Unit 1: Introduction to Control Systems

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Physical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Non Physical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.1 Basic Types of Control Systems: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Classification of Control Systems: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5.1 Linear systems, Nonlinear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5.2 Time Invariant and Time varying Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.3 Stochastic and Deterministic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.4 Distributed and Lumped parameter Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.5 Based on the main purpose of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.6 Based on the signals found in the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.7 Based on components present in the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.8 Open Loop System: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.9 Closed Loop Control System (Feed-back control system): . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.10 Comparison of closed loop system with open loop system . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Transfer Function: 11
2.1 Representation of Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.1 Pole-Zero form or Frequency constant form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 DC gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Time constant form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Poles and Zeros of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Type and Order of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
 2.4 Transfer Function from Block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Singularity Functions and Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.1 Relationship between singularity function and transfer function: . . . . . 17
2.6 Assumptions for deriving transfer function: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Procedure for deriving transfer function: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 Feed-back characteristics, Effect of Feedback 19

3.1 Effect on system dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Effect due to Parameter variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Effect on Bandwidth: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Sensitivity Analysis: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.1 Sensitivity of open loop control system w.r.t G(s): . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.2 Sensitivity of closed loop control system w.r.t G(s): . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.3 Sensitivity of closed loop control system w.r.t H(s): . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5 Effect on Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6 Effect on Noise Signals: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2
Overview
In this topic, covering basics of system definitions, classifications, feedback systems, transfer
function, effect of feedback on system dynamics and parameters variations.

1 Introduction

Figure 1: Classification Systems

1.1 System

The set of elements or components are arranged in a planned manner for a specified purpose.
This total arrangement is called system. The systems may be physical or non -physical systems.

1.2 Physical System

If the above system is governed by the physical laws like Newtons, Kirchhoffs law etc. is called
a physical system (or) It is a collection of physical objects governed by laws of physics (like
Newtons, Kirchhoffs law etc.) connected together to serve an object.
Ex: Rocket, thermometer, chemical process, a turbine and an electric motor.

1
1.3 Non Physical Systems

If the systems are not governed by the physical laws are called non- physical systems.
Ex: Biological systems, economic, management, socio- economic systems etc
All above systems are uses control and are called control systems.

1.4 Control System

The control system means, by which any quantity of interest in a machine mechanism (or)
altered in accordance with a desired manner or The control system is a combination of elements
arranged in a planned manner where in each element cause an effect to produced desired output.
The control systems are used in many applications
Ex: Control of temperature, pressure, position, velocity, acceleration, voltage, and current etc.

Figure 2: Input and Output of a System

Input:
Input to a control system is an external energy source applied to it to produce a specific response
from the control system (reference input) or Process inputs are flows of energy and /or material
that cause the process to react or respond.
The inputs are classified into

1. Manipulated inputs (subject to our control)

2. Disturbance inputs (undesirable and unavoidable effects, beyond our control, generated
from outside process environment and from within)

Note 1. The parameters of the disturbance is one of the main reasons of using control. Clever
management of manipulated variables so as to counteract the effect of the disturbances is the
primary role of the controller.

Figure 3: Disturbance in a system

2
Output:
Output is an actual response obtained from a control system (control variable).i.e., effected.

1.4.1 Basic Types of Control Systems:

• Man-made control system

• Natural control system

• Systems both man-made and natural

1. Man-Made control system:

Ex: Electric Switch,( I/P: Switching ON and OFF, O/P: Either flow (or) Non-flow of current)
Ex: Thermostatically controlled heater, ( I/P: Reference Temperature, O/P:Actual Tempera-
ture)
2. Natural control system:
Ex: Respiration system, (I/P: Normal or Comfortable temperature, O/P: Actual temperature
of skin)
Ex: Pointing at an object with a finger, ( I/P: Precise direction of the object w. r. t some
reference, O/P: Actual pointed direction w. r. t same reference.)
3. Man-Made and Natural system:
Ex: Man driving an automobile, (I/P: Force on accelerator (or) direction of road represented
by pained lines, O/P: Desired speed (or) Heading of the automobile.)

Note 2. This output is constantly controlled by the driver with his eyes and hands (brain).

1.5 Classification of Control Systems:

Control systems are classified as

1.5.1 Linear systems, Nonlinear systems

The classification is made according to the method of analysis and design.

