CE 102 Structural Mechanics

4/1/2010
CE 102 Structural Mechanics
Prep Course for PE (Civil Engineering Exam
Prep Course for PE (Civil Engineering Exam)
Assoc Professor Ang
Assoc Professor Ang Kok Keng
Department of Civil Engineering
National University of Singapore
Topics
• Statics
• Equilibrium of Particles and Rigid Bodies
• Analysis of Pin-
Pin-Jointed Structures
• Mechanics of Materials
• Elastic Stress-
Stress-Strain Relationship
• Analysis of Simple Structural Members
CE 102 Structural Mechanics 2
STATICS
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Fundamental Principles and Laws

Parallelogram Law for Addition of Forces
F1+F2
F2
F1
Principle of Transmissibility
FF F F FF FFFFF
Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia)
Every body continues in its state of rest, or in uniform motion
in a right (straight) line unless it is compelled to change that
state by forces impressed upon it.
Fundamental Principles and Laws (Cont’d)

Newton’s Second Law
F = ma
Work Energy Principle Impulse--Momemtum Principle

Impulse
dv dv
F  mv F m
ds dt
 Fds   mvdv  Fdt   mdv
1 1 Impulse  mv 2  mv1
Work done  mv22  mv12
2 2  change in momemtum
 change in kinetic energy
Newton’s Third Law
To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction
Fundamental Principles and Laws (Cont’d)

Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Mm
F G , where G is the universal gravitational constant
r2
r
m M
F F
This principle leads to the concept of weight:

W  mg
Me
where g  G  gravitational acceleration,
re2
M e and re are the mass and the radius of the Earth, respectively.
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Equilibrium of Particles & Rigid Bodies

Forces passing through a single point (or a particle) are called
concurrent forces.
The resultant of concurrent forces, may be obtained by the polygon

rule (graphically) or by the addition of the scalar components of the
forces. y
n
Fn F2 R Rx   Fx ,i
i 1
n 2D
R y   F y ,i 3D
F1 i 1
0 n
z x Rz   Fz ,i
n i 1
R  Fi R  Rx2  R y2  Rz2
i 1
Equilibrium of Particles (Cont’d)

zero the particle is
If the resultant force on a particle is ______,
equilibrium
said to be in _______________.
n
Rx   Fx ,i  0
i 1 Note:
n n With 3 equations,
q , 3 unknowns
R  Fi  0 R y   F y ,i  0 maybe solved (3-D).
i 1 i 1 However, only 2 equations are
n available for 2-D.
Rz   Fz ,i  0
i 1
The concept of equilibrium will be used not to solve for the

resultant, which is zero, but to solve for the required forces that
act on the particle and maintain its equilibrium.
Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

In contrast to the forces on a particle,
the forces on a rigid-body are not
usually concurrent and may cause
rotation of the body (due to the
moments created by the forces).
Forces on a particle
For a rigid body to be in equilibrium,
the net force as well as the net
moment about any arbitrary point O
must be equal to zero.
 F  0 and  M O 0
Forces on a rigid body

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Moment of a Force
y Moment of a force F
about a point A,
F
M A  rF
z axis out r  B
towards A where r is a vector
viewer
x from A to ANY point B
d B’
B on the force F
Proof: By definition, moment of a force about point A
= force x perpendicular distance from A
= F x d = F x r sin θ
Also, by definition of a vector (or cross) product
r  F  rF sin  k
also a vector, along the perpendicular to the plane containing r
and F, positive as r rotates into F by the right hand rule.
Moment of a Force (Cont’d)

Moment of a Force F about an Axis
Consider the problem of finding the moment of the

force F about an axis AL.
This moment is simply the component of MA

along
g the axis AL,, i.e. the projection
p j of MA on AL:
y
L
M AL   AL  M A   AL  r  F MA
F
 AL
0 A r B
Note: A is any point along
x
the axis and B is any point
along the force vector. z
Equivalent Force-
Force-Couple
A single force F acting eccentrically about a point A may
be considered as a force F acting through the point A plus
a couple or a moment M about the point.
F
F
d
d = F
A
A F
M = Fd
= F
A
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Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies (Cont’d)

Reduction of a system of forces to one force and a couple
---- equivalent force
force--couple system at a given point O
M1
M1
Mm
Mm
M2
M2
Equivalent force-
force-couple system
n n m n m
R F i M
R
O  M
i 1
oi  M
i 1
i   (r
i 1
i  F i)   M
i 1
i
i 1

External forces and moments acting on a rigid body may
be reduced to a force-couple system at some arbitrary
point O. When the force and the couple are both equal to
.zero , the rigid body is said to be in equilibrium .
Therefore, for the equilibrium of a rigid body,

n n m
R  Fi  0 ; M OR   (r i  F i )   M i  0
i 1 i 1 i 1
 Fx  0 ;  Fy  0 ;
 Fz  0

 Mx  0 ;  M y  0 ;  Mz  0
Note: 6 equations to solve 6 unknowns

For a two
two--dimensional rigid body contained in the x-
x-y
plane
Fz  0 ; M x  M y  0; M z  MO
  Fx  0 ;  Fy  0 ;  MO  0
N t 3 equations
Note: ti tto solve
l 3 unknowns
k
Alternatively,
 Fx  0 ;  MO  0 ;  MO '  0
or  MO  0 ;  MO '  0 ;  MO"  0
in which points O, O’ and O’’ are not in a straight line.
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Free--Body Diagram
Free
First step of structural analysis is usually to draw a
free‐‐body diagram
free
Simplified sketch of structure, isolated from its
supports, showing all forces acting on it
Idealized model Free body diagram

Free--Body Diagram (Cont’d)

Free
W

B
 R

R
R R
A N
3R 3R / 2
P 2 R cos 
Free-Body Diagram of
Member AB
Free--Body Diagram (Cont’d)

