Module 5

1. Explain weather forecasting satellite applications.

Solution:
Major applications of weather forecasting satellite are as follows:
i. Measurement of cloud parameters: Satellite imagery enables
meteorologists to observe clouds at all levels of the atmosphere, both
over land and the oceans. Generally, both visible and IR images are used
together for the identification of clouds. Visible images give information
on thickness, texture, shape and pattern of the clouds. Information on
cloud height is extracted using IR images. False colour IR images are used
for a detailed analysis of clouds. Information from visible and IR images
can be combined to identify the types of clouds and the weather patterns
associated with them. This helps in the prediction of rainfall,
thunderstorms and hurricanes. Moreover, information on the movement
of clouds is a valuable input in predicting the wind speed and direction.
ii. Rainfall: Imagery from space is used to estimate rainfall during
thunderstorms and hurricanes. This information forms the basis of flood
warnings issued by meteorologists. Satellite images of the clouds are
processed and analysed to predict the location and amount of rainfall. It
is possible to determine the cloud thickness and height using visible and
IR images respectively. Both these images are combined to predict the
amount of rainfall, as it depends both on the thickness and height of
clouds. Thick and high clouds result in more rain. Clouds in their early
stage of development produce more rain. Therefore, regular observations
from GEO satellites, which can track their development, are used for
rainfall prediction. Measurements in the microwave band help in
determining the intensity of rain as scattering depends on the number of
droplets in a unit volume and their size distribution.
iii. Wind Speed and Direction: Determination of wind speed and direction
is essential to provide an accurate picture of the current state of the
atmosphere. Wind information can be determined by tracking cloud
displacements in successive IR and visible images taken from
geostationary weather forecasting satellites. These measurements can
only be taken when the cloud cover is present.
iv. Ground-level Temperature Measurements: Satellite data cannot
produce detailed information about the temperature profile of the lowest
few hundred metres of the atmosphere, but it can provide some
physically important observations. Infrared radiometers can make
 widespread observations of maximum and minimum temperatures. High
resolution IR satellite imagery is used to produce heat maps of Earth.
v. Air Pollution and Haze: Air pollution and haze are recognizable in
visible imagery by their grey appearance. Satellite images have shown
that the pollution level is low in the morning and increases as the day
passes by.
vi. Fog: Fog is detected using visible satellite imagery. Fog appears as a flat
textured object with sharp edges. The level of brightness of the image is a
measure of the thickness of the fog. Satellite images also provide
information on the clearance of fog during the day.
vii. Oceanography: Weather forecasting satellites are a useful tool for
oceanography applications. Satellite images are used to map locations of
different ocean currents and to measure ocean surface temperatures
accurately. Polar orbiting satellites compute around 20 000 to 40 000
global ocean temperature measurements daily. This information on the
ocean surface temperature is utilized by meteorologists to observe ocean
circulation, to locate major ocean currents and to monitor its effect on
climate and weather changes. Moreover, observation of these
temperatures before and after the occurrence of hurricanes helps to
show the way in which these hurricanes pick up energy from oceans. This
helps to predict their behaviour and to improve forecasts of their motion.
Satellite observations have shown that hurricanes result in cooling of the
ocean surface. The stronger the hurricane, the more cooling effect it has
on the temperature of the ocean surface. Satellite IR imagery is used to
detect ocean thermal fronts in the surface layer of the oceans. Satellites
also measure the surface roughness of the oceans using microwave
measurements, which helps in determining wind speed and direction.
viii. Severe Storm Support: One of the most important applications of
weather forecasting satellites is in the prediction of hurricanes, tropical
storms, cyclones and so on. Satellites are crucial to detecting and tracking
intense storms through their various stages of development. This allows
meteorologists to issue advanced warnings before the storms actually hit.
These advanced warnings have saved lives of millions of people. The
development of these storms is analysed by studying the cloud patterns
and by determining how they change with time. Repeated images provide
information on the rate of growth or decay of the storm. Hurricanes are
predicted and monitored by observing their centre core, which is a low-
pressure area with little winds, clear skies and no rainfall. It is also
 referred to as the ‘eye’ of the hurricane. The shape, spiralling and
intensity of this core give information on the development stage of the
hurricane. Hurricanes also have a circular high speed wind pattern
around the eye. By observing the wind speed, the intensity of the
hurricane can be predicted. The direction of motion of the hurricane is
known by observing the movement of the eye of the hurricane. Typhoons,
cyclones and thunderstorms are also analysed on a similar basis.
ix. Fisheries: Commercial fishery operations have benefited from data
supplied by weather satellites. Information on ocean currents and sea
temperatures help in finding the location of tuna or salmon fishes. It also
assists in tracking the movement of fish eggs and larvae. Satellite data can
be used to study hypoxia, a condition of severe lack of oxygen at deep sea
levels that can completely block the growth and development of sea life.
x. Snow and Ice Studies: Weather satellites are used to observe snow
cover on land surfaces and to monitor ice on lakes, rivers and other water
bodies. These data help meteorologists to estimate the climate of the
