2.

GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES

The following sections of this document provide an overview of the geophysical techniques in
which the department have developed a strong working knowledge, and apply on a regular basis
for engineering, geotechnical and environmental site investigations.

2.1. Ground Probing Radar

2.1.1 Theory

This technique involves a short duration, high frequency electromagnetic impulse being transmitted
by the radar transducer into the subsurface. Whenever a contrast in dielectric properties of the
subsurface is encountered, some of the transmitted impulse is reflected back to the surface, where
it is detected by a receiver housed in the transducer. The strength of the reflected signal is
proportional to the magnitude of the contrast in properties. A schematic of the ground probing radar
technique is shown below.

The propagation (and reflection) of the radar impulse depends on the dielectrical properties of the
groundmass being investigated and is greatly influenced by the moisture content and the presence
of clay-rich minerals. In general, radar pulses travel through the sub-surface material at a velocity
proportional to the electrical characteristics of that media.

A profile record of radar reflections is usually produced by moving the transducer along the survey
line. A radar plot or radargram is made up of a collation of numerous transmitted and received
pulses or scans along the line. On these radar plots, scan lines (along vertical axis) are analogous
to depth into the ground, and line intensity to reflection amplitude. The dashed vertical lines on the
plots are reference markers used to mark the start of the scan and the relative chainages along the
survey line during the survey.

Geophysics Capability- Revision 06 3

 The apparent depth of a radar reflector from the surface is determined from the two-way travel time
(TWT) of the transmitted pulse. This TWT is a function of the velocity of propagation of the
transmitted pulse, which is dependent upon the media electrical properties (the dielectric constant),
i.e. the depth of penetration will depend on the conductivity and moisture content of the ground. An
increase in depth penetration is generally expected within dry, electrically resistive ground.

The other factor which influences the depth penetration of the transmitted radar impulse is its
frequency. Low frequency radar impulses are generally attenuated less by the electrical properties,
and therefore penetrate to greater depths. However, with this increase in depth penetration comes
a decrease in resolution. For example, a 400MHz antenna may sample to a depth of 2 – 3m
(depending upon ground conditions) with a resolution suitable for detecting services, utilities (etc),
but a 1500MHz antenna will only sample to 300 – 500mm, yet with a resolution suitable for
detecting small diameter reinforcement.

2.1.2 Limitations

The main limitation of the Ground Probing Radar technique is the presence of clay-rich or
saturated materials, which act to dissipate the transmitted radar signal. Under such conditions, the
depth penetration is reduced and the resolution is also degraded. However, by employing more
than one antenna frequency, it is thought that this limitation will be reduced.

2.1.3 Applications and Example Data

One of the most common applications of Ground Probing Radar is the detection of buried services
and utilities. This is due to the relatively high resolution data obtained from the technique, enabling
the services to be located in both plan and depth.

The example data collected below was obtained during a GPR survey of a university campus in
southern England. Clearly evident in the data are three strong hyperbolic reflections which are
indicative of services. Through correlation with services plans and inspection of manhole covers,
the anomalies were later correlated with electrical, telecommunication and water utilities.

A further example taken from a GPR survey was carried out by Fugro on behalf of a local parish
church to investigate an area of land thought to have been used previously as a burial area. The

Geophysics Capability- Revision 06 4