Free
D E
Ball and socket
AX
support
T1 T2 AZ
F
Ay
B G B
Cables T3
C G
C
Free body diagram of
W
rigid member ABC
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Equilibrium of a Two
Two--Force Member
A special case of equilibrium which is of interest is that of a
rigid body subjected to two forces (or forces acting at only
two points).
points).
If this so
so--called two
two--force member is in equilibrium, the two
forces must have the same magnitude, same line of action,
and opposite sense.
sense. B FB = - FA
F3 F2 FA
F1
A FA
A A
A
FA
B
B
F6
B
F5 F4 FB = - FA FB = - FA
FA
A B FB = - FA
Equilibrium of a Three-
Three-Force Member
A three
three--force member is a rigid body subjected to
forces acting at only three points
points.. If the body is in
equilibrium, the lines of the three forces must be
either concurrent or parallel
parallel..
F1 F3
F2
F3
F1 F2
(a) Concurrent Forces (b) Parallel Forces
Example
Determine the components of
the reactions at A and B.
W = 1000 kg +  MA = 0:
B(1.5) - (9.81)(2) -(23.5)(6) = 0
 B=107.1 kN
+
Free body diagram  Fx = 0:
Ax + B = 0
Ay
Ax = -107.1 kN
AX 23.5 kN
or 107.1 kN
1.5 m
+  Fy = 0:
9.81 kN
B Ay - 9.81 - 23.5 = 0
2m 4m
Ay = 33.3 kN
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Example
A
Rod AB is supported by a pin and
150 mm bracket at A and rests against a
frictionless peg at C. Determine
C
150 mm
the reactions at A and C.
160mm
B
170N The rod AB is chosen as a free body

body.
A 160mm
E
Three-Force Body
Three-
A

Reaction at C to AB. Forces
150 mm  D concurrent at D.
 160
C
 tan     28.1 
150 mm C 300
B
Since AC=CB, CAD = , and
Free Body
Diagram
170N
direction of A is 2
Example (Cont’d)
A 160mm
E (90º - ) + 2 +  = 180º
A

(90º - )
150 mm  D
This is the same as angle between C

 C
 and 170-N force; triangle is isosceles
150 mm C FBD and we have;
B
170N A = 170 N
C = 2(170)
2(170) sin  = 160 N
sin 
90o - 2 = 33.8o
2 A A = 170 N 33.8º
170 N C = 160 N 28.1º

90o - 
C Force Triangle
 = 28.1o
Analysis of Pin
Pin--Jointed Structures
Three Broad Categories of Pin
Pin--Jointed Structures
Trusses – consist of straight members connected at
joints located at the ends of each member. Members
of a truss are acted upon by two equal and opposite
forces
f di
directed
t d along
l g th
the member
b (2
(2-force
f members
members).
b ).)
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Categories of Pin
Pin--Jointed Structures (Cont’d)
Pin-Jointed Frames – members are acted upon by
Pin-
three or more forces (multi members)) which in
(multi--force members
general, are not directed along the member.
Categories of Pin
Pin--Jointed Structures (Cont’d)
Pin-Jointed Machines – Unlike trusses and frames which
Pin-
support loads and are usually stationary, fully constrained
structures, machines are designed to transmit and modify
forces and are structures containing moving parts.
parts. Machines,
like frames always contain at least one multi
multi--force member.
Analysis of Truss Structures

A truss is a framework which is usually built-
built-up from members
forming triangles. Trusses are common in roof construction,
transmission towers, crane booms and bridges.
For analytical purposes, we assume that

 The joints are pinned or hinged,
hinged which implies that the
member forces are axial because there can be no moment
about the hinge
 Loads act only at joints
A truss is represented by a line drawing with the lines along

the centrelines of the members.
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Sign Convention
Tension (+ve)
Compression (-ve)
Pin is subjected to a
y
concurrent force system
Consider the above free-

free-body diagram of a separate joint
of a plane truss (i.e. a 2-
2-D truss built to resist forces in
its own plane). The joint is in equilibrium when the forces
acting on it satisfy
 Fx  0 and  Fy  0
Method of Joints
At each joint,  Fx  0,  Fy  0
Example – Determine the member forces in the plane

truss carrying the loads as shown in the figure.
15 kN
4 5 kN
First consider the
C E
3 free body diagram
of the entire truss
1m
and determine the
9 A B D F external reactions
by the equations
1m 1m 1m of equilibrium.
20 31
3 3
Example (Cont’d)
F1
Assume tensile
At joint A forces initially
45
A
9 F2
20
3
20 F1
 Fy  0:   0  F1  9.43 kN
3 2
F
 Fx  0:  9  1  F2  0  F2  15.66 kN
2
Proceed to next joint (any joint) which has no more than 2
unknowns, e.g. joint B but not joint C. Why?
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Joints Under Special Loading Conditions

FAE
E FAB
B
A A
D
C
FAD
FAC
FAE  FAC and FAB  FAD

FAE
EP P FAB
B
A A
D
C
FAD
FAC
FAC  P and FAB  FAD

then FAC  P  0

FAE
E FAB
B
A A
D
C
FAD
FAC
FAB  FAD
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FAE
E FAB
B
A A
D
C
FAD
FAC
FAE  FAC and FAB  FAD
FAD  FAE  0
Method of Sections
In this method, the equilibrium of parts of the truss is

considered.
considered.
The procedure involves cutting some carefully selected

members of truss in order to isolate a free body
comprising a section or portion of the truss onto which
cut member forces are applied as external forces
forces..
Forces are calculated by applying equilibrium to the

selected section.
section.
Example
15 kN 5 kN
4
C E
3
1m
9 A B D F
1m 1m 1m
20 31
3 3
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Assume tensile
Example (Cont’d) 12 kN forces in cut
members
15 kN 5 kN C
9 kN F6
F5
1m
9 1m 1m
B F4 D A
20
3
Left hand portion of the truss is selected as a free body for the
purpose of determining three unknown forces F4, F5 and F6.
20 F
 Fy  0 :  12  5  0  F5   7.54 kN
3 2
20
 MD  0 : (2)  12(1)  9(1)  F6 (1)  0  F6   10.33 kN
3
20
 MC  0 : 9 (1)  (1)  F4 (1)  0  F4  15.66 kN
3
Method of Joint or Section?

