Chapter 2.

Engine Overview

0. Revision of thermodynamics
1. A brief history of jet engine
2. The concept of the core engine
3. Thermodynamic principles of turbomachinery
4. Initial cycle analysis of a turbojet
5. Derivation of thrust
6. Further analysis of turbojet efficiency
7. Turbofan engine analysis
8. Compressor instability and turbine cooling
9. Selection of engine. Tutorial question
10. Combustion overview
11. Details of pollutant formation
12. Emission standards and clean combustion
13. Jet noise control
References
1. Rolls Royce Ltd (Derby), “The jet engine,” , 4th Ed., 1986. [for Pictorial reference]
2. Nicholas Cumpsty, “Jet propulsion – simple guide to the aerodynamic and thermodynamic
design and performance of jet engines,” Cambridge University Press, 1997, 2003. [for
advanced topic of performance]
3. Saeed Farokhi, “Aircraft propulsion,” Wiley, 2009. [general reference]
4. G. J. J. Ruijgrok and D. M. van Paassen, “Elements of aircraft pollution,” Delft University
Press, 2005. [for air pollution, chapter 10] 35
Chapter 2. Engine Thermal-revision: isentropic

Specific (per unit mass) entropy s : ds   dq/T internally reversible

Entropy, s, was
Specific enthalpy : h  u  pv, u: specific internal energy introduced by 2
and v is specific volume German physicist T
1
1st law of thermodynamics dq  du  pdv R.J.E. Clausius
dh  du  pdv  vdp
  Tds  dq  dh  vdp, if irreversible Tds  dq (1822-88)
Internally reversible s
For dry, ideal gas (normally at low p ), pv  RT and d  pv  d  RT 
dh  d  u  pv   du  RdT   cv  R  dT
If constant R Also pv  RT  =
  pv RT
c p
dp dv dT
Isentropic process ds  0, hence dh  vdp  c p dT  vdp    
p v T
dp c p dT c p dT dT k  1 dp dv
 dp  c p dT / v        k  1 ,
p pv R T T k p v
cp cp k dp k dT dp  dv  v 1 d
k or   assumed constant here  hence  k  k
cv R k 1 p k 1 T p v 

k / k 1
 2 dx x  k T p p T 
Integrate   1 x
 ln  2  
 x1 
ln 2  ln 2  2   2 
k  1 T1 p1 p1  T1  For k=1.4, isentropic, 1%
1/ k 1 decrease in volume v
v T  k 1 gives 0.4% increase in T
Similarly, 1   2  . For k  1.4,  3.5,  2.5
v2  T1  k 1 k 1 (Kelvin) and 1.4%
 k 1/k increase in pressure
Alternatively, T2 /T1   v1/v2    p2 / p1 
k 1
36
Chapter 2. Engine Thermal-revision: cycle dh
When do I use du (Cv) or dh (Cp) ? h  u  pv
General: Tds  dq  du  pdv    dq  dh  vdp
Diesel engine example
Boundary work done W   pdv by definition
 3  3
qin   dq  
 2  2
 dh  vdp   h3  h2 , since dp  0
1  4
qout    dq  
 4 1
 du  pdv   u4  u1 since dv  0
 4  3  4
wout   pdv   pdv   pdv
 2  2  3

  
 
W23 W34

W23  p23  v3  v2   p3v3  p2v2 , since p  constant  p23

 4
 
pdv  dq  du
W34 
 3
 dq  du   u3  u4 since dq  0
Wout  p3v3  p2v2  u3  u4

The use of Cv and du do not always require a constant volume process!

 2  2
Win   
1
pdv   
1
 dq  du   u2  u1 since dq  0
Wnet  Wout  Win  p3v3  p2 v2  u3  u4   u2  u1 

Since h  u  pv, by definition Wnet  h3  h2   u4  u1   qin  qout

In a flow system, boundary work is pv, combined with u to form h
System energy analysis gives SHAFT work w=h without heat input
37
Chapter 2. Engine Thermal-revision: stagnation

Turbojet engine has inlet stagnation and exit jet processes

Ambient pressure but .