place and to plan irrigation and flood control methodologies. Snow cover
estimates are especially helpful in mountain regions where a large part of
the water supply comes from melting of snow. It is also used to issue
winter storm warnings. Satellite ice monitoring provides useful
information to the shipping industry. Information on the progression of
freezing seasonal temperatures allows farmers to take timely measures
to protect their crops. Both visible and IR images are used in the
identification of ice. Both appear in light shades of grey in visible imagery.
Fresh snow resembles cloud cover in these images. They are
distinguished by examining a series of images. Clouds are in motion while
the snow appears to be fixed. Overlaying the map on the images helps to
distinguish snow and ice from clouds.
2. What is a Remote Sensing satellite system? What are its applications?
Solution:
Satellite remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the
Earth’s surface by sensing and recording the energy reflected or emitted by the
Earth’s surface with the help of sensors on board the satellite.
Applications of Remote Sensing Satellite System are as follows:
a. Land Cover Classification:
• Land cover mapping and classification corresponds to identifying the
physical condition of the Earth’s surface and then dividing the surface
 area into various classes, like forest, grassland, snow, water bodies,
etc., depending upon its physical condition.
b. Land Cover Change Detection:
• Land cover change refers to the seasonal or permanent changes in
the land cover types.
• Seasonal changes may be due to agricultural changes or the changes
in forest cover and the permanent changes may be due to land use
changes like deforestation or new built towns, etc.
• Satellites detect these permanent land cover changes by comparing
an old image and an updated image, with both these images taken
during the same season to eliminate the effects of seasonal change.
c. Water Quality Monitoring and Management:
• Satellite imagery helps in locating, monitoring and managing water
resources over large areas.
• Water resources are mapped in the optical and the microwave bands.
• Water pollution can be determined by observing the colour of water
bodies in the images obtained from the satellite.
• Clear water is bluish in colour, water with vegetation appears to be
greenish-yellow while turbid water appears to be reddish-brown.
• The changing state of many of the world’s water bodies is monitored
accurately over long periods of time using satellite imagery.
d. Flood Monitoring:
• Satellite images provide a cost effective and potentially rapid means
to monitor and map the devastating effects of floods.
• From the two images it is evident that the water levels were visibly
larger on 1 September 2004 than they were on 15 July 2004.
• The lake posed a threat to communities downstream in northern
India, which would have been flooded if the dam had burst.
e. Urban Monitoring and Development:
• Satellite images are an important tool for monitoring as well as
planning urban development activities.
• Time difference images can be used to monitor changes due to
various forms of natural disasters, military conflict or urban city
development.
• These images have a resolution of 1 m and were taken by the IKONOS
satellite.
 • Remote sensing data along with the GIS is used for preparing precise
digital base maps of the area, for formulating proposals and for acting
as a monitoring tool during the development phase.
f. Predicting Disasters
• Remote sensing satellites give an early warning of the various natural
disasters like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, storms,
etc., thus enabling the evasive measures to be taken in time and
preventing loss of life and property.
g. Predicting Earthquakes:
• Remote sensing satellites help in predicting the time of the
earthquake by sensing some precursory signals that the earthquake
faults produce.
• These signals include changes in the tilt of the ground, magnetic
anomalies, swarms of micro-earthquakes, surface temperature
changes and a variety of electrical field changes prior to the
occurrence of earthquakes.
• As an example, the French micro-satellite Demeter detects
electromagnetic emissions from Earth that can be used for
earthquake prediction.
• The NOAA/AVHRR series of satellites take thermal images and can be
used to predict the occurrence of earthquakes.
3. Classify satellite remote sensing systems on the basis of radiation and spectral
region used for data acquisition, explain any one method.
Solution:
Remote sensing systems can be classified on the basis of
(a) the source of radiation
(b) the spectral regions used for data acquisition.
Based on the source of radiation, they can be classified as:
1. Passive remote sensing systems
2. Active remote sensing systems
• Passive remote sensing systems either detect the solar radiation reflected
by the objects on the surface of the Earth or detect the thermal or
microwave radiation emitted by them.
• Active remote sensing systems make use of active artificial sources of
radiation generally mounted on the remote sensing platform. These
sources illuminate the objects on the ground and the energy reflected or
scattered by these objects is utilized here. Examples of active remote
sensing systems include microwave and laser-based systems.
Depending on the spectral regions used for data acquisition, they can be
classified as:
1. Optical remote sensing systems (including visible, near IR and
shortwave IR systems)
2. Thermal infrared remote sensing systems
3. Microwave remote sensing systems
1. Optical remote sensing systems:
• Optical remote sensing systems mostly make use of visible (0.3–
0.7μm), near IR (0.72–1.30 μm) and shortwave IR (1.3–3.0 μm)
wavelength bands to form images of the Earth’s surface.
• The images are formed by detecting the solar radiation reflected by
object on the ground and resemble the photographs taken by a camera.
• Some laser-based optical remote sensing systems are also being
employed in which the laser beam is emitted from the active sources
mounted on the remote sensing platform.
• The target properties are analysed by studying the reflectance and
scattering characteristics of the objects to the laser radiation.