In some types of determinate trusses, a difficulty arises with the
method of joints
joints..
For example, ?
I ?? ?
?
?
? ? ? ?
? ? ?
J
Fink Truss
At joints I and J, there are three unknown forces to be found

found.. We cannot
proceed with the method of joints without some modifications.
modifications. We may
overcome the difficulty by taking a section through three members and
determining the three corresponding member forces by the method of
sections.. Then, it is possible to continue with the method of joints
sections joints..
Example
Determine the force in member IK of the truss shown below.
2.7 m 2.4 m
A C
100
100 kN
B
D E
2.7 m 100  2.7  3
100 kN F
cot  
100 2.4
2.7 m
G H I FGH FIH
100 kN
a a 2.7 m FGJ FIK
J K
Take the section above a-
a-a as a free body
7.5 m  M G  0
 2  2 .7  2 .4 
100 ( 2.7  5.4)  FIK cos   7.5  0
 8 .1 
 810
FIK   143 .2 kN
8 .1
( 7 .5  1 .6 )
8.448
 143.2 kN (compression )
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Example
Determine the forces in members AB and

CD of the plane truss loaded at joint B as
shown below.
A B P
a
C
a
D
a a a Roller
Support
Example (Cont’d)
A B P
K By considering a free body diagram
of the entire truss, we can
H a determine the support reactions.
F G I C
By considering the free body
J
a diagram of EBC and noting that
P since at each of joints G, H, I, J, the
E
D intersecting members lie in two
a a a straight lines
lines, we have
2P/3 2P/3 F1 = F2 and F3 = F4
FAB B P
K These forces cancel each other in
F4
the following equations:
F1 H ΣMk = 0: - P (2a) – FCD (3a) = 0
I C
FEF J FCD = - 2P/3 (compression)
G FCD
P E F2 F3
ΣFx = 0: P - P - FAB = 0
a a a FAB = 0
2P/3
Analysis of Pin
Pin--Jointed Frames/Machines
 Just like for trusses, method requires
 drawing free-body diagrams (FBD) of each of the
components
 writing equations of equilibrium for each FBD
 In case of trusses, direction of force in all
,
members was known
 method of joints reduced to solving series of particle
equilibrium problems
 For frames/machines, directions may not be
known for some members
 analysis consists of solving equilibrium of a system
of rigid bodies rather than a system of particles
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Example
600 N A
B 2.5 m
A 600 N horizontal force is applied to
2.5 m
D pin A of the frame shown. Determine
C 25m
2.5
the forces acting on the two vertical
E F
2.5 m members of the frame.
6m
Example (Cont’d)
600 N A Determine Ey and Fy :

B
 M E  0 :  (600 N )(10m)  Fy (6m)  0
D 10 m F  1000 N
C y
F y  1000 N  #
Ex
E F Fx
   Fy  0 : E y  Fy  0
Ey 6m Fy
E y  1000 N

E y  1000 N  #
Question: What about the 3rd equilibrium equation F x 0 ?
Example (Cont’d)
FAB Need to dismember frame in order to find Ex and Fx. In
A dismembering, we shall assume that pin A is attached to
B multiforce member ACE and that 600 N force is applied
5
13 there.
12 FAB We also note that AB and CD are 2-force members.
D FCD
C 13
FCD 5
12    Fy  0 :  135 FAB  135 FCD  E y  0
A
M  0 :  (600)(10)   12
13 FAB  (10)
600 N
FAB  E
FAB B
  12
13 FCD  (2.5)  0
FCD D Solving these equations simultaneously,
C FCD FAB  1040 N FCD  1560 N
Ex #(Ans)
Fx
E F    Fx  0 : 600  12
13 FAB  13 FCD  E x  0
12
Ey Fy Ex  1080 N#(Ans)
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Stress Under General Loading Conditions

In general, a body will experience multiple loads acting
simultaneously. To understand the stress condition created at
some point Q, consider a section through Q as shown below
Definition of Stress
Stress is defined as the force per unit area or intensity of
loading and generally varies from one point to another.
F x
 xx  lim
A0 A
Vyx
 xy  lim
A
A0
Vzx
 xz  lim
A0 A
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Stress Components
Consider an infinitesimal 3-
3-D element of material that defines a
point within a body. Because of equilibrium, there are only six
independent orthogonal stress components:
Normal Stresses:
 xx ,  yy ,  zz
Shear Stresses:
 xy   yx ,  yz   zy ,  zx   xz
Deformation in Material
Deformation in a material is quantified by how lengths and
angles in an element of material change as a result of the
stresses experienced.
dx  dx
dy  d y
y
dz
dz  d z
dx
dy
z x
A rectangular element subjected to uniaxial tensile normal

stress results in the an increase in length in the x
x--direction with
accompanying decrease in lengths in the y y-- and z-
z-directions.
Definition of Strain
Engineering normal strain is defined by the change in length
divided by the original length.
dx
 xx 
dx
dy
 yy  Normal Strains
dy
dz
 zz 
dz
Engineering shear strain is defined by the reduction in angle
½ at the corner of an element corresponding to the
from ½
origin of the coordinates of the axis.
C'
D D' C