Stagnation is an isentropic process in which total enthalpy,
∗
, is conserved,
∗ ∗ ∗

Nozzle expansion from 5 to 6 is ,

isentropic with stagnation How much is T6? Isentropic process 5-6:
process equation ∗ ∗
≈
∗
∗
38
Chapter 2. Engine Thermal revision: jet vs gas turbine

Jet engine cycle is the same as

a gas power (Brayton) cycle

• For a gas power cycle, turbine covers 4-6 (no nozzle), with work output
, where W is for electrical power generation and for compressor.
• Jet engine, 4-5 covers compressor, , and process 5-6 is nozzle.
The efficiency is defined by propulsion power / heat addition Q by fuel
Propulsion power = Thrust F • Aircraft cruise speed V, where F is given later.
39
Chapter 2. Engine 1. A brief history of jet engine

1. Earliest aircrafts powered by reciprocating

engine connected to propellers, which differs
from modern turbo-prop engine
2. Lorin invented ramjet engine (1913), still used in
missiles (compression done by stagnation
process)
3. Frank Whittle (1907-1996) invented turbojet in
1930, Dr Hans van Ohain of Germany had
independent invention

40
Chapter 2. Engine 2. Core engine concept

41
Chapter 2. Engine 3. Turbomachinery

Flow in compressor, side and top view b2

w2

v2 u2=wr2
Stator blade casing
Power=
Tip Stream
surface
Absolute velocity
Hub
=relative+rotation v2
x
b1 v2q
Rotor blade u1=
w1 wr1
v1 v3
Rotation

• Lift on rotor similar as that on airfoil

• Reaction force pushes air in the circumferential
( ) direction, power
• Air gains 2𝜃 at exit which is turned back by
stator for next stage entry
• Too much turning would cause
flow separation (stall)

• Turbine shown (at right) has guide-vane

(stator) then rotor, unlike compressor
• Rotor design has “impulse” and “reaction”
types, or mixture
42
 Chapter 2. Engine 3. Turbomachinery

Isentropic (reversible, adiabatic) process

dq  Tds  du  pdv  dh  vdp  0
 1/
T3s  p3 s  cp
pv  RT ,    ,  
T2  p2  cv
Define pressure and temperature ratios:
p T  1/ T
rcomp  3 s , rT  3 s  rcomp  4
p2 T2 T5 s
Efficiency
c p  T3 s  T2  T3s /T2  1
c  
c p T3  T2  T3 /T2  1
compressor

rT  1
 
T3 /T2  1
T3  T2 1  c1  rT  1 

Thermodynamics: given T’s find

Engine design: given find T’s
43
Chapter 2. Engine 3. Turbomachinery

Assuming ambient pressure for both

compressor inlet and turbine exit for a
simple gas turbine, p2=p5

p4 T4 T3s   1/
rturb   rcomp ,   rcomp  rT ,
p5 T5 s T2
c p T4  T5 
t  ,
c p T4  T5 s 
T5  T4  t T4  T5 s   T4 1  t 1  rT1  

The gas-turbine cycle

(thermodynamic) efficiency for
given T4 and T2 :

wt  wc
th 
c p T4  T3 
T4 1  rT1 t  T2  rT  1/c Gas turbine generator
 cycle, NOT jet engine
T4  T2  rT  1/c
44
 Chapter 2. Engine 4. Turbojet example

Example: A turbojet aircraft flies with 260 m/s at an altitude

where the air is at 35 kPa and -40C. The compressor has a
pressure ratio of 10, and T4=1100 C at the turbine inlet. Air
enters the compressor at 45 kg/s. Utilizing the cold-air-
standard assumptions, determine (a) T5, P5 at the turbine exit,
(b) velocity at nozzle exit, and (c) the propulsive efficiency of
the cycle.

Solution: ideal isentropic process assumed for compressor and turbine.