Strictly speaking, linear systems do not exit in practice, since all physical systems are non linear
to some extent.
Linear feed back control systems are idealized models that are fabricated by the analyst purely
for the simplicity analysis and design.
When the magnitudes of the signals in a control systems are limited to a range in which system

3
components exhibit linear characteristics.
Ex: Electrical machines
i.e. the principle of superposition applies and the system is essentially linear.
Technically speaking
Consider a system described by an algebraic equation Y = f (X)
Then the equation of linearity implies the following two properties.
(i) Homogeneity:
It implies that the output Y with proportional input X.

f (αX) = αf (X) (1)

Where α = a scalar constant.

(ii) Super position:
It implies that the output Y with input(X1 + X2 ) is equal to the sum of output Y1 with input
X1 , Y2 with input X2 .
i.e. f (X1 + X2 ) = f (X1 ) + f (X2 ) = Y1 + Y2
Now both properties can be combined into a single one, the linearity property. It implies that

f (αX1 + βX2 ) = αf (X1 ) + βf (X2 ) (2)

Where α, β are scalar constants

Thus, Linearity = Homogeneity+ Superposition

Problem 1. y=ax+b dx
dt
L

Problem 2. y=ax2 + ebx NL

2
Problem 3. 3 ddt2y + 4 dx
dt
+ 2y = 5x2 NL

du
Problem 4. dθ
+ u + u2 = singθ3 NL

2
Problem 5. t( ddt2v )2 + 5 dv
dt
+ t2 v = e−t NL
2
Problem 6. sin(y) ddt2y + cos(2y) = 0 NL

Note 3. The existence of powers (or) other non linear functions of the independent variable
does not make the equation non linear.

4
1.5.2 Time Invariant and Time varying Systems

“When the parameters of a control system are stationary w.r.t time during the operation of
the system, then we called system as time invariant system otherwise time varying system.”
Most physical systems contain elements that drift or vary with time to some extent. If the
variation of the parameter is significant during the period of operation then the system is
called the time varying system.
Generally most of the physical systems are characterised by differential equations. The systems
may be both linear and non linear . But, the mathematical representation will be in linear
differential equation only by considering a narrow range where a non linear system may be
linear.
If the coefficients of the terms are time dependant, then the system is time variant.
2
Problem 7. t2 ddt2y

If the coefficients are constant and time independent, then time invariant.
2
Problem 8. a ddt2y

Ex: Guidance and control of a rocket- NLS

The complexity of the control system design increases considerably when the parameters are
time varying.
In this course we are consider only time invariant control systems only.

1.5.3 Stochastic and Deterministic Models

In every physical system, every signal (inputs, external disturbances, outputs) has associated
with it certain amount of randomness (usually referred as generic term “Noise”).
These uncertainties are in consequential in many practical cases and we proceed as through
all signals are known functions of time. This assumption gives us a deterministic model of the
system. When the signals must be treated as random functions of time, stochastic models are
used to characterise the system behaviour.
In this course we will make assumption of deterministic signals.

Note 4. If the system is represented by mathematical equations, then it is called as determin-

istic system.

5
1.5.4 Distributed and Lumped parameter Models

The significant variables in a system are distributed in space and they vary with the spatial
coordinates and time.
The resulting dynamic models called distributed parameter models, consists of partial differ-
ential equations with time and space coordinates as independent variables.
In lumped parameter models, the matter is assumed to be lumped at some discrete points of
the space or the space is sub divided into cells and the matter is assumed to be lumped at these
cells.
In this course we will make assumption of lumped parameter models.

1.5.5 Based on the main purpose of the system

Ex: A position control system , a velocity control system, controls the output variables accoring
to the way of the names imply. Others like temperature, pressure etc.

1.5.6 Based on the signals found in the system

• Continuous data system

• Discrete data system

• Regulator system

• Set-point control system

• Setting control system

• Followup or tracking control system

1.5.7 Based on components present in the system

• Mechanical systems

– Translational

– Rotational

• Electrical systems

• Hydraulic systems

• Pneumatic systems

6
 • Thermal systems etc.

The main and important classification of control systems are

1. Open-loop control system

2. Closed-loop control system (or) Feed-back control system.

1.5.8 Open Loop System:

Definition: The control system is the one in which the control action is independent of the
output, or When the output quantity of a control system is not fed back to the input quantity,
then the system is called open-loop system (OLS).
Ex: Electric heater, Electric washing machine, Traffic light controller , Execution of program
on computer, separately excited DC motor, Bread toaster.