    Shear Strain
B' 2
A B
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Elastic Stress-
Stress-Strain Relationship
In general, a body will experience multiple loads acting
simultaneously. Hence at any point in the body, there may be
normal stresses acting along 3 orthogonal axes.
Each normal stress acting on its own will produce strains in all
3 directions. If there are normal stresses in all 3 directions, the
strains in the 3 directions would be the superposition
p p of the
strains caused by the individual normal stresses.
Equations relating stress to strain follow Hooke’s Law:

 xx   xx  yy  zz  E  xy   xy G
 yy   yy  zz  xx  E  yz   yz G
 zz   zz  xx  yy  E  zx   zx G
Analysis of Simple Structural Members

• Objectives of Stress Analysis
• Design against failure – ensure that stress within material in a
structure or component does not exceed yield (elastic limit) or
fracture (permanent separation)
• Design for acceptable deformation – the material may not fail but
the amount of deflection, twisting and bending may be excessive
• General Approach to Stress Analysis
• Equilibrium – (i) overall equilibrium of structure (ii) equilibrium
between external loads and internal forces
• Constitutive (Stress-
(Stress-Strain) relationships - this relates the strains
that arise to the stresses generated by the applied loads
• Deformation compatibility – this implies that the deformations
induced (strains, length changes, lateral deflections, angle of
twist, etc) must be compatible within the structure and with
external constraints
Axially--Loaded Structural Members

Axially
PL

EA
Pi Li
 
i Ei Ai
L
Pdx
 
0
EA
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Example
Determine the reaction at B

Example (Cont’d)
Example (Cont’d)
Pi Li  600 600 900  150 1125

L    0     
i Ei Ai  400 250 250 E E
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Example (Cont’d)
P2  RB
P1  RB
Pi Li P1L1 P2 L2 1.95RB
R     
i Ei Ai EA1 EA2 E
Example (Cont’d)
1125 1.95RB
  L  R    0  RB  577 kN #(ANS)
E E
Torsion of Cylindrical Shafts
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Torsion of Cylindrical Shafts (Cont’d)
Unloaded
configuration
Shear stresses on an
element in the shaft
Deformed
configuration
Ti Li

TL  
GJ i Gi Ji
Txxr
 x 
J
L
Tdx
 
0
GJ
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
J c4
32

J
32
c 4
2  c14 
Example
0.5 m
0.5 m
c1  30 mm
c2  50 mm 10 kN-m
Determine the reaction at B

Example (Cont’d)
TA  TB  10 kN - m (1)
B / A  C / A  B / C  0
T L TL 
10 kN-m   A CA  B BC  G  0 (2)
 J CA J BC 
T1  TA From (1) & (2), we get
LCAJ BC
T2  TB TB  TA  0.87TA
LBC JCA
TB  4.65 kN #(ANS)
22
4/1/2010
Analysis of Flexural Members

By
Bx
B
By Internal forces developed in
q
Bx multiforce beam/frame members to
B maintain equilibrium under applied
C
q V loads include:
loads include:
M
P  an axial force, F
C F
 a shear force, V
Ax F
A  a bending moment, M
M
Ay P
VC
A
Ax
Ay
Sign Convention
 A cut through a beam reveals equal and opposite shear
forces and bending moments on opposing faces
P P
m B m M M Vm B
A
x n x n V n
 Upward force positive? Anticlockwise moment positive?

 Need a consistent sign convention to indicate sense of
internal beam resultants
Sign Convention (Cont’d)

 Sign conventions for stress resultants
called deformation sign conventions
 because based upon how material is deformed
 deformation sign convention also used for axial
members
 Elongation (tension) in a bar is +ve
 Shortening (compression) is –veve

 Static sign convention used when writing
equations of equilibrium
 forces are +ve or –ve according to their directions
along coordinate axes
P is given a positive sign in equation of
equilibrium because it acts upward; P y
M
V (positive shear force) is given a A m
negative sign because it acts downward x
n
V
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4/1/2010
Method of Section
m q0
q
A B
x
L
n
q0
q
m M
A
n
x V
L
Method of Section (Cont’d)

q0 x 2 q0
2L q
m M q0 x
q
A L
n
x V
L
Total downward load on free body is
1  q0 x  q0 x 2
   x 
2 L  2L
From an equation of equilibrium in the vertical direction we find
+   Fy  0 : q0 x 2 q x2
V   0 V   0
2L 2 L # (Ans)
Method of Section (Cont’d)

q0 x 2 q0 x
q
2L L
m M
A
x
3
n
x V
Write an equation of moment equilibrium about cut section
1q x  x
 M mn  0: M   0   x    0
2 L   3
q x3
 M  0
6 L # (Ans)
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4/1/2010
Relationships Between Load, Shear, BM

P
M V M  M1
q
y dx V  V1
P
M0
A B C
x
dx dx dx
RA
M0
q RB
M V M  M1
M V M  dM
dx V  dV dx V  V1
Relationships Between Distributed Load, …
dV
 q
dx
q B B
M V M  dM  A
dV  VB  VA    qdx
A
dM
V
dx V  dV dx
B B
 A
dM  M B  M A   Vdx
A
Relationships Between Concentrated Loads, …

P
M V M  M1
V1   P
dx V  V1 M1  0
M0
M V M  M1 V1  0
M1   M 0
dx V  V1
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4/1/2010
Shear and Moment Diagrams
1. Sketch the free

free--body (load) diagram
showing loads, support reactions and
dimensions for easy reference
2. Based on free
free--body diagram,
determine support reactions using
equations of equilibrium
3. Construct vertical lines down from load
diagram through all points of conc.
loads/couples, supports and start and
end points of distributed loads
Shear and Moment Diagrams (Cont’d)

4. Start sketching shear diagram over
each segment (between vertical
construction lines) from left to right
 Determine shear at left end of segment
 For 1st segment
segment, shear at left end = left beam vertical
support reaction
 Determine shear at right end of segment using
B
VB  VA    q  dx
A
 Follow direction of loading: VB > VA if distributed

loading is acting upward

4. Start sketching shear diagram …..
 Sketch shape of shear diagram within segment using
dV
 q
dx
 Abrupt change in shear force occurs at point of
concentrated load not concentrated moment
 Follow direction of loading: shear immediately to the
right of conc. load increases if load is acting up
5. Start sketching moment diagram over
26
4/1/2010

5. Start sketching moment diagram over
 Determine BM at left end of segment
 For 1st segment,
segment BM at left end = left beam moment
support reaction
 Determine BM at right end of segment using
B
M B  M A   Vdx
A
 MB > MA if area under shear diagram is positive
5. Start sketching moment diagram ….