 /  1
h2  V22 /2  h1  V12 /2, V2  0, T2  T1  V12 /2CP  267 K, P2  P1 T2 /T1   56.4 kPa, P3  rp P2  564 kPa=P4
 1/  / 1
T3  T2  P3 /P2   515 K, WT  WC  h3  h2  h4  h5 , T5  T4  T2  T3  1125K, P5  P4  T5 /T4   281 kPa
 1/
P6  35 kPa, T6  T5  P5 /P6   620K, h6  V62 /2  h5  V52 /2, V5  V6 , V6  2CP  T5  T6   1007 m/s

WP   m V6  V1   V1  45  1007  260   260  P T6  T1   45 1.005  620  233

Qout  mC
 8740  103 W  17502kW=0.451Qin
Qin  m  h4  h3   mC
 P  T4  T3  KE=m V6  V1  /2  45 1007  260  /2
2 2

 45  1.005 1373  515  38803kW  12555  103 W=0.324Qin

 P  WP / Qin  8740 / 38803  0.225 WP  Qout  KE /Qin
actually m not needed!  0.225  0.451  0.324  1.0 45
Chapter 2. Engine 5. Thrust derivation

• Rectangular control
volume, far from
engine (cylindrical
cross section)
• Pressure at control
volume inlet and exit
being atmospheric
• Mass leaking through
sideline boundaries

m airV  m air
in
V  F   m air
in
 m air
out
V  m airoutV   m air  m fuel V jet,
F   m air  m fuel  V jet ,  m airV

 p jet ,exit / pa   T jet ,exit /T jet, 

 / 1
V jet2 ,exit /2  c p T jet ,exit  V jet2 , /2  c p T jet , , F
 V jet  V 
V jet ,  V jet2 ,exit  2c pT jet ,exit 1   pa / p jet ,exit 
 1/  
mair
 
46
Chapter 2. Engine 6. Energy efficiency

Turbojet energy conservation analysis, per unit air mass flow,

V jet  V   V jet  V  V  V jet  V /2

2
KE  P  1
2
2 2

Qin  Qout   h4  h3    h jet  h  , h jet  h6 , h  h1

h3  h2  h4  h5  h4  h3  h5  h2   h jet  V j2et /2    h  V2 /2 

Qin  Qout   KE  P   h jet     h     h  h1    0

2 2
V jet V12 V jet V12
2 1 2 jet 2
 2

The extra inefficiency of the turbojet compared with normal gas turbine is the
loss of the kinetic energy KE (through kinematic efficiency K)


P

P Q  Qout
 in , K 
P

V jet  V V  2V  2
Qin P
KE
 Q P  KE V jet2  V2 /2 V jet  V 1  V jet /V
K

in

th

For jet engine, thrust-specific fuel consumption, or simply sfc, is defined as the
amount of fuel consumed per unit thrust generated. Since fuel mass and thrust has a
difference of gravity in terms of dimension, it’s more conveniently defined as the fuel
weight per unit thrust. The dimension of sfc is then 1/sec, or fuel rate (kg/hour) over
thrust in (kg) also. Hence kg/hr/kg
m fuel g  Newton/s  g  m fuel  in kg/s   kg/h 
sfc=   
 3600   kg 
F  Newton  F  in Newton    47
Chapter 2. Engine 6. Energy efficiency - example
Turbofan Example (Cumpsty Exercise 5.1): At the start of cruise, the temperature and pressure of air
entering the fan stage of the engine can be taken as T2=259.5K, p2=46.0kPa. Assume a pressure ratio
of rfan=1.6 for flow through the fan and a pressure ratio of rcc=25 in the core compressor itself.
Assume isentropic efficiencies of 90% in each component (fan, compressor and turbine), and that the
pressure drop in the combustor can be ignored

(1) Find the temperature rise across the fan, the temperature entering the core compressor and thence
the temperature at the exit of the core compressor T3.
Ans: T2  259.5 K , p2  46.0kPa, rfan  1.6,  fan  T2  rfan
1/3.5
 1/T23  T2 


T23  T2 1   rfan
1/3.5

 1/ fan  301K , T23  T2  41.5 K

T3  T23 1   r
1/3.5
cc 
 1/c 
rcc  25
 805.5 K

(2) Assuming the power produced by the core turbine is equal to the power of
the core compressor, and that the temperature leaving the combustor is
T4=1450K, find the temperature and pressure at the core turbine exit, T45, p45

Ans: p4  p3  p1rcc rfan  46 1.6  25  1840 kPa, T4  1450 K,

T4  T45  T3  T23 , T45  T4  T3  T23  1450  805.5  301  945.5 K,
 HP  T4  T45  / T4  T45 s   0.9, T45 s  T45  T4  T45 /0.9  889.4,
p45  p4 T45 s /T4   1840  889.4/1450 
3.5 3.5
 332.6 kPa 48
Chapter 2. Engine 7. Turbofan analysis