Figure 4: BLock Diagram of OLS

In such systems, the controlled variable remains (output) constant for a constant command
(input) signal, if there are no external disturbances (like temperature, humidity).
The output may be set to any desired value by varying the input quantity correspondingly.
But there are external disturbances or variations of parameters in internal system or because
of both, the output may vary in an unconditional way.
Such system (OLS) is satisfactory only if the fluctuations in the output can be tolerated.
Ex: Separately excited generator.
In this output voltage is function of exciting current (speed is maintained constantly). By
varying exciting current, any desired voltage can be obtained. But the output voltage has no
connection with exciting current.
Advantages:

1. Its simple and economical

2. No stability problem

Dis-advantages:

1. Inaccurate

7
 2. Unreliable

3. The effect of parameter variation and external noise is more.

1.5.9 Closed Loop Control System (Feed-back control system):

Definition: A closed loop system is the one in which the control action is some how dependant
on the output, or If the output is constantly controlled by sending a command signal to input
quantity then the system will become closed-loop control system (CLCS).
Ex: Electric iron, DC motor speed control, Missile launching system, human respiratory sys-
tem, autopilot, radar tracking system.

Figure 5: BLock Diagram of Closed Loop Control System

This process may be accomplished by

1. An operator- then such a system is called manually controlled feedback system (or) man-
ually feedback control system.
Ex: Driving an automobile

2. By some components to act as feedback, then such a system is called Automatic control
system.

Ex: Human being (biological system), Automobile driving system, Automatic editing of the
text in PC.
A separately excited generator: Same as (OLCS), if any variation the output voltage may be
sensed by EYES of the operator. They give proper command to hand (via brain) to move the
field regulator and thereby bring back to the output voltage constant value. In such a case, the
human operator acts as feed-back element.
Advantages:

8
 1. Accuracy in tracking steady state value, and reliable.

2. Low sensitivity to parameter variations.

3. Reduced effect of non-linearities.

4. Bandwidth of the system can be increased with the negative feedback.

5. Reduction in system gain at the expense of better stability.

Disadvantages:

1. The system becomes complex and costly

2. The system may become unstable

3. The gain of the system reduces with negative feedback system.

Note 5. Human beings are probably most complex and sophisticated feed-back control system.

Remember 1.

1. Feed-back is not used for improving stability.

2. The open loop stable system may also become unstable when negative feedback is applied.

3. The output signal is sensed and converted appropriately and compared with the input
reference signal.

4. Normally, the feed-back signal has opposite polarity to that of input signal is called
Negative feed-back.

5. Negative feed-back has the advantage that the resultant signal obtained from the com-
parator is of smaller magnitude (since the resultant is difference of two signals). This
small signal can be handles easily by the control system.

6. The resultant signal so obtained is called Actuating signal.

7. When the desired output is obtained the actuating signal will have zero value.
In that condition, the control system will not operate.[Give example of automobile direc-
tion.]

8. For all other values of the output quantity, there will be some activating signal.
This will actuate the control system till desired state is obtained.

9
1.5.10 Comparison of closed loop system with open loop system

Open loop system Closed loop system

1. The accuracy depends upon the
calibration of the input. Any devi-
ation from pre-determined calibra-
tion effects the output, otherwise
the system performance (o/p) is ac-
curate.
2. It is simple in construction also
it economical.
3. It is generally stable.
4. If non-linearities present, the
system operation degenerates.
1. It is more accurate and does not
depends on calibration of input. It
is because the error between the ref-
erence input and output is continu-
ously measured through feed-back.
2. It is complicated in construction
and also costlier than open loop sys-
tem.
3. It can become unstable un-
der certain conditions (depends on
components)
4. Even under the presence of non-
linearities , the system operate bet-
ter than open-loop system.

Note 6. If the feed-back signal has same polarity as the input signal, it is called positive feed-
back system.
The positive feed-back increases the error signal and drives the output to instability.
But, sometimes the positive feed back is used in minor loops in control systems to amplify
certain internal signals and parameters.
Expect oscillators, in positive feedback, we have always unstable systems.
Now, the general form of a closed-loop system is shown, where it gives the functional relationship
between the input and output of that particular block.

