Eet 3357

EET 3357 Control Systems I
Dr. Wawerũ Njeri

Meru University of Science and Technology
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department
EET 3357 Control Systems I
Purpose
To introduce students to the concepts of open-loop and closed-loop systems and their transfer functions.
Teach the methods for the analysis and design of closed-loop feedback systems.
Learning outcome
Upon completion of this module, students will demonstrate:
1). apply knowledge of control system terminology, configuration, techniques and applications to describe
and design system parameters;
2). model systems in both time and frequency domain;
3). design first order and second order systems to yield desired transient characteristics;
4). use feedback control technique to determine stability of the system;
5). demonstrate understanding how root locus and bode plot techniques are used them to determine
stability of systems.
Course Content
1. Dynamic models and dynamic response: Models of dynamic systems in differential equation form;
electrical, mechanical, electro-mechanical systems, hydraulic systems, gear-trains and rotational
systems. Modelling of the system using block diagram. Linearization, time scaling and amplitude.
Transfer functions; transfer function representation of a model.
2. Time domain analysis: Response to typical input signals; impulse, step, ramp and parabolic func-
tions. Step response performance specifications; rise time, settling time, overshoot. Steady state
errors: Steady state errors in unity and non- unity feedback systems. Static error constants and
system type.
3. Feedback control system concept and stability: Essential principles of feedback. Block diagrams;
block diagram modelling of feedback system. Signal flow graphs. Sensitivity of control systems
to parameter variation. Disturbance signals in feedback signals. Stability analysis; concept of
stability, Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, other stability criterion, relative stability of feedback
systems, stability of closed loop systems. Determination of root location in the S-plane.
4. Root Locus method: Root loci, plotting of root loci, System poles and zeros. Rules for root locus
construction. System compensation using phase- lead, phase – lag and phase lead – lag networks on
S-plane. Frequency Response Concept of Frequency Response; asymptotic approximation (Bode
Plots), M and N- circles. Nyquist stability criterion, Nyquist diagram and stability, gain and
phase margins. Stability using Nyquist diagram and bode plots. Closed loop frequency response.
Stability of control systems with time delays. System compensation using phase- lead, phase – lag
and phase lead – lag networks on the Bode diagram.
Mode of Delivery
2 hour lectures and 1 hour tutorial per week, and at least five 3-hour laboratory sessions per semester
organized on a rotational basis.
Course Assessment
Cats 10%
Assignments 5%
Practicals 25%
Exam 60%
Total 100%
Core Reading Material
1). Benjamin C. Kuo, Automatic Control Systems, Eighth Edition, 2003, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN:
0471381489.
2). Katsuhiko Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Fourth Edition, 2002, Prentice Hall, ISBN: 0130609072
3). Norman S. Nise, Control Systems Engineering, sixth Edition, 2011, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN:
0471445770.
v
Contents
1 Introduction to Control Systems 1

1.1 Definitions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Requirements of a good control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Classification of Control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Transfer Function and Mathematical Modelling 7

2.1 Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Modeling 15
3.1 Modeling of Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Modelling of Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Analogous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Block Diagram Representation 25

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Canonical form of Feedback Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Rules for Block Diagram Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5 Time Domain Analysis 38

5.1 Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2 Steady State Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.3 Analysis of first order System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.4 Analysis of Second order system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.5 Time domain specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6 Stability Analysis 63
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2 Hurwitz Stability Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.3 Routh’s Stability Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7 Root Locus 72
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
vi
7.2 Angle and Magnitude Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.3 Procedure for Drawing Root Locus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8 Frequency Domain Analysis 88
vii
1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS Page 1
1 Introduction to Control Systems
1.1 Definitions:
System: An arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to form

and/or act as an entire unit that attains a certain objective
Control: to mean regulate, direct, or command a system so that the desired objective is achieved
Control system: an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner

as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system.
Input: the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system, typically from an external
energy source, usually in order to produce a specified response from the control system.
Output: the actual response obtained from a control system. It may or may not be equal to the
specified response implied by the input.
Thus a control system must have
An input or inputs
An output or outputs
An arrangement to achieve this input-output combination
1.2 Requirements of a good control system
Accuracy: accuracy should be very high as any error arising should be detected. Can be improved
using feedback element.
Sensitivity: any control system should be very sensitive to the input signals and insensitive to any
other disturbances Noise: A good system should be able to reduce the effects of noise or undesired
inputs
Stability: stability means bounded inputs and bounded outputs. In the absence of the input, the
output should tend to zero as time increases.
Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

Bandwidth: Operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of any system. For frequency re-
sponse of good control system, bandwidth should be large. The required output means maximum
possible output without overshoots and it should be stable for the required input frequency range.
Speed: a good control system should have high speed i.e. the output of the system should be as
fast as possible.
Oscillation: for a good control system, oscillations of the output should be constant or sustained
oscillations.
1.3 Classification of Control systems
Control action is that quantity responsible for actuating the system to produce the output. Depending
on whether such a control action is dependent on the status of the output, control systems are classified
as:
1. Open loop systems
2. Closed looped systems
Open loop systems
This is a control system in which the output has no effect on the control action i.e. the control action
is totally independent of the output of the system. The output is neither measured nor fed back for
comparison with the input. To each reference input, there corresponds a fixed operating condition and
as a result the accuracy of the system depends on the calibration. Open loop control can be used, in
practice, if the relationship between the input and output is known and if there are neither internal nor
external disturbances.
A general open loop control system is shown in Figure 1.1 below.
Figure 1.1: Open Loop Control System
The reference input r(t) is applied to the controller which generates the actuating signal u(t) to give
the controlled output c(t).

Examples of open loop control systems
i). Automatic washing machine
ii). Automatic hand drier
iii). Traffic control by means of signal operated on time basis.
iv). Bread toaster.
Advantages of open loop systems
1. They are simple in construction and design
2. They are easy to maintain
3. Convenient to use when the output is difficult to measure
4. Not much problems of stability
Disadvantages of open loop systems
1. Inaccurate and unreliable
2. Inaccurate results obtained with parameter variations, internal disturbances
3. Recalibration of the controller from time to time is necessary to maintain quality and accuracy
Closed loop control system
This is a control system in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output of the system.
There is a comparison of the state of the output and the reference state. This property is known as
feedback and is the main difference between open loop and closed loop systems.
Feedback is the property of the system which permits the output to be compared with the reference
input so that appropriate control action is formed
The generalized closed loop control system is shown in Figure 1.2 below

Figure 1.2: Closed Loop Control System
where:
r(t) - reference input
u(t) - actuating signal
e(t) - error signal
c(t) - controlled output
b(t) - feedback signal
Part of the output is fed back to the input. The comparison between the reference input r (t) and
the feedback b (t) gives the error e (t) .
When feedback signal is positive, the system is called positive feedback system and e (t) = r (t)+b (t).
When the feedback signal is negative, the system is called negative feedback system and e (t) =
r (t) + b (t).
The error is applied to the controller which gives the actuating signal u (t). The action of the
controller will be to drive the controlled output in such a manner so that the error is reduced to zero
i.e. the feedback signal is equal to the input signal.
Examples of closed looped control systems include
1. Automatic electric iron
2. DC motor speed controlled by tacho feedback
3. Sun-seeker solar systems
4. Automatic water level controller.

Advantages of closed loop systems
1. Accuracy is very high since any error arising is corrected.
2. Reduced effects of non-linearities
3. It senses changes in input due to parameter changes, internal disturbances etc and corrects the
same
4. High bandwidth
5. Facilitates automation
Disadvantages of closed loop systems
1. Complicated in design and maintenance costlier
2. System may become unstable

Comparison of open loop and closed loop systems
Table 1.1: Open loop and closed loop systems
Sr. No. Open Loop System Closed Loop System
1. No feedback. Hence feedback Feedback exists. Hence feedback

elements absent elements exists
2. No error detector Error detector present
3. It is inaccurate It is accurate
4. Highly sensitive to parameter Less sensitive to parameter
changes changes
5. Small bandwidth Large bandwidth
6. Stable May become unstable
7. Economical Costly
8. Example: automatic toaster, Examples: Temperature control
hand drier oven, guided missile
Servomechanisms
Out of a number of closed loop systems in the industry, a particular group of applications are called
servomechanisms. Here the controlled output is position, speed, velocity, acceleration etc. i.e. position
or time derivative of position.
A servomechanism is a power amplifying feedback control system in which the controlled variable is
mechanical position or its time derivative, such as velocity, acceleration.
Example: an automobile steering mechanism where the angular position of wheels on the road is con-
trolled as shown in Figure 1.3 below
Figure 1.3: Servomechanism of automobile steering system

2 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND MATHEMATICAL MODELLING Page 7
2 Transfer Function and Mathematical Modelling
2.1 Transfer Function
The relationship between the input and output of a system is given by the transfer function.
Definitions: The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (or response) to the Laplace transform
of the input (or excitation) under the assumption of zero initial conditions is defined as the transfer
function of the given system.
For the system shown in Figure below
where
c (t) - output
r (t) - input
g (t)- system
Taking the Laplace transforms
Lc (t) = C (s)
Lr (t) = R (s)
Lg (t) = G (s)
Therefore the transfer function G (s)for Figure above is
Laplace of output C (s)

