.
Academy of Management Journal, 24 (1), 25-47.
9. Cameron, K. (1986). A study of organizational effectiveness and its predictors. Management

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Science, 32(1), 87-112.
10. Dalton, T., & Dalton, L. (1988). The politics of measuring public sector performance.
Promoting Productivity in the Public Sector (Macmillan).
11. Federman, M. (2006). Essay: Towards an effect-ive theory of organizational effectiveness.
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12. McCann, J. (2004). Organizational effectiveness: Changing concepts for changing
environments. Human Resource Planning, 27(1).
13. Mullins, L. J. (2008). Essentials of organizational behaviour: Pearson Education.
14. Pounder, J. (1999). Organizational effectiveness in higher education. Educational
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Management Administration & Leadership, 27(4), 389-400.

15. Yildirim, V. and Kuşakcı, A.O., 2018. The critical success factors of erp selection and
implementation: A case study in logistics sector. Journal of International Trade, Logistics
and Law, 4(1), pp.138-146.
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16. Osman, N., 2018. A software requirement engineering framework to enhance critical
success factors for erp implementation. International Journal of Computer Applications,
180(10), pp.pp32.
17. Vicedo, P., Gil, H., Oltra-Badenes, R. and Merigó, J.M., 2018, January. Critical Success
Factors on ERP Implementations: A Bibliometric Analysis. In International Conference on
Modelling and Simulation in Management Sciences (pp. 169-181). Springer, Cham.
18. Barth, C. and Koch, S., 2019. Critical success factors in ERP upgrade projects. Industrial
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Management & Data Systems.

19. Hentschel, R., Leyh, C. and Baumhauer, T., 2019, January. Critical success factors for the
implementation and adoption of cloud services in SMEs. In Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences.
20. Wolters, J., Eseryel, U.Y. and Eseryel, D., 2018. Identifying the Critical Success Factors for
Low Customized ERP System Implementations in SMEs.
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Check your Understanding – Answers

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1. Enterprise Resource Planning

2. Conversion Style
3. Vinitwatanakhon's
4. Baker and Branch
5. True
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6. Phased Conversion
7. Installation Database
8. Conversion Plan