Given: height  1 , p1 , T1 ; and Mach number M  V1  M  RT1

Given basic parameters: rcomp , fan ,comp , LP   HP  turb , Tmax  T4
Choose parameters: bpr, rfan  bypass /m core
bpr  airflow rate m

Calculated: all variables at stations of 13   23 ,  3 ,  4  ,  45 ,  5 ,  9  , 19 

Determine V19 ,V9 , thrust per unit air mass flow, F1c  F / m air  V9  V   bpr V19  V 
and specific fuel consumption sfc   g 3600  m fuel /F
since m fuel LCV  m air c p T4  T3  , F  F1c m air hence m fuel /F  c p T4  T3 / F1c  LCV 
and sfc   g 3600  c p T4  T3  /  F1c  LCV  kg/hr/kg
𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑎𝑖𝑟

LCV=43 MJ/kg should be

entered in calculation as
4.3x107 (J/kg) if cp is given
in 1004.5 J/kgK
For given bpr, rfan may be varied to achieve the
highest thrust and lowest sfc
49
Chapter 2. Engine 7. Turbofan coding

function [par,perf]=turbofan(Hkft,Mach,T4,eta,bpr,rptotal,rpfan)
cp=1004.5; gamma=1.4; gT=gamma/(gamma-1); gp=1/gT; Rgas=cp/gT;
cp2=1244; gamma2=1.287; gT2=gamma2/(gamma2-1); gp2=1/gT2;
Rgas2=cp2/gT2; LCV=43e6;
% international standard atmosphere for below 11km & cruise speed
Hkm=Hkft*0.3048; T1=288.15-6.5*Hkm; p1=1.013e5*(T1/288.15)^5.26;
a1=sqrt(gamma*Rgas*T1); Vflight=Mach*a1;
% inlet diffuser (1-2) slow down to approx 0 speed
T2=T1+Vflight^2/(2*cp); p2=p1*(T2/T1)^gT;
% Flow in bypass through fan, (2-13) then to ambient (19)
p13=rpfan*p2; T13s=T2*(p13/p2)^gp; T13=T2+(T13s-T2)/eta.fan;
T19=T13*(p1/p13)^gp; vjb=sqrt(2*cp*(T13-T19));
Mjb=vjb/sqrt(gamma*Rgas*T19);
% core flow fan (2-23) and then compressor (23-3)
p23=p13; T23=T13; p3=rptotal*p2; T3s=T23*(p3/p23)^gp;
T3=T23+(T3s-T23)/eta.compressor; 50
Chapter 2. Engine 7. Turbofan coding

% HP pressure fall (4-45) needed to drive the core compressor

T45=T4-cp*(T3-T23)/cp2; T45s=T4-(T4-T45)/eta.turbine; p4=p3;
p45=p4*(T45s/T4)^gT2;
% determine LP pressure by work required to drive the whole fan
T5=T45-(1+bpr)*(T13-T2)*cp/cp2; T5s=T45-(T45-T5)/eta.turbine;
p5=p45*(T5s/T45)^gT2; % LP process
% core expansion in nozzle to atmosphere
T9=T5*(p1/p5)^gp2; vjc=sqrt(2*cp2*abs(T5-T9));
Mjc=vjc/sqrt(gamma2*Rgas2*T9);
% collect all parameters under one structured-cell variable
par=struct('T1',T1,'p1',p1,'Vflight',Vflight,'T2',T2,'p2',p2,...
'T13',T13,'p13',p13,'p19',p1,'vjb',vjb,'Mjb',Mjb,'T23',T23,...
'p23',p23,'T3',T3,'p3',p3,'T4',T4,'p4',p4,'T45',T45,'p45',...
p45,'T5',T5,'p5',p5,'T9',T9,'p9',p1,'vjc',vjc,'Mjc',Mjc);
% calculate performance variables and put them directly into “perf”
perf.F1c=bpr*(vjb-Vflight)+(vjc-Vflight); dQ=cp2*T4-cp*T3;
perf.etaP=perf.F1c*Vflight/dQ;
perf.sfc=dQ/perf.F1c/LCV*(9.8*3600); 51
Chapter 2. Engine 7. Turbofan coding