G (s) = = (1)
Laplace of input R (s)
Example 2.1
Consider a differential equation which gives the relationship between the input x(t) and the output
y(t)
d2 y (t) dy (t) dx (t)
2
+3 + 2y (t) = 3 − x (t)
dt dt dt
Obtain the transfer function
Solution

Taking Laplace transform and assuming zero initial conditions
s2 Y (s) + 3sY + 2Y (s) = 3sX (s) − X (s)
And the transfer function is obtained as
Y (s) 3s − 1
= 2
X (s) s + 3s + 2
Hence the transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the
Laplace transform of the input under the assumption that the initial conditions are zero
Laplace transform of three basic inputs
The three basic inputs considered in control systems are:
1. Unit step input:
Figure 2.1: Unit step input
the unit step input is mathematically defined as


1 t≥0

r (t) =

0 t<0
The Laplace transform of the unit step signal is given by
1
R (s) =
s
2. Ramp input:

Figure 2.2: Ramp input
Ramp signal is mathematically defined as

kt

t>0
r (t) =

0 t<0
where k is a constant
The Laplace transform of the ramp signal is given by
k
R (s) =
s2
3. Impulse input:
Figure 2.3: Unit impulse input
Impulse signal is mathematically defined as

1

t=0
r (t) =
t ̸= 0

0
The Laplace transform of the impulse signal is given by

R (s) = 1
Impulse Response and Transfer Function
Let us assume that the Laplace of an impulse input δ (t) is unity

C(s)
From equation (1) G (s) = R(s) then
C (s) = G (s) R (s) (2)
Equation (2) gives the relation for finding the response C (s)
Consider an impulse input applied to Fig 2.3
r (t) = δ (t) = impulse input
Therefore
R (s) = Lr (t) = Lδ (t) = 1
Substituting for R (s) in (2) gives
C (s) = G (s) or c (t) = L−1 C (s) = L−1 G (s) = g (t) (3)
From (3), the impulse response C (s) equals the transfer function G (s)
In other words, if the transfer function is not given but the impulse response is known, then the
transfer function is as good as known.
Definition: The transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant System is defined as the Laplace
transform of the impulse response, with all initial conditions set to zero.
Example 2.2
The impulse response of a system is e−2t . Determine the transfer function of the system.
Solution
The Laplace transform of e−2t is given by
1
L e−2t =

s+2

From the above theory then the transfer function of the system is
1
G (s) =
s+2
Example 2.3
Given the input to the system of example 2.2 as e−3t determine the output of the system.
Solution
1
R (s) = L e−3t =

s+3
1
G (s) =
s+2
1 1
C (s) = G (s) × R (s) = ×
s+2 s+3
Using partial fractions
1 1
C (s) = −
s+2 s+3
Taking inverse Laplace transform gives
c (t) = e−2t − e−3t
Properties of Transfer Function
1. The transfer function of a system is the Laplace transform of its impulse response for zero initial
conditions
2. Conversely the transfer function can be determined from the system input-output pair taking the
ratio of the Laplace of the output to the Laplace of the input
3. The system differential equation can be obtained from the transfer function by replacing s-variable
d
with the Linear Differential Operator D defined by D = dt
4. The transfer function is independent of the inputs to the system
5. The system poles/zeros can be found from the transfer function (discussed in the next section)

6. Stability can be determined from the characteristic equation (discussed later)
7. The transfer function is defined only for linear time invariant systems. It is not defined for non-linear
systems
Proper and improper transfer functions
A transfer function is said to be proper if the order of the denominator is greater than the order of the
numerator i.e. if the system has more poles than zeros
Example
1 1 s+1
, , 2
s (s + 2) (s + 3) s + 6s + 4
A transfer function is said to be improper if the order of the numerator is greater than the order of
the denominator i.e. if the system has more zeros than poles
Advantages of Transfer function
1. It is a mathematical model that gives the gain of the given block/system
2. Integral differential equations are converted to simple algebraic equations
3. Once transfer function is known, any output for any given input, can be known
4. From the knowledge of the transfer function the poles and zeros of a system is found out. Both
poles and poles of a system play a very important role in response of the system.
5. From the characteristic equation, system stability can be inferred.
6. System differential equation can be obtained by replacement of variable ′ s′ by d

dt
7. Transfer function is the characteristic and property of the system itself
8. The value of the transfer function is dependent on the parameters of the system and independent
of the input applied
Disadvantages of Transfer function
1. Transfer function is valid only for liner time invariant systems
2. It does not take into account the initial conditions. Initial conditions loses its significance

3. It does not give any idea about how the present output is progressing. No idea about the physical
structure of the system is immediately known
Poles and Zeros of a transfer function
The transfer function is given by
C (s)
G (s) =
R (s)
Both C (s) and R (s) are polynomials in s, thus
bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 + · · · + b0
G (s) =
sn + an−1 sn−1 + · · · + an
k (s − b1 ) (s − b2 ) (s − b3 ) . . . (s − bm )
= (4)
(s − a1 ) (s − a2 ) (s − a3 ) . . . (s − an )
k is the system gain factor
Poles
The values of s for which the transfer function magnitude |G (s)| becomes infinite after substitution in
the denominator of the transfer function are called the poles of the transfer function.
For equation (4),s = a1 , a2 , a3 etc. are the poles of G (s). In order to get these poles, equate the
denominator of the transfer function to zero.
When the poles are not repeated, such poles are called simple poles. If repeated, such poles are
called multiple poles of the order equal to the number of times they are repeated.
Zeros
The values of s for which the transfer function magnitude |G (s)| becomes zero after substitution in the
numerator of the transfer function are called the poles of the transfer function.
For equation (4), the values of zeros are s = b1 , b2 , b3 etc. In order to get these poles, equate the
numerator of the transfer function to zero.
When the zeros are not repeated, such zeros are called simple zeros. If repeated, such zeros are
called multiple zeros of the order equal to the number of times they are repeated.

Pole-zero plot
This is the diagram obtained by locating all poles and zeros of the transfer function in the s-plane. The
s-plane has two axis, real and imaginary axis. Simple poles are shown by X and simple zeros by a circle
O.
Repeated poles are shown by repeated X (equal to the order of multiplicity) while repeated zeros
are shown by overlapping circles or circles side by side (equal to the order of multiplicity).
Example 2.4
Given the transfer function
3 (s + 3) (s + 1.5)3
G (s) =
(s + 5) (s + 7)2
Determine and plot the poles and zeros of the transfer function
Solution
Poles are at s = −5 (simple pole) and s = −7 (repeated pole of 2nd order multiplicity)
Zeros are at s = −3 (simple zero) and s = −1.5 (repeated zero of 3rd order multiplicity)
The pole-zero plot is as shown in Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4: Pole Zero plot

3 MODELING Page 15
3 Modeling
3.1 Modeling of Electrical Systems
The basic passive elements of electrical systems are resistance, inductance and capacitance as shown in
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1: Basic electrical elements
For a resistive element, Ohm’s law can be written as
(v1 (t) − v2 (t)) = Ri (t)
(V1 (s) − V2 (s)) = RI (s) (5)
For an inductive element, the relationship between voltage and current is
di
(v1 (t) − v2 (t)) = L
dt
(V1 (s) − V2 (s)) = LsI (s) (6)
For a capacitive element, the electrostatic equation is
Q (t) = C (v1 (t) − v2 (t))
Differentiating both sides yields
dq d
= i (t) = C (v1 (t) − v2 (t))
dt dt

3 MODELING Page 16
sQ (s) = I (s) = Cs (V1 (s) − V2 (s)) (7)
Laplace transform of Electrical Networks
Element Time-domain expression s - domain expression
R v (t) = i (t) R V (s) = I (s) R

di
L v (t) = L dt V (s) = LsI (s)
v (t) = C1 i (t) dt 1
R
C V (s) = SC I (s)
Example 2.5
Obtain the transfer function for the circuit of Figure 3.2
Figure 3.2: Example 2.5
Solution
Applying KVL to this circuit
Z
1
vi (t) = Ri (t) + i (t) dt..........(i)
C
and
Z
1
v0 (t) = i (t) dt.................(ii)
C
Taking Laplace transform of both equations yields
1
Vi (s) = RI (s) + I (s) .......(iii)
sC
1
V0 (s) = I (s) ..............(iv)
sC
From (iv)

3 MODELING Page 17
I (s) = sCV0 (s) .............(v)
Substituting (v) into (iii)

1
Vi (s) = R + sCV0 (s) .............(vi)
sC
The transfer function is obtained from (vi) as
V0 (s) 1
G (s) = = 1

Vi (s) sC R + sC
Example 2.6
Determine the transfer function of the network of Figure 3.3. Hence determine the voltage U2 (t)
when the inputs are
1. U1 (t) = 5
2. U1 (t) = 5t
3. U1 (t) = 5t2
Figure 3.3: Example 2.6
Solution
The Laplace of the given circuit is as shown in Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4: Laplace form of the circuit

3 MODELING Page 18
Applying KVL to the circuit of Figure 3.4

1
U1 (s) = I (s) + 2 ..................(i)
s
U2 (s) = 2I (s) .................(ii)
From (ii)
U2 (s)
I (s) = ...............(iii)
2
Substituting (iii) into (i)