 Sketch shape of moment diagram within segment
using
dM
V
dx
 Abrupt change in bending moment occurs at point of

concentrated moment not concentrated load
 If conc. moment is positive (anticlockwise), then BM
immediately to right of conc. moment will decrease
and vice-
vice-versa
Example: Beam
q = 1.0 kN/m
M0 = 12.0 kN.m
B
A
C
4m 8m 8m
q = 1.0 kN/m
M0 = 12.0 kN.m
B C
A
4m 8m 8m
RB RC
M B  0 : RC 16  M 0  q  4  2  0
 RC  1.25 kN
 Fy  0 : RB  RC  q  4  0
 RB  5.25 kN
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4/1/2010
Example (Cont’d)
q = 1.0 kN/m
M0 = 12.0 kN.m
B
A C
4m 8m 8m
5.25 kN 1.25 kN
+1.25
V (kN) 0
# (Ans)
-4.0
+2.0
0
M (kN.m) 0
-8.0
# (Ans)
Stresses in Beams
Consider a prismatic member AB possessing a plane of
symmetry and subjected to equal and opposite couples M and
M’ acting in that plane.
Conditions of equilibrium of the portion AC of the member

require that the internal forces in the section be equivalent to
the couple M. The moment of that couple is referred to as the
bending moment in the section.
Stresses in Beams (Cont’d)
The system of elementary internal forces exerted on the

section is equivalent to the couple M:
 F :  dA  0
x x
M :  z dA  0
y x
M :   y dA  M
z x
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4/1/2010
Longitudinal Strains in Beams
Longitudinal normal strain varies linearly with distance y from

the neutral axis: y
    y

x
Normal Stresses in Beams

For linearly elastic material, Hooke’s law is valid
 x  E x   E y
Normal stresses acting on cross section vary
linearly with distance y from neutral axis
y y
dA
x
c1
M y
O x z
O
c2
Neutral Axis
As there is no axial force when beam is in pure
bending, resultant force in x-
x-direction is zero
y
dA
 Fx :  dFx    x dA   E y d A  0 c1
y
A A A
z
  y dA  0
A
O
c2
Neutral axis passes through centroid of cross

sectional area provided
 Material follows Hooke’s law
 There is no axial force acting on cross section
29
4/1/2010
Moment--Curvature Relationship
Moment
 Second equation of statics
M z : M   dM    ydF    y x dA    Ey 2 d A
A A A A y
dA
 M   E  y 2 d A   EI
A c1
y
in which I   y2 d A z
A O
c2
 Moment--curvature relationship
Moment
1 M
  EI = flexural rigidity
 EI
Flexure Formula
Compressive
M 1 stresses
 
 EI x
M
 x  E x   E y O x
My
x   Neutral Axis
I Tensile stresses
 Flexure formula shows that stresses are directly

proportional to BM and inversely proportional to I
 Also, stresses vary linearly with distance y from
neutral axis
 If bending moment is + +ve
ve,, stresses are +
+ve
ve
(tension) below neutral axis and –ve (compression)
above neutral axis
Maximum Flexural Stresses
 Maximum tensile and compressive

y flexural stresses occur at points
farthest from neutral axis
x
Compressive
p Mc1 M I
c1 stresses 1    where S1 
M I S1 c1
O x
Mc2 M I
c2 2   where S2 
Tensile stresses I S2 c2
 S1 and S2 are called section moduli
30
4/1/2010
Section Moduli
 If beam is doubly symmetric, then c1 = c2 = c
Mc M I
 1   2   where S 
I S c
b 2 y
y
z h
O z d
h O
2
b
bh3 bh 2 d4  d3
I S I S
12 6 64 32
Parallel Axis Theorem

 Given: Area A, centroid C and moments of inertia
with respect to C, IxC and IyC
 Find: Moments of inertia relative to some other
point P
yp yc
dx
I xP  I xC  A  d y 
A 2
xc
C
I yP  I yC  A  d x 
2
dy
P xp
Method of Composite Areas
C1 C1
P P
C2 C2
C3 C3
I xP    I xC  d    
n 2
 
 A
k k k

k 1 
y
I yP    I yC  d    
n 2
 
 A
k k k

k 1 
x
31
4/1/2010
Example
q = 3.0 kN/m
b
y
A
C z
B O h
t
3.0 m 1.5 m
The beam is constructed of three steel plates (thickness t = 12 mm)

welded to form a channel section that has width b = 300 mm and height
h = 80 mm. For the purpose of determining properties of the cross
section, disregard fillets and welds and assume that the cross section
consists of rectangles.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the beam.
Example (Cont’d)
q = 3.0 kN/m
Draw bending moment diagram

Maximum stresses always occur at +3.375 kN +4.5 kN
cross sections
i where
h BM iis llargest V
M max  1.898 kN  m
-5.625 kN
M min  3.375 kN  m
M
Example (Cont’d)
b = 300 mm
Find neutral axis y
A1 c1 h = 80 mm
Find centroid of cross section Z z Z