Figure 6: Detailed block diagram of closed loop system

10
Problem 9. Match List I(physical or activity )with list II(Category of system) and select
correct codes

List-I
A. Human respiration system
B. Pointing of an object with a finger
C. A man driving a car
D. A thermostatically controlled room heater
List-II
1. Man-made control system
2. Natural including biological control system
3. Control system whose components are both man-made and natural.
1 A B C D
a) 2 2 3 1
b) 3 1 2 1
c) 3 2 2 3
d) 2 1 3 3
Ans: a

2 Transfer Function:
As we know, any system can be represented in differential equations. So, Let us consider a
system having an input r(t) or u(t) and corresponding output y(t) or c(t).
The generalized differential equations relating input and output is

Figure 7

dn c(t) dn−1 c(t) dc(t) dm r(t) dm−1 r(t) dr(t)

an n
+a n−1 n−1
+−−−+a 1 +a 0 c(t) = b m m
+b m−1 m−1
+−−−+b1 +b0 r(t).
dt dt dt dt dt dt
(3)

Note 7. Basics of Laplace transformations:

11
 R∞
F (s) = £f (t) = 0
f (t)e−st .dt
where s = α + jω
£c(t) = C(s); £r(t) = R(s);
h n i
(0+ )
£ d dtfn(t) = sn F (s) − sn−1 f (0+ ) − sn−2 df dt − −−
if f (0+ ) = 0 -Zero Initial Conditions (I.C)
= sn F (s)
also
2
£ d dtx(t)
2 = s2 X(s)
£ dx(t)
dt
= sX(s)
Similarly for integration
Now applying laplace equation transformation by assuming initial conditions are zero.
an sn C(s) + an−1 sn−1 C(s) + − − − − − + a1 sC(s) + a0 C(s) = bm sm R(s) + bm−1 sm−1 R(s) + − −
− − − + b1 sR(s) + b0 R(s)
From the above equation, i.e.

C(s) bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 + − − − − − + b1 s + b0

= (4)
R(s) an sn + an−1 sn−1 + − − − − − + a1 s + a0

From equation 4, we can define the transfer function of a linear time invariant system (LTI)
as
C(s)
T (s) = , ⇒ C(s) = R(s)T (s) (5)
R(s)
Note 8. c(t) = £−1 [R(s)T (s)]

Definition of Transfer Function:

The ratio of Laplace transfer of the output and input quantities, assuming initial conditions
are zero (i.e, the system or body is initially relaxed one).

Note 9. The linear system is known as time invariant if the coefficient of differential equations
relating input and output are those quantities that do not vary with time.

2.1 Representation of Transfer Function

From equation (4)

C(s) bm [sm + bm−1

bm
sm−1 + − − − − − − + bbm1 s + bbm0 ]
G(s) = = (6)
R(s) an [sn + an−1
an
sn−1 + − − − − − − − + aan1 s + aan0 ]

12
 bm (sm + b1m−1 sm−1 + − − − − − + b11 s + b10 )
= (7)
an (sn + a1n−1 sn−1 + − − − − − + a11 s + a10 )

(sm + b1m−1 sm−1 + − − − − − + b11 s + b10 )

=K (8)
(sn + a1n−1 sn−1 + − − − − − + a11 s + a10 )

where K= bamn , System Gain or Scale Factor

2.1.1 Pole-Zero form or Frequency constant form

The above equation can be represented in factored form i.e, in Numerator and Denominator.

N (s) (s ± z1 )(s ± z2 ) − − − − − (s ± zm )
=K (9)
D(s) (s ± P1 )(s ± P2 ) − − − − − (s ± Pm )

The equation (9) is called pole zero form or frequency constant form.

2.1.2 DC gain

Let a transfer function having ‘p’ number of poles at origin be represented as

(s ± z1 )(s ± z2 ) − − − − − (s ± zm )
T (s) = K (10)
sp (s± P1 )(s ± P2 ) − − − − − (s ± Pm )

Then it’s DC gain=

K(s ± z1 )(s ± z2 ) − − − − − (s ± zm )
lim sp (11)
s→0 sp (s ± P1 )(s ± P2 ) − − − − − (s ± Pm )

2.1.3 Time constant form

The time constant form of transfer function is defined as in (12)

N (s) (1 ± τz1 s)(1 ± τz2 s) − − − − − (1 ± τzm s)

=K (12)
D(s) (1 ± τp1 s)(1 ± τp2 s) − − − − − (1 ± τpn s)

2.2 Poles and Zeros of the system

1
From above equations, if s = ∓zi or ∓ τzi
⇒ N (s) = 0 ⇒ G(s)=T(s) =0
⇒ T.F G(s)=0
and
1
If s = ∓Pi or ∓ τpi
⇒ D(s) = 0 ⇒ G(s) = T (s) = ∞
⇒T.F G(s)=∞

13
Hence we can define two terms:
Zeros:The factors of D(s)
The poles of a transfer function are those complex critical frequencies, at which system transfer
function becomes infinity (or tends towards infinity)
Poles: The factors of N(s)
The zeros of a transfer function are those complex critical frequencies, at which makes transfer
function zero.