U2 (s) 1
U1 (s) = +2
2 s
The transfer function is obtained as
U2 (s) s
= ..............(iv)
U1 (s) s + 0.5
5
1. U1 (t) = 5 ∴ U1 (s) = s
Substituting this value into (iv)
5
U2 (s) = (s+0.5)
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
U2 (t) = 5e−0.5t
2. U1 (t) = 5t
5
∴U1 (s) = s2

3 MODELING Page 19
5
U2 (s) = s(s+0.5)
By partial fractions
10 10
U2 (s) = s − (s+0.5)
U2 (t) = 10 − 10e−0.5t
3. U1 (t) = 5t2
10
∴U1 (s) = s3
10
U2 (s) = s2 (s+0.5)
By partial fractions
20 40 40
U2 (s) = s − s + (s+0.5)
U2 (t) = 20t − 40 + 40e−0.5t
3.2 Modelling of Mechanical Systems
Mechanical systems are of two types:
1. Translational

3 MODELING Page 20
The motion of the body is along a straight line or curved path
2. Rotational
The motion of the body is about its own axis
Mechanics of translational motion
There are three elements here
1. Mass
Figure 3.5: Mass
The physical model of a mass element assumes that mass is concentrated at the center of the body.
When a block of mass M is subjected to a force F, it undergoes a displacement. The relationship
between the force and mass is
F ∝ acceleration
F = M a where a is the acceleration
2
∴F = M dv d x
dt = M dt2
where v - velocity and x - displacement
2. Spring
Figure 3.6: Spring

3 MODELING Page 21
Here the body subjected to force undergoes elastic deformation. The relationship is
F ∝displacement
F = Kx where K is the spring constant
3. Damper
Figure 3.7: Damper
Viscous friction: it is between moving surfaces separated by a viscous fluid or between a solid body
and a fluid medium. It is proportional to velocity. While friction opposes motion, it is not always
undesirable. Viscous is sometimes introduced intentionally also and is shown by a dashpot
Here F ∝ velocity
F = B dx d
dt = B dt (x1 − x2 )
x1 and x2 being the displacement of the two ends of a dashpot e.g. piston
Translational elements
Mechanics of Rotational motion
There is a lot of similarity between translational motion and rotational motion as far as modeling is
concerned. Table below is a list of counter parts of these systems

3 MODELING Page 22
Sr. No. Translational Motion Rotational Motion
1 Mass(M ) Inertia(J)
2 Damper (B) Damper (B)
3 Spring (K) Spring (K)
4 Force (F ) Torque (T )
5 Displacement(x) Angular displacement (θ)
dx dθ
6 Velocity v = dt Angular velocity ω = dt
There are three elements here
1. Inertial J
Figure 3.8: Inertia
The relation is
2
T = J ddt2θ = J dω
dt
Inertia has only one displacement
2. Damper B
Figure 3.9: Damper
The relation is
T = B dθ d
dt = B dt (θ2 − θ1 )
= B (ω2 − ω1 )

3 MODELING Page 23
3. Spring K
Figure 3.10: Spring
Here the relation is
T = K (θ1 − θ2 ) = Kθ
Rotational elements
Sr. No. Element Relation Remarks
2
1 T = J ddt2θ Inertia
d
2 T = B dt (θ2 − θ1 ) Damper
3 T = K (θ1 − θ2 ) Spring
3.3 Analogous Systems
There are two main analogous systems
1. Force-voltage analogy
2. Force-current analogy
Force-Voltage analogy
The force is analogous to voltage. Consider the circuit of Figure 3.11 below
Applying KVL
Z
di 1
V (t) = Ri + L + idt
dt C

3 MODELING Page 24
Figure 3.11: Series RLC Circuit
but
dq
i=
dt
therefore
dq d2 i 1
V (t) = R +L 2 + q
dt dt C
Laplace transform gives
1
V (s) = sRQ (s) + s2 LQ (s) + Q (s)
C
1
= s2 LQ (s) + sRQ (s) + Q (s) (8)
C
Comparing this with the Translational system
d2 x dx
F =M 2
+B + Kx
dt dt
Laplace gives
F (s) = s2 M X (s) + sBX (s) + KX (s) (9)
Comparing (1) and (2) gives the following analogies

1
F → V, M → L, B → R, K → C,X →Q
Comparing with the Rotational System
d2 θ dθ
T =J 2
+B + Kθ
dt dt
Laplace transform gives
T (s) = s2 Jθ (s) + sBθ (s) + Kθ (s) (10)
Comparing (1) and (3) gives the following analogies

1
T → V, J → L, B → R, K → C,θ →Q

4 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION Page 25
Table 3.1: Force-voltage analogy
Translational Electrical Rotational
Force F Voltage V Torque T

Mass M Inductance L Inertia J
Damper B Resistance R Damper B
1
Spring K Elasticity D = C Spring K
Displacement x Charge q Displacement θ
dq
Velocity v Current i = dt Velocity ω
4 Block Diagram Representation
4.1 Introduction
A block diagram is a pictorial representation of the system representing the relationship between input
and output of the system.
Each element of a practical system is represented as a block. The transfer function of that element
is inserted inside the block. The different blocks are interconnected to each other as per the sequence
of operation of the system.
Lines drawn between the blocks indicate the connection of the blocks. An arrow indicates the
direction of the flow of signals from one block to another.
Some important definitions
Block diagram: a pictorial representation of the cause and effect relationship between input and
output of the system
Figure 4.1: Block diagram
Output: The value of the input is multiplied with the value of block gain to get the output

Output = Gain × Input
R (s)input C (s) Output
Summing point: more than one signal can be added or subtracted at the summing point
Take off point: The point at which the output is taken for feedback purpose.
Forward path: The direction of flow of signal is from input to output
Feedback path: The direction of flow of signal is from output to input
Advantages of Block Diagram
1. The functional operation of the system can be observed from the block diagram
2. The diagram gives the information about performance of the system
3. Block diagram is used for analysis and design of control systems
4. It is very simple to construct block diagram for big and complicated systems
Disadvantages of Block Diagrams
1. Block diagram for given system are non unique

2. Source of energy in the system is not shown in the diagram
3. In the procedure of reduction of block diagram algebra some important functions may be omitted
or hidden. There is no check for it.
4. The block diagram does not give any information about the physical construction of the system.
4.2 Canonical form of Feedback Control System
The canonical form consists of
1. One forward path
2. One feedback path
3. One summing point
4. One take-off point
Figure 4.2: Canonical form of block diagram
The following terms are used with reference to Figure 4.2 above
1. R (s) = Laplace transform of input, r (t)
2. C (s) = Laplace transform of controlled output, c (t)
3. E (s) = Laplace transform of error signal, e (t)
4. B (s) =Laplace transform of feedback signal, b (t)
5. G (s) = Forward transfer function

6. H (s) = Feedback transfer function
C(s)
7. R(s) = Control ratio = Closed loop transfer function
E(s)
8. R(s) =Error ratio = Actuating signal ratio
B(s)
9. R(s) = Primary feedback ratio
Derivation of Transfer Function of Canonical Closed Loop System
Referring to Figure 4.3 below
Figure 4.3: Closed loop system
E (s) = R (s) ± B (s) (11)
B (s) = C (s) H (s) (12)
C (s) = E (s) H (s) (13)
Substituting (2) into (1)
E (s) = R (s) ± C (s) H (s)
C (s)
E (s) = = R (s) ± C (s) H (s)
G (s)
C (s) = R (s) G (s) ± C (s) G (s) H (s)
C (s) G (s)
=
R (s) 1 ± G (s) H (s)

Figure 4.4: Closed loop system transfer function
Positive sign means negative feedback

Negative sign means positive feedback
This can be used as a standard result to eliminate such simple loop in a complicated system reduction
procedure.
4.3 Rules for Block Diagram Reduction
Any complicated system can be converted into canonical form by using block diagram reduction rules.
The following rules are widely used in block diagram reduction:
Rule 1: Blocks in Series
Any finite number of blocks in series may be algebraically combined by multiplication.
Figure 4.5: Blocks in Series
The blocks of Figure 4.5 (a) can be reduced by an equivalent single block as shown in Figure 4.5(b).
If there is a summing point or take-off point between the blocks, the blocks cannot be said to be in
series.
Rule 2: Blocks in Parallel
The blocks which are connected in parallel get added algebraically (considering the sign of the signal).
Considering the system of Figure 4.6 above
C (s) = R (s) G1 + R (s) G2 − R (s) G3

Figure 4.6: Blocks in Parallel
= R (s) [G1 + G2 − G3 ]
All the three blocks can be replaced by an equivalent single block as shown in the figure below
This rule cannot be applied directly when a take-off point occurs as shown in the figure below
For a parallel combination, the direction of flow of signals through the blocks must be the same.
This rule cannot be applied in the system of figure below
Rule 3: Eliminate Feedback Loop
Eliminate feedback loop as follows
Figure 4.7: Feedback Loop
For negative feedback

C (s) G (s)
=
R (s) 1 + G (s) H (s)
For positive feedback
C (s) G (s)
=
R (s) 1 − G (s) H (s)
Now consider a system shown in Figure 4.8 below.
Figure 4.8: Feedback loop
Here G1 andG2 are in series. First the series combination is obtained. Then the feedback loop is
eliminated.
Rule 4: Associative Law for Summing Point
The order of summing point can be changed if two or more summing points are in series (output remains
the same).
Figure 4.9: Summing point
For Figure 4.9(a) above,
y = R (s) − B1
C (s) = y − B2 = R (s) − B1 − B2
For Figure 4.9(b) above,

y = R (s) − B2
C (s) = y − B1 = R (s) − B2 − B1
Which means output is same. Associative law for summing point is applicable only to summing
points which are directly connected to each other.
Rule 5: Shifting a summing point before a block
In Figure 4.10(a) below a summing point needs to be shifted before G as shown by the dotted line.
Figure 4.10: Summing point before a block
Now C (s) = X + GR (s)

To get the same output, the transformation is shown in Figure 4.10(b)

X
C (s) = G R + = X + GR (s)
G
which is the same output
NB: To shift a summing point before a block in the system, another block having a block function
1/G is added before the summing point as shown in Figure 4.10(b)
Rule 6: Shifting a summing point after a block
Here our aim is to shift the summing point after G as shown by the dotted line.
Here the output of the system is C (s) = (R + X) G
Shifting the summing point without making any change as shown in Figure 4.11 (b) above , the
output becomes C (s) = RG + X
This output is not the same as the original output. To obtain the same output X is multiplied by
G. This means to shift a summing point after a block, add a block having the same transfer function
at the summing point.