A3
Area1 y1  t 2  6 mm A1  3312 mm 2 O c2
A2
Area2 y2  h 2  40 mm A2  960 mm 2 t = 12 mm
Area3 y3  h 2  40 mm A3  960 mm2 300 – 24 = 276 mm
A1
c1 
y A
i i

y1 A1  2 y2 A2
 18.48 mm
A A3 80 mm
i A1  2 A2 A2
c2  h  c1  80  18.48  61.52 mm
12 mm
32
4/1/2010
Example (Cont’d)
Calculate moment of inertia
1
I z1  I zc  A1d12   b  2t  t   A1  c1  t 2 
3 2
b = 300 mm
12 y
 39744 mm   3312 mm  12.48 mm 
4 2 2
A1 c1 h = 80 mm
 555600 mm 4 Z Z
z
O c2 A3
Similarly for areas A2 and A3, we get A2
I z 2  I z 3  956600 mm 4 t = 12 mm
 I z  I z1  I z 2  I z 3  2.469 10 mm 6 4
Calculate section moduli

Iz Iz
S1   133600 mm3 S2   40100 mm3
c1 c2
Example (Cont’d)
Calculate maximum stresses

At the cross section of maximum +ve BM
M 1.898 kN  m
t  2    47.3 MPa
S 2 40100 mm3
  t max  47.3 MPa
M 1 898 kN  m
1.898 # (Ans)
(A )
 c  1     14.2 MPa
S1 133600 mm3
Similarly, at the cross section of maximum -ve BM
M 3.375 kN  m
 t  1     25.3 MPa
S1 133600 mm3   c max  84.2 MPa
M 3.375 kN  m # (Ans)
c 2    84.2 MPa
S2 40100 mm3
Shearing Stresses in Beams

 Beam under nonuniform bending are
subjected to both BM and SF
 Both normal and shear stresses are developed in
the beam
 Normal stresses computed from flexure formula;
shear stresses computed from shear formula
 Sh
Shear stresses
t  may beb assumed d
 Parallel to shear force, i.e. vertical
 Uniformly distributed across width although they

may vary over height
 There are horizontal shear stresses acting
between horizontal layers as well as vertical
shear stresses
 Shear stress must vanish at top & bottom of beam
33
4/1/2010
Shear Formula
m m1 m m1
M V M + dM 1 p p1 M + dM h
x y1 2
M
dx V + dV dx
2 h
2
n n1 n n1
(a) Side view of beam (b) Side view of element
y dA
m m1 m1
2 h
1  y1 2
h
2
p1 y
p p1 z y1
x
h O
dx 2
b
(c) Side view of subelement (d) Cross section of beam
Shear Formula (Cont’d)

Total horizontal force acting on
m m1 face mp of subelement:
2 h My
1  y1 2
F1    1dA   dA
p p1
x
I
Total horizontal force acting on
dx
face m1p1 of subelement:
Side view of subelement
F2    2 dA  
 M  dM  y dA
m m1 I
F1 F2 h For horizontal equilibrium of
F3 y1 2
p p1
x subelement:
F3  F2  F1  
 M  dM  y dA  My

dx
dA
Free-body diagram I I
of subelement
 F3  
 dM  y dM
I
dA 
I  ydA
Shear Formula (Cont’d)

m m1
2 h
1  y1 2
dM
I 
p p1
F3 
ydA
dx
If shear stresses are uniformly distributed
across width, the force F3 is: Side view of subelement
F3   b dx m m1
F1 F2 h
F3 y1 2
dM
I 
F3   b dx 
p p1
ydA
dx
dM  1  V
dx  Ib  
    ydA   ydA Free-body diagram
Ib of subelement
VQ Note: Q = first moment of cross-
  where Q   ydA sectional area above level at which
Ib
shear stress  is being evaluated
34
4/1/2010
Distribution of Shear Stresses

y
First moment Q of shaded part:
h  h 2  y1  b  h 2 2
h
2 Q  b   y1   y1      y1 
y1 2  2  2 4 
z
O
h Substituting Q into shear formula:
2
VQ V  h 2 
b     y12 
Ib 2 I  4 
Thus, shear stresses in rectangular beam

vary quadratically; Maximum shear stress
occurs at neutral axis where Q is maximum:
Vh 2 3V
 max  
8I 2A
Example
q = 28 kN/m
100 mm C
A B
L = 1.0 m 200 mm
The cross section of the beam is rectangular with width

b = 25 mm and height h = 100 mm. The beam is
adequately supported against side-ways buckling.
Determine the normal stress and shear stress at C,
which is located 25 mm below the top of the beam and
200 mm from B. Show these forces on a sketch of a
stress element at C.
Example (Cont’d)
Shear force and bending moment
M C  2.24 kN  m VC  8.4 kN
Moment of inertia
bh3 1
I   25 mm 100 mm   2083 103 mm 4
3
12 12
Normal and shear stresses at C
C  
My

 2.24 106 N  mm   25 mm   26.9 MPa
I 2083 103 mm 4 # (Ans)
AC  625 mm 2 yC  37.5 mm QC  AC yC  23440 mm3
VC QC 8400 N   23440 mm3 
C    3.8 MPa
Ib  2083 103 mm4   25 mm  # (Ans)
35
4/1/2010
Example
y
b
c1 1
n n
z  max
O h
h1 h1
c2 c2
t
A T-beam is subjected to a vertical shear force V = 45

kN. The cross- sectional dimensions are b = 100 mm,
t = 24 mm, h = 200 mm, and h1 = 176 mm. Determine
the shear stress 1 at the top of the web (level nn) and
the maximum shear stress max.
y
Example (Cont’d) b
c1
n n
z
O
Location of neutral axis h1
h
c2
A   Ai  b  h  h1   th1  6.624 mm 2 t
a a
 h  h1   h1 
Qaa   yi Ai    b  h  h1     th1  822912 mm
3
 2  2
y
Q 822912 mm3
 c2  aa   124.23 mm b
A 6.624 mm 2
 c1  h  c2  75.77 mm c1
n n
z
Moment of inertia O
h
h1
bh3  b  t  h1 c2
3
t
I aa    128.56  10 mm 6 4
3 3 a a
I  I aa  Ac2  26.33  106 mm 4
2
Example (Cont’d) y
b
c1
n n
Shear stress at top of web z O
 h  h1  h
Q1  b  h  h1   c1    153.0 10 mm
3 3
c2
h1
 2  t
VQ1  45 kN  153.0 10 mm 