Note 10. Analysis of any system is done w.r.t. K, zeros, poles on a complex plane or s-plane.
Where s = α + jω plane.

Zeros, poles are represented on a complex plane, whose co-ordinate axis has imaginary and
real parts. The poles are conventional represented as ’X’ and zeros as ’O’.
(s+1)(s+2)
Ex: G(s) = s(s+3)(s+4)
Number of zeors are 2 and occurs at s=-1, s=-2;
Number of poles are 3 and occurs at s=0, s=-3, and s=-4

Figure 8

2.3 Type and Order of the system

Type of the System

The number of poles occurring at origin is called ‘Type’ of the system.

Problem 10. Find type of following system

K
G(s) = (s+1)
,Type=0 or Type zero system
K
G(s) = s3 (s+1)
,Type=3
K
G(s) = s2 (s+1)
, T=2
or

14
In general form,

Π(s ± zi )
T (s) = K (13)
sn .Π(s ± pi )
⇒ Type of the system is ’n’
Order of the system
The highest power of ‘s’ in the denominator (i.e. D(s)), is called ‘Order’ of the system.[characteristic
equation]

Problem 11. Find following for given closed loop system

10(5s+10)
T(s)= s2 (2s+8)(3s+9)
Find
1. Scale factor and DC gain of open loop system, closed loop system
2. Poles and Zeros
3. Type and Order
4. Represent on complex plane.
Ans:
1. 25/3, -1
2. z1 = −2(1),p1 = 0, p2 = 0p3 = −4, p4 = −3 (4)
3. Type=2; Order=4
4.

2.4 Transfer Function from Block diagram

Figure 9

15
 Figure 10

The closed-loop or feed-back system shown above the following terminology used in block
diagrams of control system is as follows
R(s) = Reference input
C(t) = output signal or controlled output
B(s) = Feed-back signal
E(s) = Error signal or actuating signal
C(s)
G(s) = E(s)
= Forward path transfer function
B(s)
H(s) = C(s)
= Transfer function of the feed-back elements
C(s)
T(s) = R(s)
= Closed loop transfer function
From the above figure-
C(s) = G(s)E(s)
E(s) = R(s) − B(s)
= R(s) − H(s)C(s) [∴ B(s) = H(s)C(s)]
∴ C(s) = G(s)[R(s) − H(s)C(s)]
= G(s)R(s) − G(s)H(s)C(s)
⇒ C(s) = G(s)[1 + G(s)H(s)] = G(s)R(s)
⇒
C(s) G(s)
= T (s) = = C.L.T.F. (14)
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
So the reduced block diagram is as shown in single block.

Figure 11

16
Note 11. 1.Open loop transfer function is G(s)H(s)
2.The o/p of the closed loop system depends upon the
a. nature of the i/p
b. closed transfer function
G(s)
i.e, C(s) = (1+G(s)R(s))
.R(s)
N um
3. Open loop transfer function G(s) from given closed loop transfer function T (s) = Den
is
N um
G(s) = Den−N um
N um
4. Closed loop transfer function T(s) from given open loop transfer function G(s) = Den
is
N um
T (s) = Den+N um

2.5 Singularity Functions and Transfer Function

If the any signal (or function) is obtained by differentiating [or integrating ] other representative
signal and signal is one nodal faster than the other signal. These signals or functions are known
as ‘Singularity Functions’.

Figure 12

2.5.1 Relationship between singularity function and transfer function:

Let R(s)=Impulse function =1

then C(s)=T(s)R(s)=T(s).1
⇒ T (s) = [Impulse response]
In other words, Transfer function of a system is nothing but Laplace transformation
of the impulse response of LTI system.

Problem 12. The LTI system when subjected to unit step input gives response y(t)=t.e−t , (t >
0). Find the transfer function of the system.

Ans:
d
Impulse response= dt
[Step response]

17
=−te−t + e−t .1
and TF=£[Impulse response]
−1 1 s
= (s+1)2 + (s+1)
= (s+1)2

d
Note 12. Impulse response= dt
[Step response]
d2
= dt2
[Ramp response]
d3
= dt3
[Parabolic response]
and
Transfer function=£[Impulse response].