Figure 4.11: Summing point after a block
Rule 7: Shifting a take-off point before a block
To shift a take-off point before a block, add a block having the transfer function G in series with the
signal taking-off from the take-off point.
Figure 4.12: Take-off point before a block
From Figure 4.12(a) above , C = X = RG

Shifting the take-off point without making any change as shown in Figure 4.12(b), C = RG andX =
R
To satisfy the condition of Figure 4.12(a), a block having the transfer function G is added in series
with X as shown in Figure 4.12(c).
Rule 8: Shifting a take-off point after a block
1
To shift a take-off point after a block, add a block having the transfer function G in series with the
signal taking-off from the take-off point.

Figure 4.13: Take-off point after a block
From Figure 4.13(a), C = RG and X = R

Shifting the take-off point after the block without doing any modifications as shown in Figure 4.13(b)
yields C = RG and X = RG
1
To satisfy the original system, a block with the transfer function G is added in series with X as shown
in Figure 4.13(c).
Rule 9: Shifting a take-off point after a summing point
To shift a take-off point after a summing point, one more summing point is added in series with take-off
point.
Suppose we have to shift a take-off point as shown with the dotted line in Figure 4.14(a)
Figure 4.14: Take-off point after a summing point
Here Z = R and C (s) = R ± Y

Shifting the take-off point after the summing point directly as shown in Figure 4.14(b) yields C (s) =
R ± Y andZ = R ± Y
We achieve the original value of Z by the operation
Z =R±Y ±Y
This operation is shown in Figure 4.14(c) below

Rule 10: Shifting a take-off point before a summing point
To shift a take-off point before a summing point, one more summing point is added in series with take-off
point.
Suppose we have to shift a take-off point as shown with the dotted line in Figure 4.15(a)
Figure 4.15: Take-off point before a summing point
Here Z = R ± Y and C(s) = R ± Y

Shifting the take-off point after the summing point directly as shown in Figure 4.15(b) yields C(s) =
R ± Y and Z = R
We achieve the original value of Z by adding a summing point in series with Z as shown in Figure
4.15(c)
Procedure to solve block diagram reduction problem
Step 1: Reduce the blocks in series

Step 2: Reduce the blocks in parallel
Step 3: Eliminate feedback path
Step 4: Always try to shift take-off points towards right and summing points towards left.

Step 5: Repeat above procedure till getting simplest form
Step 6: Find out transfer function for the whole system. The transfer function of the overall system
is given by
C (s)
TF =
R (s)
Example 3.1
Find the single block equivalent by block diagram reduction for the given system
Solution
G4 , G3 and G5 are in parallel. Apply rule 2
Blocks G2 and G3 + G4 + G5 are in cascade. Apply rule 1
Rule 3 can be applied to feedback loop G1 and H1

Now rule 1 can be applied to cascade blocks in the forward path

G1
1+G1 H1 and G2 (G3 + G4 + G5 )
Rule 3 is applied to the resulting feedback loop
Rule 1 is applied to the resulting block and G6

5 TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS Page 38
5 Time Domain Analysis
In time domain analysis , time is the independent variable. When a system is given an excitation (input)
, there is a response (output). This response varies with time and is called the time response
Generally the response of any system has two parts
1. Transient response
2. Steady state response
5.1 Transient Response
This is the variation of output response during the time it takes to reach its final value is called transient
period ts
After completion of transient response, the output of a system becomes stable i.e transient response
becomes zero
5.2 Steady State Response
This is the final value achieved by the system output. It starts when the transient response completely
dies out denoted by css (t)
Total response: addition of transient response and steady state response
c (t) = ct (t) + css (t)
Steady state error: The difference between the desired output and actual output of the system.
Illustration
Steady State error
This is the difference between desired output and actual output denoted by ess and its Laplace transform
as E (s)
Consider the closed loop system below

Figure 5.1: Transient and steady state response
E (s) = R (s) − B (s) (14)
= R (s) − C (s) H (s)
but
C (s) = E (s) G (s)
⇒ E (s) = R (s) − E (s) G (s) H (s)
E (s) [1 + G (s) H (s)] = R (s)
R (s)
E (s) = (15)
1 + G (s) H (s)
In time domain , error signal is denoted by e (t) and is obtained as

e (t) = L−1 E (s) (16)
Steady state error ess is given by

ess = lim e (t) (17)
t→∞
Applying final value theorem in Laplace transform
lim f (t) = lim sF (s)

t→∞ s→0
⇒ ess = lim e (t)

t→∞
= lim sE (s)
s→0
R (s)
= lim s (18)
s→0 1 + G (s) H (s)
This shows that the steady state error depends on
1. Types of input - R (s)
2. Types of system - G (s) H (s)
State error Coefficients
Control system has steady state errors for changes in position, velocity, and acceleration
kp - position error constant
kv - velocity error constant
ka - acceleration error constant
Then error constants are called static error constants
Step Input
Consider a step of magnitude A applied as a reference input to the system

A

t>0
r (t) =

0 t<0

A
R (s) =
s
From (5)
A 1
ess = lim s
s→0 s 1 + G (s) H (s)
A
= lim
s→0 1 + G (s) H (s)
A
(19)
1 + lims→0 G (s) H (s)
Defining position error constant kp as
kp = lim G (s) H (s) (20)

s→0
A
ess = (21)
1 + kp
This indicates that the steady state error is controlled by position error coefficient kp and magnitude of
input A
Ramp Input
Consider a ramp input of slope A
r (t) = At
A
R (s) = (22)
s2
From (5)
A
s 2
ess = lim s
s→0 1 + G (s) H (s)
A
= lim
s→0 s + sG (s) H (s)

A
=
lims→0 s + lims→0 sG (s) H (s)
A
(23)
lims→0 sG (s) H (s)
Introducing the term velocity error coefficient kv defined by
kv = lim sG (s) H (s)

s→0
A
⇒ ess = (24)
kv
Thus for ramp input , the velocity error coefficient kv will control the steady state error
Parabolic Input
A
Consider a parabolic reference input of slope 2
A 2
r (t) = t
2
A
R (s) =
s3
A
s 3
ess = lim s
s→0 1 + G (s) H (s)
A
= lim
s→0 s2 + s2 G (s) H (s)
A
=
lims→0 s2 G (s) H (s)
Defining acceleration error coefficient ka defined by
ka = lim s2 G (s) H (s)

s→0
A
⇒ ess =
ka

5.3 Analysis of first order System
The order of a system is the highest power of s in the denominator of the closed loop transfer function
Consider a first order system shown below
Figure 5.2: First order system
1
C (s)
= Ts 1
R (s) 1 + Ts
1
=
1 + Ts
Unit Step response of first order system
For unit step input to the first order system
1
R (s) =
s
C (s) 1
=
R (s) 1 + Ts
1
1 1 T
C (s) = = 1

s 1 + Ts s s+ T
In partial fraction form
A B
C (s) = +
s s + T1
1 1
= − 1
s s+ T
Taking inverse Laplace transform
1 1
c (t) = L−1 − 1
s s+ T

−1
t
= 1 − exp T
which can be plotted as
The poles of the closed loop transfer function are given by
1 + Ts = 0
1
s=−
T
5.4 Analysis of Second order system
Definitions
Damping is the tendency of the system to oppose an oscillatory behavior

Damping is measured by a factor called damping ratio denoted by ξ
When ξ is maximum, it provides maximum opposition to oscillatory behavior of the system
Natural Frequency of Oscillation
When ξ is zero , the system oscillates naturally with maximum frequency called natural frequency of
oscillation ωn