• Optical remote sensing systems employing solar energy come under

the category of passive remote sensing systems and the laser-based
remote sensing systems belong to the category of active remote sensing
systems.
 • Solar energy based optical remote sensing systems work on the
principle that different materials reflect and absorb differently at different
wavelengths in the optical band
• Hence the objects on the ground can be differentiated by their
spectral reflectance signatures in the remotely sensed images.
• As an example, vegetation has a very strong reflectance in the green
and the near IR band and it has strong absorption in the red and the blue
spectral bands

• In the optical band, panchromatic or black and white images can also
be taken, where different shades of grey indicate different levels of
reflectivity. The most reflective surfaces are light or nearly white in colour
while the least reflective surfaces are represented as black.
2. Thermal infrared remote sensing systems:
• Thermal infrared remote sensing systems employ the mid wave IR
(3–5 μm) and the long wave IR (8–14 μ m) wavelength bands.
• The imagery here is derived from the thermal radiation emitted by
the Earth’s surface and objects.
• As different portions of the Earth’s surface are at different
temperatures, thermal images therefore provide information on the
temperature of the ground and water surfaces and the objects on them.
• As the thermal infrared remote sensing systems detect the thermal
radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface, they come under the category
of passive remote sensing systems.
• The 10 μm band is commonly employed for thermal remote sensing
applications as most of the objects on the surface of the Earth have
temperatures around 300 K and the spectral radiance for a temperature
of 300 K peaks at a wavelength of 10 μ m.
 • Colder surfaces appear darker in the raw IR thermal images, but the
general remote sensing concept for IR images is to invert the relationship
between brightness and the temperature so that the colder objects
appear brighter as compared to the hotter ones.
• Thermal systems work both during the day and night as they do not
use solar radiation, but they suffer from the disadvantage that they are
weather-dependent systems.
3. Microwave remote sensing systems:
• Microwave remote sensing systems generally operate in the 1 cm to 1 m
wavelength band.
• Microwave radiation can penetrate through clouds, haze and dust,
making microwave remote sensing a weather independent technique.
• Microwave remote sensing systems work both during the day as well as
at night as they are independent of the solar illumination conditions.
• Another advantage that a microwave remote sensing system offers is that
it provides unique information on sea wind and wave direction that
cannot be provided by visible and infrared remote sensing systems.
• However, the need for sophisticated data analysis and poorer resolution
due to the use of longer wavelength bands are the disadvantages of
microwave remote sensing systems.
• Shorter microwave wavelength bands are utilized for the analyses of
hidden mineral resources as they penetrate through the Earth’s surface
 and the vegetation, whereas longer wavelength bands are utilized for
determining the roughness of the various features on the Earth’s surface.
• The characteristics of the objects are then formed on the basis of the
received microwave power as the received power is related to their
characteristics, such as temperature, moisture content and physical
characteristics.
• Active microwave remote sensing systems provide their own source of
microwave radiation to illuminate the target object.
• The brightness of every point on the surface of the Earth is determined
by the intensity of the microwave energy scattered back to the radar
receiver on the satellite from them.
• The intensity of this backscatter is dependent on certain physical
properties of the surface such as slope, roughness and the dielectric
constant of the surface materials , on the geometric factors such as
surface roughness, orientation of the objects relative to the radar beam
direction and the types of land cover (soil, vegetation or man-made
objects).

4. Explain the weather forecasting satellite payload.

Solution:

5. Classify the sensors used in Remote sensing satellite systems.

6. Discuss the types of images taken by weather forecasting satellites.