% Basic given parameters and bpr

clear; Mach=0.85; Hkft=31; rptotal=40; T4=1450; bpr=6;
eta=struct('fan',0.9,'compressor',0.9,'turbine',0.9);
% Specify rpfan values to test
rpfan=1.01:0.01:2.2; Nf=length(rpfan);
F1=zeros(1,Nf); sfc=F1; vjc=F1; vjb=F1; etaP=F1;
for jf=1:Nf, % run through rpfan array
[par,perf]=turbofan(Hkft,Mach,T4,eta,bpr,rptotal,rpfan(jf));
F1(jf)=perf.F1c/(1+bpr); sfc(jf)=perf.sfc;
vjc(jf)=par.vjc; vjb(jf)=par.vjb; etaP(jf)=perf.etaP;
end

% Find the index (jbest) for best performance (min sfc)

[temp,jbest]=min(sfc); rpbest=rpfan(jbest);

subplot(221), plot(rpfan,F1,'-r',rpbest,F1(jbest),'og');
xlabel('rpfan'); ylabel('F per m_{air} (m/s)'); grid;
subplot(222), plot(rpfan,sfc,'-r',rpbest,sfc(jbest),'og');
xlabel(['rpfan, best=',num2str(rpbest)]); ylabel('sfc (kg/h/kg)');
grid; title(['min sfc=',num2str(sfc(jbest),'%.3f')]);
subplot(223), plot(rpfan,etaP,'-r',rpbest,etaP(jbest),'og');
xlabel('rpfan'); ylabel('\eta_P'); grid;
subplot(224), plot(rpfan,vjc,'-r',rpfan,vjb,'--b',...
rpbest,vjc(jbest),'og',rpbest,vjb(jbest),'sg');
xlabel('rpfan'); ylabel('v_{jet} (m/s)'); grid;
legend('core','bypass');
52
Chapter 2. Engine 7. Turbofan analysis

These results are for

bpr=6

Exercise: for bpr=9,

other parameters being
the same, find the
optimal fan compression
ratio, and the Mach
numbers for the core and
bypass jets at this rfan.
Hence comment on
whether the Vjet found is
near the nozzle or in the
far field.

53
 Chapter 2. Engine 7. Turbofan analysis

• Normally, core jet is faster than the bypass jet.

• Mixing has implications for jet noise
radiation. Sound power is proportional to V8,
so turbofan is much quieter than turbojet
• Good mixing near nozzle exit will invoke
more small vortices (high frequency noise)
but reduce further roll-up into large vortices
downstream, thus reducing low frequency
noise

54
Chapter 2. Engine 7. Turbofan analysis

Engine Rolls Royce Trent P & W 4084 GE 90

Bypass ratio, bpr 6 6 9
Number of spools 3 2 2

• Variation of sfc with bpr when the

engine is installed in aircraft is
essential for bpr optimization

• sfc=sfcbare engine(1+dnacelle)
GE 90 has a large fan diameter of 128 inch

55
Chapter 2. Engine 8. Advanced turbomachinery

Pressure ratio p03/p02

Safety
Surge line
margin

Design point Typical

operating
Unstable line

Constant
Equal rpm/ T02
efficiency
contour
Compressor and turbine do opposite jobs, but
Corrected mass flow m
 air T02 / p02
compressor is more difficult to design and
operate aerodynamically
Flow
Instability at low mass flow state can be Lift separation
     
appreciated by velocity triangle v1  w1  u1 , where u1  w  r

When v1 is low, incidence angle is high, flow

Inlet flow
tends to separate from blade, causing stall speed v1 u1=
w1 Blade
wr1
rotation w
Flutter defined as growing blade vibration Incidence v1
angle a
due to flow-induced vibration
56
Chapter 2. Engine 8. Advanced turbomachinery

What is the “corrected” mass flow rate and rotational speed?

Mass flow rate is normalized (divided) by a reference value of
p02 p 
 VA scale  A  RT02  02  A
RT02 T02 R
And this value may be further divided by the testing results at the
sea-level, hence all constants, such as area A, cancel. What
remains is the important parameter of
Rotational speed ( 1 1) by speed of sound, or

• For turbine design, hot gas tolerance, T4, is crucial.