Consider the general second order system below
C (s) ωn2
= 2
R (s) s + 2ξωn s + ωn2
where
ωn - undamped natural frequency
ξ - damping factor
this is the standard form of the closed loop transfer function of a second order system
The characteristic equation of the second order system is given by
s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2 = 0
The poles of the transfer function are given by
p
±2ξωn ± 4ξ 2 ωn2 − 4ωn2
s=
2
p
= ξωn ± ωn ξ2 − 1
1. When ξ = 0
s = ±jωn ⇒ the roots are purely imaginary, Undamped system
2. When ξ = 1
s = −ξωn = −ωn roots are real and equal, Critically damped system
3. When ξ > 1
p
s = −ξωn ± ωn ξ 2 − 1 roots are real and unequal , Overdamped system
4. When 0 < ξ < 1

p
s = −ξωn ± jωn ξ 2 − 1 roots are complex conjugates , Under damped system

Undamped 2nd order system for unit step input ξ = 0
C (s) ω2
= 2 n 2
R (s) s + ωn
For unit step input
1
R (s) =
s
1 ωn2
C (s) =
s s2 + ωn2
A Bs
= + 2
s s + ωn2
ωn2
A= =1
s2 + ωn2
s=0
ωn2
B= = −1
s2 + ωn2
s=0
1 s
C (s) = − 2
s s + ωn2

−1 1 s
c (t) = L − 2
s s + ωn2
= 1 − cos ωn t
The response of undamped second order system for unit step input is completely oscillatory
Figure 5.3: Undamped second order system response

Under-damped 2nd order system with unit step input 0 < ξ < 1
C (s) ωn2
= 2
1
with R (s) = s
1 ωn2
C (s) =
s s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2
A Bs + C
+ 2
s s + 2ξωn s + ωn2
(A + B) s2 + (2Aξωn + C) s + Aωn2 = ωn2
A=1 B = −1 C = −2ξωn
1 s + 2ξωn
C (s) = − 2
s s + 2ξωn + ωn2

1 s + 2ξωn
c (t) = L−1 −
s s2 + 2ξωn + ωn2
s + 2ξωn s + 2ξωn
=
s2 2
+ 2ξωn + ωn (s + ξωn )2 + (ωn2 − ξ 2 ωn2 )
s + 2ξωn
=
(s + ξωn )2 + ωn2 (1 − ξ 2 )
s + 2ξωn
= p 2
(s + 2ξωn )2 + ωn 1 − ξ 2
p
let ωd = ωn 1 − ξ2
s + 2ξωn
⇒
(s + ξωn )2 + ωd2
s + ξωn ξωn
= 2 +
2
(s + ξωn ) + ωd (s + ξωn )2 + ωd2
1 s + ξωn ξωn
C (s) = − 2 −
2
s (s + ξωn ) + ωd (s + ξωn )2 + ωd2

from Laplace transform tables
ω
⇔ exp−at sin ωt
(s + a)2 + ω 2
s+a
⇔ exp−at cos ωt
(s + a)2 + ω 2

−ξωn t ξωn −ξωn t
c (t) = 1 − exp cos ωd t − exp sin ωd t
ωd

−ξωn t ξωn
c (t) = 1 − exp cos ωd t − sin ωd t
ωd
exp−ξωn t hp i
=1− p 1 − ξ 2 cos ωd t + ξ sin ωd t
1 − ξ2
√
p 1−ξ 2
sin θ = 1 − ξ 2 tan θ = ξ cos θ = ξ
exp−ξωn t
c (t) = 1 − p [sin θ cos ωd t + cos θ sin ωd t]
1 − ξ2
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
exp−ξωn t
c (t) = 1 − p [sin (θ + ωd t)]
1 − ξ2
The response of under damped 2nd order system with unit step input oscillates before settling to a
final value. The oscillations depend on the value of the damping ratio.
Critically damped 2nd order system with unit step input ξ = 1
C (s) ωn2
= 2
R (s) s + 2ωn s + ωn2
1
R (s) =
s

Figure 5.4: Under-damped second order system response
1 ωn2
C (s) =
s s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2
ωn2
s (s + ωn )2
A B C
= + +
s (s + ωn ) (s + ωn )2
A=1 B = −1 C = −ωn
1 1 ωn
C (s) = − −
s s + ωn (s + ωn )2
c (t) = 1 − exp−ωn t −ωn t exp−ωn t
= 1 − exp−ωn t [1 + ωn t]
Figure 5.5: Critically damped second order system response

The response of critically damped 2nd order system has no oscillations
Over damped 2nd order system with unit step input ξ > 1
C (s) ωn2
= 2
1
R (s) =
s
the roots of s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2 = 0 are
p
−ξωn ± ωn ξ 2 − 1
p
sa = −ξωn + ωn ξ 2 − 1
p
sb = −ξωn − ωn ξ 2 − 1
let s1 = −sa and s2 = −sb
C (s) ωn2
=
R (s) (s + s1 ) (s + s2 )
A B C
= + +
s s + s1 s + s2
ωn2 ωn2
A= =
(s + s1 ) (s + s2 ) s1 s2
s=0
ω2 ω2
⇒A= n = n2 = 1
ωn
p p
−ξωn + ωn ξ 2 − 1 −ξωn − ωn ξ 2 − 1
ωn2
B=
s (s + s2 )
s=−s1
ωn2 −ωn2
= p p p = p
ξωn − ωn ξ 2 − 1 ξωn − ωn ξ 2 − 1 + −ξωn − ωn ξ 2 − 1 2 ξ 2 − 1 s1
ωn
C= p
2 ξ 2 − 1 s2
1 ω2 1 ωn 1
C (s) = − p n + p
s 2 ξ 2 − 1 s1 s + s 1 2 ξ 2 − 1 s2 s + s2
exp−s1 t exp−s2 t

ωn
c (t) = 1 − p −
2 ξ2 − 1 s1 s2

Figure 5.6: Over damped second order system response
p p
where s1 = ξωn − ωn ξ 2 − 1 and s2 = ξωn + ωn ξ2 − 1
The response of over damped 2nd order system has no oscillations but it takes longer time for the
response to reach the final steady state value
5.5 Time domain specifications
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillations before reaching
steady state.
A typical damped oscillating response of a system is as shown in Figure 5.7
Definitions
1. Decay time td - time taken for the response to reach 50% of the final value for the first time
2. Rise time tr - time taken for the response to raise from 0 to 100% for the very first time
3. Peak time tp - time taken for the response to reach the peak value for the very first time or time
taken for the response to reach the peak overshoot mp
4. Peak overshoot mp - ratio of the maximum peak value measured from the final value to the
maximum value
final value = c (∞)
max value = c (tp )

c(tp )−c(∞)
mp = c(∞)
5. Settling time - time taken by the response to reach and stay within a specified error.
It is usually expressed as a % of final value
Usual tolerance error is 2% or 5% of the final value

Figure 5.7: Time domain specifications
Expression for time domain specifications
The response of 2nd order system under damped case is given by
exp−ξωn t
c (t) = 1 − p sin (ωd t + θ)
1 − ξ2
at t = tr , c (t) = c (tr ) = 1
exp−ξωn tr
⇒1− p sin (ωd tr − θ) = 1
1 − ξ2
exp−ξωn tr
⇒ p sin (ωd tr − θ) = 0
1 − ξ2

Since exp−ξωn tr ̸= 0 , then
sin (ωd tr + θ) = 0
⇒ ωd t r + θ = π
π−θ
tr =
ωd
p
−1 1 − ξ2
θ = tan
ξ
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ξ2
√
1−ξ 2
π− tan−1 ξ
tr = p
ωn 1 − ξ2
Peak time
Differentiating c (t)w.r.t. t and equating to 0
exp−ξωn t
c (t) = 1 − p sin (ωd t + θ)
1 − ξ2
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ξ 2
p
d ξωn −ξωn t ωn 1 − ξ 2
c (t) = p exp sin (ωd t + θ) − p exp−ξωn t cos (ωd t + θ)
dt 1 − ξ2 1 − ξ2
ξωn
⇒p exp−ξωn t sin (ωd t + θ) − ωn exp−ξωn t cos (ωd t + θ) = 0
1 − ξ2
ωn −ξωn t
h p
2
i
⇒ p exp ξ sin (ωd t + θ) − 1 − ξ cos (ωd t + θ) = 0
1 − ξ2
p
but cos θ = ξ and sin θ = 1 − ξ 2
ωn
⇒p exp−ξωn t [cos θ sin (ωd t + θ) − sin θ cos (ωd t + θ)] = 0
1−ξ 2

sin (x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
ωn
⇒p exp−ξωn t [sin ((ωd t + θ) − θ)]
1 − ξ2
ωn
=p exp−ξωn t sin ωd t
1−ξ 2
d
c (t) =0
dt tp
ωn exp−ξωn t
⇒ p sin ωd tp = 0
1 − ξ2
sin ωd tp = 0
⇒ ωd tp = π
π
tp =
ωd
π
= p
ωn 1 − ξ 2
Peak overshoot
% overshoot = %mp
c (tp ) − c (∞)
%mp = ∗ 100
c (∞)
where
c (tp ) = peak response at t = tp
c (∞) = final steady state value
at t = ∞
c (∞) = 1

exp−ξωn t
1− p sin (ωd t + θ) = 1
1 − ξ2
π
at t = tp with tp = ωd
exp−ξωn tp
c (tp ) = 1 − p sin (ωd tp + θ)
1 − ξ2
−ξω π
exp n ωd