2.6 Assumptions for deriving transfer function:

1: It is assuming that there is no loading, i.e, no power drawn at output of the system.
a. If the system has more than one non-load elements tandem, then the transfer function or of
each element can determined independently and overall transfer function of the physical system
is determined by multiplying the individual transfer function.
b. In case of systems consisting of elements which load each other, the overall transfer function
of the physical system should be derived by basic analysis without regard to the individual
transfer function.
2: The system should be approximated by a linear, lumped, constant parameters model by
making suitable assumptions.

2.7 Procedure for deriving transfer function:

Step 1: By applying relevant laws, formulate the equations for a system, i.e find the mathe-
matical modelling of the system.
Step 2: Take the Laplace transformation of the equation assuming zero initial conditions.
Step 3: Specify the system input and output variable.
Step 4: Take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and Laplace transform of the
input with i.e are zero.

18
3 Feed-back characteristics, Effect of Feedback

3.1 Effect on system dynamics

The system dynamics can be changed without actually altering the system parameters. This
can be illustrated with a simple example of a first order system. Consider the system shown in
Fig.(13)

Figure 13

When the switch is open, the system is an open loop system and the open loop transfer
function is given by
C(s) K
T (s) = R(s)
= s+a

The impulse response of the system is given by h(t) = L−1 T (s) = Ke−at
The time constant τ is given by
1
τ= a
K
and the d.c gain (value of T(s) when s=0) is given by Kdc = a

The transfer function has a pole at s=-a

If the gain ’K’ is changed by using an amplifier in cascade with the system, it cannot change
the time constant of the system. It can only alter the d.c. gain. So if the system speed is to
be improved, only the parameter a has to be changed.
Let us now close the switch so that, the system becomes a feedback system. The closed loop
transfer function is given by,

K
C(s) s+a K
T (s) = R(s)
= K
1+ s+a
= s+a+K

The impulse response of this system is, h(t) = Ke−(a+K)t

The time constant and the dc gain are given by,
1
τ= a+K

K
Kdc = a+K

By a suitable choice of K, the time constant τ can be altered. The system response can be
speeded up by decreasing the time constant by a suitable choice of the gain K of the amplifier.

19
The pole of the feedback system is located at −(a + K) and this can be pushed to the left of
the jω axis to speeded up the system as shown in fig.

Figure 14

Thus without altering the system parameter ’a’ the system time constant can be adjusted
to a desired value by using an external amplifier with a suitable gain. However the d.c. gain
is reduced as given by equation (??). This gain can be compensated by having additional gain
outside the loop.

3.2 Effect due to Parameter variations

The output of an open loop system is affected by any variations in the parameter values. How-
ever, in a closed loop system, the variations in system parameters do not change the output
significantly. This effect can be best studied by finding the sensitivity of the output to varia-
tions in system parameters. The term sensitivity of a variable with respect to a parameter is
defined as

P ercetage change in variable x

Syx = Sensitivity = (15)
P ercetage change in parameter y
∂x
x
∂y . xy
y

1. Sensitivity of a overall transfer function for a small change in forward path transfer
function G(s), SG
(a). For open loop system
C(s) = G(s)R(s)
C(s)
R(s)
= T (s) = G(s)

∂T G G
SGT = T (s) = . = 1. = 1 (16)
∂G T G

20
 Ex: G=2; H=1
T=2; G → 10% 2.2
T → 10% 2.2

(b). For closed loop system

C(s) G(s)
R(s)
= T (s) = 1+G(s)H(s)

SGT = T (s) = . = (1+GH)−GH

∂T G
∂G T (1+GH)2
. G(1+GH)
G

1
= (17)
1 + GH
2 2
T = 1+2
= 3

G → 10% → 2.2
1 1
T → 1+2.2
= 4.2

From equation (16) & (17) it is clear that the sensitivity of over all transfer function for
small variation in forward path transfer funxction is reduced by a factor (1+GH) in a closed
loop system compared to the open loop system.

(2). Sensitivity of closed loop transfer function T(s) with respect to variation in feedback
T
transfer function H(s), SH

T ∂T H
SH = .
∂H T

G
T (s) = (1+GH)

T G G(1+GH)
SH = − (1+GH)2G G

GH
=− (18)
1 + GH
From equation (18) it is clear that for large values of GH, the sensitivity approaches unity.
Thus the overall trasfer function is highly sensitive to variation in feedback elements and there-
fore the feedback elements must be properly chosen so that they do not change with envi-
ronmental changes or do not degrade due to ageing. These elements are usually low power
elements and hence high precision elements can be chosen at a relatively less cost. On the

21
other hand, the forward path elements need not satisfy stringest requirements, as any varia-
tions in them do not affect the performance of the system to a significant extent. These are high
power elements and hence less precise elements at lower cost can be chosen for the forward path.