3 3
 1    10.9 MPa
It  26.33 10 mm   24 mm 
6 4
# (Ans)
Maximum shear stress

c 
Qmax  tc2  2    24 mm 124.23 mm  62.12 mm   185  103 mm3
2
VQmax  45 kN  185 103 mm3 
 max    13.2 MPa
It  26.33 106 mm 4   24 mm  # (Ans)
36
4/1/2010
Deflection of Beams
 When a straight beam is loaded laterally, the axis
deforms into a curve, called deflection curve
 Calculation of deflections an important part of
structural analysis and design
 Deflections produced must be within tolerable
limits
 Specifications for design of buildings usually place
upper limits on deflections
 large deflections are unsightly and even unnerving and
 can cause cracks in ceilings and walls
 In design of machines and aircrafts, specifications
may limit deflections to prevent undesirable
vibrations
Elastic Curve
B C
A D
(a)
y
P
v C M0
A x
D
x B
Elastic Curve
(b)
Elastic--Beam Theory
Elastic
O’
d
d m2   d
y y + dy ds
y  m m1  y+ dy
m1 ds 2
A y
x x
B
x dx x dx
1 d
curvature  
 ds
dy dy
Slope of deflection curve  tan     tan 1
dx dx
37
4/1/2010
Elastic--Beam Theory (Cont’d)

Elastic
Under service conditions, most beams undergo very small
deflections and angles of rotation  elastic curves have
extremely small curvatures:
dy
ds  dx and  tan   
dx
1 d  d d  dy  d 2 y
      
 ds dx dx  dx  dx 2
If material of beam is linearly elastic and follows Hooke’s

law, the curvature is M

EI
d2y M
Differential equation: 
dx 2 EI
Singularity Functions
 x  a  n
when x  a Note: < > are called
 x  a n  
 0 when x  a Macaulay’s brackets
 x  a 0  x  a 1  x  a 2
x x x
a a a
(a ) n  0 (b ) n  1 (c ) n  2
1
  x  a  dx  n  1  x  a 
n 1
n
for n  0
d
 x  a  n  n  x  a  n 1 for n  1
dx
Direct Integration Method

P  1.2 kN
q o  1 .5 k N /m M o  1.44 kN  m
C D
A E
0.6m 1.2m 0.8m 1.0m
Draw free-body diagram and compute support reactions:
P  1.2 kN
q o  1 .5 k N /m
M o  1.44 kN  m
C D
A
E
0.6m 1.2m 0.8m 1.0m
A y  2 .6 k N B
38
4/1/2010
Example (Cont’d)
y
P  1.2 kN M o  1.44 kN  m
0.6 m
q o  1 .5 k N /m
C X
A B
x
D E
1.8 m
26m
2.6
B
A y  2 .6 k N  q o   1 .5 k N /m
Rewrite distributed loading using singularity function:
q  x   qo  x  0.6 0  qo  x  1.8 0
Example (Cont’d)
P  1.2 kN M o  1.44 kN  m
0.6 m
q o  1 .5 k N /m
M
C X
A E
x
D
1.8 m
V
2.6 m
A y  2 .6 k N
x
 q o   1 .5 k N /m
   Fy  0 :
Ay  P  x  0.6   qo  x  0.6   qo  x 1.8 1  V  0
0 1
V  2.6 1.2  x  0.6 0 1.5  x  0.6 1  1.5  x 1.8 1

 M X  0:
qo q
 Ay x  P  x  0.6 1   x  0.6 2  o  x 1.8 2  Mo  x  2.6 0  M  0
2 2
 M  2.6 x 1.2  x  0.6 1 0.75  x  0.6 2 0.75  x 1.8 2 1.44  x  2.6 0
Example (Cont’d)
Differential equation:
EIy "  M  2.6 x  1.2  x  0.6 1 0.75  x  0.6  2

 0.75  x  1.8  2 1.44  x  2.6  0
Slope:
EIy '  1.3 x 2  0.6  x  0.6  2 0.25  x  0.6  3

 0.25  x  1.8  3 1.44  x  2.6 1  C1
Deflection:
EIy  0.4333 x 3  0.2  x  0.6  3 0.0625  x  0.6  4

 0.0625  x  1.8  4 0.72  x  2.6  2  C1 x  C 2
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Example (Cont’d)
Apply boundary conditions:
y 0   0  C 2  0
y  x  3 .6   0 
0.4333  3.6   0.2  3.0 3 0.0625  3.0  4
3
 0.0625  1.8  4 0.72  1.0  2 C1  3.6   C2  0

 C1  2.692#
Slope: EIy '  1.3 x 2  0.6  x  0.6  2 0.25  x  0.6  3

 0.25  x  1.8  3 1.44  x  2.6 1 2.692 #(ANS)
Deflection:
EIy  0.4333 x 3  0.2  x  0.6  3 0.0625  x  0.6  4
 0.0625  x  1.8  4 0.72  x  2.6  2 2.692 x #(ANS)
Moment--Area Method
Moment
 Alternative method for finding deflections and

angles of rotation of beams
 Method is based upon 2 theorems related to area
of bending-moment diagram, hence its name
 Same assumptions apply apply, that is
 linearly elasticity
 small slopes
 Method is suited, from practical standpoint, to
finding deflections and rotations at specific points
on beam
Moment--Area Theorem 1
Moment
Mdx
d 
EI
B B Mdx
 A
d  
A EI
Mdx
 B / A   B   A  
B
EI
A
 B/ A  Area of M / EI diagram between A & B
The change in slope B/A between 2

points on deflection curve = area of
M/EI diagram between these points
40
4/1/2010
Sign Convention
 Angles A and B are +ve counterclockwise