π
c (tp ) = 1 − p sin ωd +θ
1 − ξ2 ωd
sin (π + θ) = − sin θ
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ξ2
−ξω
√ nπ
exp ωn 1−ξ2
c (tp ) = 1 − p (− sin θ)
1 − ξ2
√−ξπ
exp 1−ξ2
c (tp ) = 1 + p sin θ
1 − ξ2
but
p
sin θ = 1 − ξ2
√−ξπ
c (tp ) = 1 + exp 1−ξ2
c (∞) − c (tp )
% overshoot = ∗ 100
c (∞)
√−ξπ
= exp 1−ξ2 ∗100
Settling time t (s)

The response of 2nd order system has 2 components
−ξωn t
1. decaying exponential component exp
√
1−ξ 2
2. sinusoidal component sin (ωd t + θ)

The decaying component term reduces oscillations produced by the sinusoidal component. Hence the
settling time is decided by the eonential component.
The settling time can be found by equating the percentage tolerance error to the eonential term
For 2% tolerance
exp−ξωn ts
√ = 0.02
1−ξ 2
For least value of ξ
exp−ξωn ts = 0.02
−ξωn ts = ln (0.02)
ln(0.02)
ts = −ξωn
4
= ξωn
= 4T for 2% error
For 5% error
exp−ξωn ts = 0.05
−ξωn ts = ln (0.05)
3
ts = ξωn
= 3T
In general for a specified % error, ts is given by
ln (% error)
ts =
ξωn
Example 5.1
A control system having unity feedback has an open loop transfer function
20
G (s) =
s (1 + 4s) (1 + s)
Determine
1. Different static error coefficient
t2
2. Steady state error if input = r (t) = 2 + 4t + 2

Solution
(1)
kp = lim G (s) H (s)
s→0
20
= lim =∞
s→0 s (1 + 4s) (1 + s)
kr = lim s G (s) H (s)

s→0
20
= lim s = 20
s→0 s (1 + 4s) (1 + s)
ka = lim s2 G (s) H (s)

s→0
20
= lim s2 =0
s→0 s (1 + 4s) (1 + s)
(2)
t2
r (t) = 2 + 4t +
2
2 4 1
R (s) = L {r (t)} = + +
s s2 s3
R (s)
ess = lim s
s→0 1 + G (s) H (s)
" #
2 4 1 1
= lim s + 2+ 3 20
s→0 s s s 1+ s(1+4s)(1+s)
2 4
+ s13 (1 + 4s) (1 + s) s2

s + s2
= lim s
s→0 s (1 + 4s) (1 + s) + 20
ess = ∞
Example 5.2
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
25
G (s) =
s (s + 5)
Determine

1. maximum overshoot
2. peak time
3. rise time
4. settling time
Solution
25
G (s) = H (s) = 1
s (s + 5)
closed loop transfer function
C (s) G (s)
=
R (s) 1 + G (s) H (s)
25
=
s2 + 5s + 25
general second order equation
ωn2
H (s) =
s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2
ωn2 = 25 ωn = 5rad/s
5
2ξωn = 5 ξ= = 0.5
2∗5
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ξ2
√
= 5 1 − 0.25 = 4.33
peak time √
1−ξ 2
π − tan−1 ξ
tr = p
ωn 1 − ξ 2
π − 1.04
= = 0.485sec
4.33
settling time

for 2% error
4 4
ts = = = 1.6sec
ξωn 0.5 ∗ 5
overshoot
√−ξπ
%mp = exp 1−ξ2 ∗100
√−0.5π
= exp 1−0.52 ∗100 = 16.3%
Example 5.3
A unity feedback system has a forward path transfer function
s+2
G (s) =
s (s + 1)
Determine
1. Rise time
2. Peak time
3. Peak overshoot
4. Settling time (2% tolerance)
5. delay time
6. output response to a unit step input
Solution
s+2
G (s) = H (s) = 1
s (s + 1)
G (s)
C.L.T.F ==
1 + G (s) H (s)
s+2
=
s2 + 2s + 2
compare with general second order system
s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2 = 0

s2 + 2s + 2 = 0
⇒ ωn2 = 2 ωn = 1.414rad/s
1
2ξωn = 2 ξ= = 0.707
1.414
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ξ 2 = 0.999rad/s
p
−1 1 − ξ2
θ = tan = 0.785
ξ
π−θ
tr = = 2.36sec
ωd
π
tp = = 3.14sec
ωd
√−ξπ
%mp = exp 1−ξ2 ∗100 = 4.32%
4
ts = = 4sec
ξωn
exp−ξωn t
c (t) = 1 − p sin (ωd t + θ)
1 − ξ2
exp−t
=1− sin (0.999t + 0.785)
0.707
Example 5.4
For the control system below, find the values of k1 and k2 so that mp = 25% and Tp = 4sec .
Assume step input

Solution
k1
G (s) =
s2
H (s) = 1 + k2 s
C (s) G (s)
=
R (s) 1 + G (s) H (s)
k1
=
s2 + k1 k2 s + k1
comparing the denominator with
s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2
ωn2 = k1
k1 k2 = 2ξωn
2ξωn 2ξ
k2 = =
k1 ωn
mp = 25%
√−ξπ
exp 1−ξ2 ∗100 = 25
√−ξπ
exp 1−ξ2 = 0.25

ξπ
p = 1.386
1 − ξ2
ξ2π2
= 1.92
1 − ξ2
ξ 2 = 0.1628
ξ = 0.4
Tp = 4sec
π π
= = p =4
ωd ωn 1 − ξ 2
π
=4
ωn ∗ 0.9165
ωn = 0.857
k1 = ωn2 = 0.73
2ξ
k2 = = 0.93
ωn

6 STABILITY ANALYSIS Page 63
6 Stability Analysis
6.1 Introduction
A stable system is one that will have a bounded response for all possible bounded inputs A linear system
is stable if and only if all the poles of its transfer function are located on the left of the jω axis
It is not necessary to determine the actual location of the poles of the transfer function for investi-
gating the stability of a linear system. We only need to find out if the number of poles on the right of
the s-plane is zero or not
Stability Criterion
Simple criterion are used to judge the location the poles of a characteristics equation with respect to
the left or right of the s-plane without actually solving the equation They are;
1. Hurwitz Stability Criterion
2. Routh’s Stability Criterion
6.2 Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The transfer function
C (s) b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + · · · + bm N (s)

= =
R (s) a0 sn + a1 sn−1 + · · · + bn D (s)
The necessary and sufficient condition for the polynomial D (s) = a0 sn + a1 sn−1 + · · · + bn = 0 to
have all roots on the left half of the s-plane is that the n sub-determinants of the Hurwitz determinant
H should be positive where
a1 a3 a5 − − −
a0 a2 a4 − − −
0 a1 a3 − − −
H= 0 a0 a2 − − −
− − − − − −
− − − − − −
0 0 0 − − an

D1 = |a1 |
a1 a3
D2 =
a0 a2
a1 a3 a5
D3 = a0 a2 a4
0 a1 a3
Dn = H
For a stable system, all the sub-determinants should be positive

Example 6.1
Check for stability of the system whose characteristic equation is
s3 + 8s2 + 14s + 24 = 0
Solution
a1 a3 a5
H = a0 a2 a4
0 a1 a3
8 24 0
D3 = 1 14 0 = 2112
0 8 24
D1 = 8 = 8
8 24
D2 = = 88
1 14
D1 , D2 and D3 are positive, hence the system is stable

6.3 Routh’s Stability Criterion
For the transfer function
C (s) b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + · · · + bm N (s)

= n n−1
=
R (s) a0 s + a1 s + · · · + bn D (s)
The coefficients of D (s) are arranged in an array called Routh’s array as shown below
sn a0 a2 a4 a6
sn−1 a1 a3 a5 a7
sn−2 b1 b2 b3
sn−3 c1 c2 c3
— —
— —
— —
— —
s0 an
The first 2 rows are obtained from the coefficients of D (s).
Elements of the following rows are obtained as below
a1 a2 − a0 a3
b1 =
a1
a1 4 − a0 a5
b2 =
a1
a1 a6 − a0 a7
b3 =
a1
b1 a3 − a1 b2
c1 =
b1
b1 a5 − a1 b3
c2 =
b1
b1 a7
c3 =
b1
and so on
Each column will reduce by one as we move down the array. This process is obtained till s0 row is
obtained. The coefficient will be an for this row

Routh’s Criterion
The necessary and sufficient condition for a system to be stable is that all the terms in the first column
of the Routh’s array should have the same sign.
There should be no any sign change in the first column. When there are sign changes in the first
column, then the system is unstable. There are routes on the right hand of the s-plane.
The number of sign changes equals to the number of roots on the right hand side of the s-plane.
Example 6.2
D (s) = s4 + 5s3 + 20s2 + 40s + 50 = 0
Solution
s4 1 20 50
s3 5 40 0
s2 12 50 0
230
s1 12 0 0
s0 50 0 0
No sign changes in the first column hence no roots on the right half of the s-plane and therefore the
system is stable.
Example 6.3
D (s) = s3 + s2 + 2s + 24 = 0
Solution
s3 1 2
s2 1 24
s1 −22
s0 24