Problem: (a). For the open loop system in Fig.(22) find the percentage change in the
steady state value of C(s) for a unit step input and for a 10 % change in K.

(b). For the closed loop system in Fig.(22), find the percentage change in the steady state
value of C(s) for a unit step input for the same increase in the value of K.

Figure 15

Sol:
K
(a). G(s) = 0.1s+1

C(s)=G(s)R(s)
K
= s(0.1s+1)
Ks
Css = Lts→0 sC(s) = Lts→0 s(0.1s+1) =K

Css ∂Css K
SH = .
∂K Css
= 1. K
K
=1
∴ % change in Css for 10 % change in K=10%
K
(b). T (s) = 0.1s+1+K
K
C(s) = s(0.1s+1+K)

K
Css = 1+K
Css ∂Css K (1+K)1−K.1 K(1+K)
SK = .
∂K Css
= (1+K)2 K

1
= 1+K

10
∴ % change in Css for 10 % change in K = 1+K

and for K=10

22
 10
% change in Css = 11
= 0.91

3.3 Effect on Bandwidth:

A control system is essentially a low pass filter. At some frequency ωb the gain drops to √1 of
2

its value at ω = 0. This frequency ωb is called as the bandwidth of the system. If the bandwidth
is large, the system response is good for high frequencies also. To put in another way, if the
”bandwidth” of the system is large, the speed of response is high.

Open loop system:

K
Consider the open loop system with G(s) = τ s+1

At anygiven frequency s = jω

K
G(jω) = jωτ +1
K
If ω = ωb , |G(jωb )| = |jωb τ +1|
G(0)
But |G(jωb )| = √
2
and G(0)=K

This is true, if ωb τ = 1

1
∴ ωb = (19)
τ
But for 2nd order system, rise time is
π−φ
√
tr =
ωn 1−ζ 2

G(0) K
⇒ √ =
2 |jωb τ +1|

=√ K2
(ωb τ ) +1
ωb T = 1 ⇒ ωb = τ1
K
Now consider a unity feedback system with G(s) = τ s+1

EX:

23
 Figure 16

∂ GH ∂GH G
SGGH = GH
∂G = .
∂H GH
=1
G

1 1 1
SGT = 1+GH
= 1
1+20. 20
= 11
= 0.09

T GH −20× 1 −10
SH = − 1+GH = − 1+ 1 ×20
2
= 11
= −0.9
2

EX:

Figure 17

s+2 −2 −3
s+5
, s+5
, s+5
T T T
Find Sk1 , Sk2 , Sk3
&k1 = 1, k2 = 2, k3 = 3
Let: Control design & system analysis & Design,
Closed loop system:
At a given closed lopp transfer function is given by
K
T (s) = τ s+1+K

K
|T (jωb )| = τ s+1+K
T (0)
At ω = ωb , |T (jωb )| = √ = √1 . K
2 2 1+K

This is true if, ωb τ = 1 + K

or

1+K
ωb = (20)
τ
From equations (19) and (20) it is clear that the bandwidth of closed loop system is (1+K)

24
times the bandwidth of open loop system. Hence the speed of response of a closed loop system
is larger than that of an open loop system.

3.4 Sensitivity Analysis:

α=A variable that changes its value

β=A parameter that changes the value of α, here α(β)
Rα
Sensitivity function β = %change inα
%change inβ

Z α ∂α
∂α β
Sβα = α
∂β
= × (21)
β β
α ∂β

3.4.1 Sensitivity of open loop control system w.r.t G(s):

Let M(s)=G(s)H(s)
α = M (s)[O.L.C.S]
β=G(s), [Disturbance in forward path]
α = GH
β=G
Rα ∂α
∂α β
β
= Sβα = α
∂β = .
∂β α
β
G
= H. GH =1
RM ∂M R
α G(s) ∂M (s)
G
= ∂G M
β
= .
H(s) ∂G(s)
G
G(s) 1
⇒ M (s) = G(s)H(s) ⇒ M (s)
= H(s)

⇒ ∂M (s)
∂G(s)
∂
= ∂G(s) [G(s)H(s)] = H(s)
R M (s) G(s) ∂M (s) 1
G(s)
=M .
(s) ∂G(s)
= H(s) .H(s)
for open loop control system
R M (s)
G(s)
=1