• Rolls Royce advances T4 by 8K per year for 50 years.
• Cooling air for turbine blades can take 20% of all air
flow (impact on performance).

• (i) Compressor flow instability and (ii) material

performance at high temperature for turbine blades
are the two key technical challenges for engine.

57
Chapter 2. Engine 9. Engine selection

a  b  tan 1 V /w r 
• Blade should be twisted
• Incidence angle very
negative for fast flight

Time-line: Piston engine (propeller)

Turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, propfan

Speed line: piston-prop, turbo-prop, prop-

fan, turbo-fan, turbo-jet
58
Chapter 2. Engine A tutorial example

Exam question year 2020

A turbo-fan engine has a bypass ratio of 5, and the aircraft is flying at a speed of 250 m/s.
The temperature increase through the combustion chamber is 800 K. An average heat
capacity of Cp = 1150 J/kgK may be used for calculation.

(a) Assuming the core jet velocity to be 600 m/s, and the bypass jet to be 500 m/s, what is
the thrust force developed per unit mass flow through the core engine?

Ans: , m/s

(b) What is the overall propulsion efficiency defined as the power of propulsion over
the heat input?

Ans: ,

59
Chapter 2. Engine A tutorial example

(c) Assuming that the overall engine size is proportional to the total mass flow through the
engine, which for the turbofan engine is through both the core and the bypass. If we
substitute the turbofan engine by a pure turbojet engine to produce the same amount of
total thrust with a cap on the jet velocity at 1000 m/s due to efficiency and noise
concerns, what should be the size ratio of the turbofan to the turbojet engines?
Ans: 1𝑐,𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓 m/s
Same engine thrust: 𝑓𝑎𝑛,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 1𝑐,𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑗𝑒𝑡 1𝑐,𝑗𝑒𝑡
Ratio of overall engine sizes (fan/jet): 𝑓𝑎𝑛,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡
1𝑐,𝑗𝑒𝑡 1𝑐,𝑓𝑎𝑛 1600=2.8125

(d) Explain why a turbofan engine is more efficient than a turbojet engine in general.
Ans:
(1) Turbofan engine has slower average jet velocity hence smaller kinetic energy waste
than turbojet.
(2) The jet of the turbofan engine has two parts: core and bypass. The jet in the bypass
is much cooler as there is no combustion. So, on average the heat waste is less.

(e) Describe two key technical challenges for the aeroengine development.
Ans: Compressor stall/instability and thermal stress in turbine blades
60
Chapter 2. Engine 10. Combustion overview

Kerosene combustion, lower calorific value LCV=43 MJ per kg of fuel when H2O
remains in vapour state

C12H23+17.75 O2+66.7755 N212 CO2+11.5 H2O+66.7766 N2+ heat Q

Stoichiometric (exactly correct) mass ratio : 167
kg C12H23, 568 kg O2 = 2448.3 kg Air,
Air/kerosene=14.66

Equivalence (fuel) mass ratio F = actual fuel /

stoichiometric fuel, fuel lean : F <1; rich >1

61
Chapter 2. Engine 10. Combustion overview

• Nitrogen Oxide is the major pollutant from air transportation. NOx means a
combination of NO & NO2
• N2 in air reacts with O2 at very high temperatures such as 1800 K
• The dominant mechanism is thermal fixation
N2 + O+heat  NO + N
N + O2  NO + O
N + OH  NO + H

• The first mechanism dominates, with a formation

rate of A exp(Tst/B) where Tst is the adiabatic flame
temperature at stoichiometric fuel/air ratio, A, B are
constants (B=300-400K). Lipert (1972) found good
correlation with combustion inlet temperature (T3)
with an empirical formula of
m NOx /m fuel  10
1 0.0032 T3  581.25
p / psea-level  gram/kg 
• The formation rate also depends on O2 In reality, NO formation depends
concentration and residence time more on local peak temperature,
• About 10% of NO reacts with O2 to form NO2 which is higher than average T4,
further downstream but all related to T3
62
Chapter 2. Engine 10. Combustion overview