There are two sign changes in the first column hence two roots on the right half of the s-plane and
therefore the system is unstable.
Special cases
1. If the first element of any row is zero and the rest are non zeros
The next row cannot be formed as division by zero will take place. There are two methods of this
problem
(a) Method 1
It is replaced by a small positive number ϵ. The sign of the element of the first column is
then examined as
Example 6.4
D (s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 5 = 0
Solution
s5 1 2 3
s4 1 2 5
s3 0 (ϵ) −2 0
2ϵ+2
s2 ϵ 5
−4ϵ−4−5ϵ2
s1 2ϵ+2
s0 5
Let ϵ → 0 from the right side
2ϵ + 2 2
lim = 2 + lim = +∞
ϵ→0 ϵ ϵ→0 ϵ
No sign changes
−4ϵ − 4 − 5ϵ2
lim = −2
ϵ→0 2ϵ + 2
Sign changes

There are two sign in the first column hence two roots on the right half of the s-plane and
(b) Method 2
1
Replace s with Z and complete the Routh’s test for z.
Example 6.5
D (s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 5 = 0
Solution
1
Replacing s with z
5 4 3 2
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +2 +3 +5=0
Z Z Z Z Z
5Z 5 + 3Z 4 + 2Z 3 + 2Z 2 + Z + 1 = 0
Z5 5 2 1
Z4 3 2 1
Z 3 − 43 − 23
1
Z2 2 1
Z1 2
Z0 1
There are two sign in the first column hence two roots on the right half of the s-plane and
2. When all elements in any one row are zeros
(a) Method 1
Form an auxiliary equation with the help of the coefficients of the row just above the row of
zeros
Take the derivatives of this equation and replace its coefficients in the present row of zeros.
Proceed with the Routh test

Example 6.6
D (s) = s6 + 2s5 + 8s4 + 12s + 20s2 + 16s + 16 = 0
Solution
s6 1 8 20 16
s5 2 12 16 0
s4 2 12 16
s3 0 0 0
s3 row is zero
The auxiliary equation for s4 row is
A (s) = 2s4 + 12s2 + 16
dA
= 8s3 + 24s
dS
Completed array
s6 1 8 20 16
s5 2 12 16 0
s4 2 12 16
s3 8 24 0
s2 6 16
s1 2.67
s0 16
No sign change on the first column hence the system may be stable
Solving for auxiliary equation
A (s) = 2s4 + 12s2 + 16 = 0

Let s2 = y
2y 2 + 12y + 16 = 0
y = −4 and y = −2
√
s = ±j2 and s = ±j 2
Non repeated roots on the jω axis give marginally stable system.
(b) Method 2
Form an auxiliary polynomial from the preceding row. The auxiliary polynomial is a factor of
the characteristic polynomial.
Obtain the number of right half plane roots in the auxiliary polynomial
Divide the characteristic polynomial by the auxiliary polynomial and obtain the number of
right half plane roots in the polynomial obtained.
The number of roots of the characteristic polynomial in the right half of the s-plane is the
sum of the two obtained above
Example 6.7
D (s) = s6 + 2s5 + 8s4 + 12s3 + 20s2 + 16s + 16 = 0
Solution
s3 row is zero
The auxiliary equation for s4 row is
A (s) = 2s4 + 12s2 + 16 = 0s
√
s = ±j2 and s = ±j 2
Two pairs of roots on the imaginary axis

With D (s) divided by A (s)
Q (s) = s2 + 2s + 2 = 0
Routh array for Q (s)
s2 1 2
s1 2 0
s0 2
No sign change in the first column
All roots of D (s) are on the left half of the s-plane with 2 pairs on the imaginary axis. The
system is therefore marginally stable

7 ROOT LOCUS Page 72
7 Root Locus
7.1 Introduction
This is a graphical procedure for sketching the movement in the s-plane of the poles of the transfer
function of the closed loop system by varying the loop gain.
Consider the canonical closed loop system
C (s) G (s)
=
R (s) 1 + G (s) H (s)
The closed loop transfer function poles are given by the characteristic equation
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
The system gain is varied and therefore the roots of the characteristic equation depends on the system
gain k. k is varied from 0 to ∞
If cell location are joined , the resulting diagram or locus is called the Root locus
Example 7.1
k
For a unity feedback system with G (s) = s . Obtain the root locus
Solution
k
G (s) = H (s) = 1
s
closed loop poles are given by
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
k
1+ =0
s

s+k =0
s = −k
for
k=0 s=0
k=∞ s = −∞
as k is varied from 0 to ∞ , the root locus varies from 0 to ∞
The root locus starts from the poles of the open loop transfer function and ends on the zeros of the
open loop transfer function
Example 7.2
Given that
ks
G (s) =
s+3
determine when the root locus begins and ends
Solution
O.L.T.F pole
s+3=0
s = −3
O.L.T.F zero
ks = 0

s=0
Hence the root locus begins at s = −3 for k = 0 and ends at s = 0 for k = ∞
7.2 Angle and Magnitude Criterion
The closed loop transfer function are given by
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
G (s) H (s) = −1
= 1∠180° (25)
Since s is a complex number , the above equation has both angle and magnitude and both must be
satisfied as for equation (1)
i.e
|G (s) H (s)| = 1 (26)
angle G (s) H (s) = ±180 (27)
Any point s that lie on the root locus must satisfy equations (2) and (3) which is the magnitude and
angle criterion respectively for k > 0
Example 7.3
Given that
k
G (s) H (s) =
s (s + 2)
check whether points s = −1 + j and s = −2 + j lie on the root locus and determine the value of k
Solution
(1)

s = −1 + j
k
G (s) H (s) =
s=−1+j (−1 + j) (−1 + j + 2)
k
=
(−1 + j) (1 + j)
k k
= =
j2 − 1 −2
k∠0
=
2∠180
k
= ∠ − 180
2
angle is −180 , point lies on the root locus
also from magnitude criterion
k
=1
2
⇒k=2
no other gain is possible

(2)
k
G (s) H (s) =
s=−2+j (−2 + j) (−2 + j + 2)
k k
= =
j (−2 + j) −1 − j2
k∠0
=√
5∠63.43
k
√ ∠ − 63.43
5
angle criterion not satisfied hence the point does not lie on the root locus

7.3 Procedure for Drawing Root Locus
1. The root locus is always symmetrical about the real axis
2. Number of loci
let n = number of O.L.T.F poles
m = number of O.L.T.F zeros
(a) if m < n
number of loci = number of poles = n
each loci will start from an O.LT.F pole and end at O.L.T.F zero
(n − m) loci will end at infinity
(b) if m > n
number of loci = number of zeros = m
each loci will start from an O.LT.F pole and end at O.L.T.F zero
(m − n)loci will end at these zeros from ∞
Example 7.4
for
k (s + 1)
G (s) =
s (s + 2) (s + 3)
n=3 m=1
n−m=2
loci ends at infinity
one loci ends at s = −1 (zero at −1)

3. Real axis Loci
Determined by open loop transfer function poles and zeros. Any point on the real axis is a part of
the loci iff the number of poles and zeros to its right is odd.
k (s + 1)
G (s) H (s) =
s (s + 2) (s + 3)
the poles and zeros are plotted and the loci analyzed as follows
(a) All points between s = 0 and s = −1 not (inclusive) have one pole at s = 0 (odd). Hence
loci is present in the region
(b) between s = −1 and s = −2 (not inclusive) , there are two (one pole at s = 0 , zero at
s = −1) to the right .Hence loci absent
(c) loci present between s = −2 and s = −3 (not inclusive), 3 elements (2 poles s = 0, −2 and
one zero s = −1) to the right
(d) no loci beyond s = −3. four elements (3 poles, one zero to the right)
4. Angle of asymptotes
A line which the locus touches at infinity. The loci of these branches that **** to infinity move
along the asymptotes
Number of asymptotes = n − m
angle of asymptotes is given by

(2k + 1)
β= 180
n−m

for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . n − m − 1
from
k (s + 1)
G (s) H (s) =
s (s + 2) (s + 3)
number of asymptotes = n − m = 3 − 1 = 2
(2k + 1)
β= 180 k = 0, 1
2
β = 90° , 270°
3 loci started at s = 0, −2, −3
one loci end at s = −1
The loci starting at s = −2 and s = −3 do not have any zero at real negative axis and therefore
they must break the real axis and move out
The point they break away is called break away point, they will be guided by asymptotes which
they should touch at k = ∞
5. center of asymptotes (centroid)
The asymptotes touch the real axis at a point called centroid σc where
P P
real parts of poles of OLT F − real parts of zeros of OLT F
σc =
n−m
The centroid σc and angle of asymptotes , fixes the location of asymptotes
From previous example
poles at s = −2, −3 and 0
zero at s = −1 P P
− (0 + 2 + 3) − −1
σc =
3−1
−5 + 1
= = −2
2

6. Breakaway point
The point at which the root locus comes out of the real axis.
Obtained from
dk
=0
ds
7. Angle of arrival/departure
The root locus arrives at a complex zero at k = ∞. Similarly, the root locus departs from a
complex pole at k = 0 . These angles are known as angle of arrival and departure respectively
angle of departure from poles ϕD is given by
ϕD = 180° + arg 6 H
where arg 6 H → angle of G (s) H (s) excluding the pole when angle is calculated
angle of arrival ϕA is given by

ϕA = 180° − arg 6 H
8. jω crossover or intersection of imaginary axis
we make use of Routh criterion
9. Sketch the root loci
10. Comment on stability of the system