3.4.2 Sensitivity of closed loop control system w.r.t G(s):

G(s)
Let M(s)= 1+G(s)H(s)
α = M (s) ; β = G(s)
R M (s) G(s) ∂M (s)
G(s)
=M .
(s) ∂G(s)
G(s)
Since M(s)= 1+G(s)H(s)
G(s)
⇒M (s)
= 1 + G(s)H(s)
R M (s) ∂ G(s)
G(s)
= ∂G(s) [ 1+G(s)H(s) ]
= 1+G(s)H(s)−G(s)H(s)
[1+G(s)H(s)]2

25
R M (s) G(s) ∂M (s)
G(s)
= .
M (s) ∂G(s)
1
= (1 + G(s)H(s)) [1+G(s)H(s)]2
R M (s) 1
∴ G(s) = 1+G(s)H(s) closed loop control system
→ For any internal or external disturbance the control system is sustained (or) stable then
control system having less sensitivity.
→ Open loop control systems are any internal or external disturbances and hence are conditional
control systems.
→ The sensitivity of a closed loop control systems to any any internal or external disturbances is
reduced by a factor 1+G(s)H(s). Which is called as noise reduction factor (or) return difference.

3.4.3 Sensitivity of closed loop control system w.r.t H(s):

α=M(s) [C.L.C.S]
β=H(s) [Disturbance in feedback path]
R M (s) H(s) ∂M (s)
H(s)
=M .
(s) ∂H(s)
G(s) M (s) G(s) H(s)
Since M(s)= 1+G(s)H(s) ⇒ H(s)
= H(s)[1+G(s)H(s)]
⇒M (s)
= H(s)[1+G(s)H(s)]
G(s)
∂M (s) G(s) [1+G(s)H(s)].0−G(s).G(s) −[G(s)] 2
∂
⇒ ∂H(s) = ∂H(s) [ 1+G(s)H(s) ] = [1+G(s)H(s)]2
= [1+G(s)H(s)]2
R M (s) H(s)[1+G(s)H(s)] −[G(s)]2
H(s)
= G(s)
. [1+G(s)H(s)]2
R M (s) G(s)H(s)
| H(s) | = − 1+G(s)H(s)

Note 13. A closed loop control system is more sensitive w.r.to changes in H(s) then the forward
path G(s).

Problem 13. EX: The open loop control systems are shown in figures. For 10% of changes in
forward path the o/p’s of open loop & closed loop systems will change by

Figure 18

(a). 10% , 0.1% (b). 10%, 1% (c). 1%, 10% (d). 0.%, 10%
sol: open loop system=10%
10 10
closed loop system= 1+10 = 11
≈ 1%
A signal loop feedback structure is shown as

26
 Figure 19

The return difference for ’A’ is

Aβ Aβ
(a). Aβ (b). 1+Aβ (c). 1+Aβ (d). 1−Aβ
sol:
Disturbance is forward path FA
∴ Return difference 1+G(s)H(s)
1 + aβ

3.5 Effect on Bandwidth

Problem 14. Negative feedback in a closed loop control system DOES NOT

GATE 2015

a)reduce the overall gain

b)reduce the bandwidth
c)improve disturbance rejection
d)reduce sensitivity to parameter variation
Ans: d

3.6 Effect on Noise Signals:

(a). Noise in the forward paths:

Consider the block diagram of the system shown in Fig.(20)

Figure 20

27
 A noise signal is added between the forward path blocks G1 (s) and G2 (s). To evaluate the
effect of N(s), we assume R(s)=0. The transfer function between C(s) and N(s) can be easily
derived as,

C(s) G2 (s)
TN (s) = N (s)
= 1+G1 (s)G2 (s)H(s)

For the practical case of |G1 (s)G2 (s)H(s)| >> 1

1
TN (s) = G1 (s)H(s)
or

N (s)
C(s) = (22)
G1 (s)H(s)
It can be seen from equation (22) that the effect of noise on output can be reduced by
making |G1 (s)| sufficiently large.

(b). Noise in feedback path:

Consider the block diagram in Fig.(21)

Figure 21

The transfer function between output and the noise signal with R(s)=0 is given by
C(s) −G(s)H1 (s)
T (s) = N (s)
= 1+G(s)H1 (s)H2 (s)

For |G(s)H1 (s)H2 (s)| >> 1, we have

T (s) = − H21(s)
and C(s) H−1
2 (s)
N (s)
Thus by making H2 (s) large the effect of noise can be effectively reduced.

28
 Figure 22

−GH1
1+GH1 H2
GH1
≈ − GH 1 H2
= − 12

29