 Angle B/A is +ve when B is algebraically
larger than A
 Point B must be to the right of point A
 Bending moment M is +ve according to
usual sign convention
 Area of M/EI diagram sign is according to
the sign of BM
Moment--Area Theorem 2
Moment
Mdx
dt  x1d  x1
EI
Mdx

B
dt   x1d   x1
B B
A A A EI
Mdx
B
 t B / A   x1
EI
A
 First moment of area of M / EI diagram

between A & B, evaluated w.r.t. B
The tangential deviation tB/A of point B

from tangent at A = moment of area of
M/EI diagram between A & B about B
Construction of Moment Diagrams by Parts

b
q
a P
L
RL RR
RL L
-P (L - a)
-½ q (L - b)2
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4/1/2010
Properties of Typical Shapes

x rectangle
y A  bh
h
x y  kx n
x
b
b 2
h x
bh
b triangle A
2
h
b
b x
bh 3
A
n 1 x
parabolic bh
x
b A
n2 h 3
b
b x
4
Example
1.5PL
1  PL  L PL2
A1      2P
2  EI  2 4 EI 2P
P
1  PL  L PL2
A2     
2  3EI  2 12 EI
0.5PL
1.5PL
1  PL  L PL2
A3      A2
2  2 EI  2 8 EI A3
A1
PL

PL PL 
EI  2 EI
3EI
Example (Cont’d)
A
A  0 tC / A
C
C
(a) Slope at C: 1.5PL
Apply 1st moment
Apply 1 moment‐area
area theorem:
theorem:
2P
11PL2 A2
 C   C / A  A1  A2  A3   A3
24 EI
#Ans A1
PL

PL PL 
(b) Deflection at C: EI  2 EI
3EI
Apply 2nd moment‐area theorem:
5  2  1  11PL3
vC  tC / A  A1  L   A2  L   A3  L   
6  3  3  36 EI
#Ans
42
4/1/2010
Example
P
A EI EI B 2EI C
1  2 PL  PL2
A1    L 
2P tB / A P tC / A
2  3EI  3EI 3 3
L L L
1  2 PL  PL 2
A2    L 
2P
2  3EI  3EI 3
1  PL  PL2
A3    L 
P
2 PL 
2  3EI  6 EI 3
PL 3
3
1  PL  PL2
A4    L 
2  6 EI  12 EI 2 PL PL
3EI 3EI PL
A2 6 EI
A1 A3
A4
P
Example (Cont’d)
A EI EI B 2EI C
2P tB / A P tC / A
3 3
L L L
2 PL PL
3EI
3EI 3EI PL
A2 6EI
A1 A3
A4
 L  2L   L  2L 
tC / A  A1  2 L    A2  L    A3  L    A4  
 3  3   3  3 
29 PL3
 tC / A 
18 EI
P
Example (Cont’d)
A EI EI B 2 EI C
2P tB / A P tC / A
3 3
L L L
2 PL PL
3EI
3EI 3EI PL
A2 6EI
A1 A3
A4
 L  2L  L
t B / A  A1  L    A2    A3  
 3  3  3
13PL3
 tB / A 
18EI
43
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P
Example (Cont’d)
A EI EI B 2 EI C
2P tB / A P tC / A
3 3
L L L
2 PL PL
3EI
3EI 3EI PL
A2 6EI
A1 A3
A4
By Similar Triangles:
2
 v B  t B / A  tC / A
3
13PL3 2 29 PL3 19 PL3
 vB    #(ANS)
18 EI 3 18EI 54 EI
44

CE 102 Structural Mechanics - Handout

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4/1/2010

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 2

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 3

Fundamental Principles and Laws

Fundamental Principles and Laws (Cont’d)

Work Energy Principle Impulse--Momemtum Principle

Fundamental Principles and Laws (Cont’d)

This principle leads to the concept of weight:

Equilibrium of Particles & Rigid Bodies

The resultant of concurrent forces, may be obtained by the polygon

Equilibrium of Particles (Cont’d)

The concept of equilibrium will be used not to solve for the

Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

Forces on a rigid body

Moment of a Force (Cont’d)

Consider the problem of finding the moment of the

This moment is simply the component of MA

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 12

Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies (Cont’d)

Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies (Cont’d)

Therefore, for the equilibrium of a rigid body,

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 14

Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies (Cont’d)

Idealized model Free body diagram

Free--Body Diagram (Cont’d)

Free--Body Diagram (Cont’d)

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 18

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 20

170N The rod AB is chosen as a free body

This is the same as angle between C

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 24

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 25

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 26

Analysis of Truss Structures

For analytical purposes, we assume that

A truss is represented by a line drawing with the lines along

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 27

Consider the above free-

Example – Determine the member forces in the plane

Joints Under Special Loading Conditions

FAE  FAC and FAB  FAD

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 31

Joints Under Special Loading Conditions

FAC  P and FAB  FAD

Joints Under Special Loading Conditions

Joints Under Special Loading Conditions

FAE  FAC and FAB  FAD

In this method, the equilibrium of parts of the truss is

The procedure involves cutting some carefully selected

Forces are calculated by applying equilibrium to the

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 35

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 36

Method of Joint or Section?

At joints I and J, there are three unknown forces to be found

Determine the forces in members AB and

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 40

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 43

600 N A Determine Ey and Fy :

Question: What about the 3rd equilibrium equation F x 0 ?

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 44

CE 102 Structural Mechanics 46

Stress Under General Loading Conditions