• Combustion chamber is divided into 3 zones. High temperature in the

primary zone may cause dissociation forming CO from CO2.
• Reaction will be more or less complete in the intermediate zone.
• Most existing engines have non-premixed fuel injection, burning at air-
droplet interface with very high local temperature.
• There are other major pollutants include CO, soot (carbon), unburned
hydrocarbon (UHC), but all these have been reduced to low level by design.
• NOx remains as the dominant concern as it contradicts the efficiency
demand for high T4.
63
Chapter 2. Engine 11. Pollutant formation
Three different types of pollutant mechanisms
• CO and UHC are products of incomplete
combustion (low temperature, insufficient O2,
poor fuel-air mixing, etc) and they increase or
decrease simultaneously
• NOx is a result of high-temperature complete
combustion, which peaks at F=1
• Soot (~100% carbon) is primarily a result of
complex physical interaction, not a product of
equilibrium chemical reaction

Environmental issues from aviation

• Global warming: CO2, H2O, soot, UHC, NOx
• Tropospheric ozone production: CO, UHC
• Respiratory: NOx, soot, UHC
• Toxic: CO, UHC
• Smog: NOx, UHC / Acid rain: NOx

64
Chapter 2. Engine 11. Pollutant formation

• Combustion is normally incomplete in

the primary zone, and NOx takes time
to form, well into downstream zones
• CO would be burned out in the
downstream zones, mostly
• Fuel-rich is a primary zone condition
(overall ratio being lean). It favours
soot formation
• Landing and take-off the main ground
level environmental concerns, with lots CO2 and H2O can only be reduced
of CO and UHC during take-off, but by reducing sfc (shown )
NOx the most challenging 65
Chapter 2. Engine 12. Clean combustion

• International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has set emission standards for smoke
(soot), CO, UHC, and NOx. The last one being most difficult for modern engines.
• Engine certification tests (for pollutants) introduced in 1981. Tests are conducted only
for lab-based simulation of taking off to and landing from 3000 ft. Results will also
inform the NOx production at cruise altitude.
• The LTO test cycle is given below
Engine control, thrust Duration, minutes
Phase setting
Subsonic Supersonic Subsonic Supersonic
Idle/taxi-out 0.07Fmax 0.058Fmax 19 19
Take-off Fmax Fmax 0.7 1.2
Climb 0.85Fmax 0.65 Fmax 2.2 2.0
Approach 0.15Fmax 1.2
Landing 0.3Fmax 0.34Fmax 4.0 2.3
Taxi-in/idle 0.07Fmax 0.058Fmax 7.0 7.0

• Air travel consumes 5% of worldwide oil

• 13% within all forms of transportation. All transport adds up to
30% of all energy use
• Carbon footprint twice the car emission on per passenger basis,
10 times that of train 66
Chapter 2. Engine 12. Clean combustion

All main NOx reduction starts from combustion chamber

• Use pre-mixed, pre-vapourized, and lean combustion (with risk of

instability, lack of cooling air for chamber walls, flashback, etc).

• Staged burn: a little fuel rich then a lot in lean, avoiding the NOx
peak at stoichiometric condition
• Rich burn in primary, followed by quick introduction of air to
quench it in a secondary zone

But other traffic control, management measures would also contribute

to the emission reduction. Currently there is a pilot scheme of
carbon-trading ($ for emission permit) for airlines.

67
 Chapter 2. Engine 13. Noise control

• Noise is unwanted sound propagating at speed ;

sound is measured by the root-mean-square value of
pressure disturbance, audible within the range of 20Hz
to 20kHz. dB
where Pa is the hearing threshold
• Human perception of noise loudness depends on
pressure and frequency. Equal loudness contour  uses
1 kHz as reference frequency.
• Lighthill (1952) discovered that the power of jet noise
scales with . Turbofan is therefore much
quieter than turbojet since its jet speed is much reduced
• Human ear can barely sense a difference of 3dB, but
will not fail to notice 5dB difference. Perceived
loudness is doubled when the difference is 9dB (when
sound energy ratio is 109/10≈8).
• Velocity
ratio for 9dB difference: /

68
 Chapter 2. Engine 13. Noise control

• Modern turbofan engine is quiet in jet, but the fan itself can be noisy. When all noise
sources are reduced, landing gear noise may show up in the final noise spectrum. Further
reduction difficult.

• Silent aircraft initiative launched by Cambridge-MIT consortium, aiming at street-level

noise for aircraft noise exposure outside airport. Also promising low sfc.

69