Example 7.5
Draw the root locus of the system
k
G (s) H (s) =
s (s + 3) (s + 6)
obtain the value of k when ξ = 0.6 from the root locus
Determine the value of k for marginal stability and critical damping
Solution
1. number of loci
n=3
m=0
number of loci is 3
loci ending at infinity is 3
There are three loci all proceeding to end at infinity
2.
3. Real axis loci
(a) present between −3 < σ < 0
(b) absent between −6 < σ < 3

(c) present between −∞ < σ < −6
three loci starting at s = 0 , s = −3 , s = −6 all proceed to infinity along 3 asymptotes
between s = 0 and s = −3 , two loci start towards each other. They must break away
between 0 and −3
4. number of asymptotes and their angles
n−m=3
(2k + 1)
β= 180 k = 0, 1, 2
n−m
(2k + 1)
180
3
= 60° , 180° , 300°
5. centroid
P P
σc =
n−m
(0 + −3 + −6) − 0
=
3−0
= −3
6. Breakaway point
k = − s3 + 9s2 + 18s

dk
=0
ds
0 = − s3 + 9s2 + 18s


s2 + 6s + 6 = 0
s = −4.73 s = −1.27
taking s = −1.27 (real axis loci present below)
s=0 and s = −3
therefore
h i
k = − (−1.27)3 + 9 (−1.27)2 + 18 (1.27)
= 10.39
critical damping k = 10.39
7. angle of arrival
Not needed : no complex poles at zeros are present
8. Intersection of imaginary axis
Characteristic equation
s (s + 3) (s + 6) + k = 0
s3 + 9s2 + 18s + k = 0
Routh array
s3 1 18
s2 9 k
162−k
s1 9
s0 k
for stability column 1 should be position
162 − k
>0
9

k < 162 k>0
⇒ 0 < k < 162
jω axis cross over s = ±j4.24
Example 7.6
The open loop transfer function of a system is
k
G (s) H (s) =
s (s + 2 + j2) (s + 2 − j2)
determine the complete root locus and comment on the stability of the closed loop system
Solution

1. number of loci
n=3
m=0
number of loci is 3
2. Real axis loci
present between 0 < σ < −∞
3. number of asymptotes and their angles
n−m=3
(2k + 1)
β= 180 k = 0, 1, 2
n−m
(2k + 1)
180
3
= 60° , 180° , 300°
4. centroid
P P
σc =
n−m
(−2 − 2) − 0
= = −1.33
3

5. Breakaway point
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
s3 + 4s2 + 8s + k = 0
k = −s3 − 4s2 − 8s
dk
= −3s2 − 8s − 8 = 0
ds
3s2 + 8s + 8 = 0
s = −1.33 ± j0.94
6. Angle of departure
k
σH =
s (s + 2 + j2) (s + 2 − j2)
k
σH ′ =
s (s + 2 + j2) s=−2+j2
k
=
(−2 + j2) (−2 + j2 + 2 + j2)
k
=
(−2 + j2) j4
k∠0
√
8∠135 4∠90
arg σH ′ = −225°

ϕD = 180° + arg σH ′ = −45°
ϕD = −45 at s = 2 + j2 and
ϕD = 45° at s = −2 − j2
7. jω crossover
1 + G (s) H (s) = 0
s3 + 4s2 + 8s + k = 0
s3 1 8
s2 4 k
32−k
s1 4
s0 k
32 − k = 0 kmax = 32 k=0
for stability 0 < k < 32
4s2 + k = 0
4s2 + 32 = 0
s = ±j2.82
system unstable for k > 32

system marginally stable for k = 32
system stable at 0 < k < 32


8 FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS Page 88
8 Frequency Domain Analysis
Frequency response is the steady state response of a system to a sinusoidal input.
Sinusoidal Response of a Linear System
Consider a system as shown in Figure below where

r(t)- input function(sinusoidal)
y (t)- output function
g (t)- Transfer function
c (t) = g (t) r (t)
Taking Laplace transform
C (s) = G (s) R (s)
and
C (s) N (s) N (s)

G (s) = = =
R (s) D (s) (s + a) (s + b) (s + c) + · · ·
N (s)
C (s) = R (s) (28)
(s + a) (s + b) (s + c) + · · ·
Consider r (t) = A sin ωt
Thus
Aω
R (s) =
s2 + ω2
N (s) Aω
C (s) = (29)
(s + a) (s + b) (s + c) + · · · s2 + ω 2
eanding equation (2) in partial fraction form

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2
C (s) = + + + ··· + +
s+a s+b s+c s − jω s + jω
The inverse Laplace becomes
c(t) = A1 exp−at +A2 exp−bt +A3 exp−ct + · · · + B1 expjωt +B2 expjωt (30)
The terms with coefficients A1 to An contribute to decaying eonents and therefore the transient
response. The terms with coefficients B1 and B2 contribute the steady state response and thus
css (t) = B1 expjωt +B2 expjωt (31)
Thus
Aω
C (s) = G (s)
s2 + ω2
The coefficients B1 and B2 are calculated as

Aω
B1 = G (s) 2 (s − jω) |s=jω
s + ω2
A
= G (jω)
2j

Aω
B2 = G (s) 2 (s + jω) |s=jω
s + ω2
A
= G (−jω)
2j
G (jω) is a complex quantity written as
G (jω) = |G (jω)| expjϕ
Also
G (−jω) = |G (−jω)| exp−jϕ
Putting the values ofB1 and B2 into equation (4)

A A
css (t) = |G (jω)| expjϕ expjωt + |G (−jω)| exp−jϕ expjωt
2j 2j
" #
expj(ωt+ϕ) − exp−j(ωt+ϕ)
= A |G (jω)|
2j
= A |G (jω)| sin (ωt + ϕ) (32)
therefore
css (jω) = |C (jω)|
where
|C (jω)| = A |G (jω)|
= |G (jω)| |R (jω)|
Conclusions
1. The sinusoidal output has same frequency as input
2. The output is sinusoidal and has a phase difference of ϕ and a different magnitude
3. The system merely changes the amplitude and phase of the output with respect to the input
Methods used in Frequency Response
Frequency response characteristics have two plots
1. Magnitude function
2. Phase function
For both plots, angular frequency ω is the variable

Performance Specifications
Consider a closed loop system of Figure below
The transfer function for the system is given by
C (s) G (s)
M (s) = =
R (s) 1 + G (s) H (s)
C (jω) G (jω)
M (jω) = =
R (jω) 1 + G (jω) H (jω)
1. Response Peak Mr
This is the maximum value of M (jω) as ω is varied It indicates relative stability of the closed
loop system. A larger value of Mr corresponds to large maximum overshoot in a step response
2. Resonance frequency ωr
This is the frequency at which peak response Mr occurs
3. Phase Margin ϕP M
It is a measure of relative stability. Let ϕ1 be the phase angle of a system at unity gain. The phase
margin is given by
ϕpM = 180 + ϕ1
The frequency at which the gain is unity, ω1 is called crossover frequency.
4. Gain Margin
The frequency ω2 where the phase angle of transfer function is −180° is called phase crossover
frequency.
The gain at this frequency is given by|G (jω2 )| |H (jω2 )|
The gain margin is given by
1
Gain M argin =
|G (jω2 )| |H (jω2 )|

The phase margin indicates how much the system angle can be increased to cause the system to
become unstable from a stable condition
The gain margin indicates how much gain can be increased to cause system instability
Correlation between Time and Frequency Response Specifications
For a canonical second order system
ωn2
G (s) =
s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn
With usual notation
ωn2
G (jω) =
(jω)2 + 2ξωn (jω) + ωn
Dividing the numerator and denominator by ωn2
1
G (jω) = 2 (33)
1− ω
ωn + j 2ξω
ωn
a) Resonant peak
ω
Let u = ωn
1
G (jω) =
[1 − u2 ] + j2ξu
therefore
1
|G (jω)| = q =M (34)
(1 − u2 )2 + (2ξu)2
2ξu
∠G (jω) = tan−1 (35)
1 − u2
For resonant frequency ωr
d
|G (jω)| = 0
du
− 12 2 1 − u2 (−2u) + 8ξ 2 u

d
|G (jω)| = i3 =0
du h
2 2 2 2
(1 − u ) + (2ξu)
−4u + 4u3 + 8ξ 2 u = 0

u2 + 2ξ 2 − 1 = 0
p
u= 1 − 2ξ 2
therefore
ω p
= 1 − 2ξ 2
ωn
At ω = ωr
p
ωr = ωn 1 − 2ξ 2
1
Mr = q
(1 − u2r )2 + (2ξur )2
1
= p (36)
2ξ 1 − ξ 2
Mr is a function of the damping factor ξonly
Similarly
2ξu
ϕr = tan−1
1 − u2
√
−1 1 − 2ξ
= tan
ξ
Conclusion
1. As ξapproaches zero, Mr approaches infinity and ωr approaches ωn
2. For 0 < ξ < 0.707, Mr is greater than unity and ωr is less than ωn
3. For ξ > 0.707, there is no resonant peak and the maximum value Mr of is unity and ωr = 0
b) Cut off frequency ωc and Bandwidth (BW)

Cut off frequency ωc is the point where M has a value of 0.707.
Usually control systems are low pass filters, hence M = 1 for zero frequency, bandwidth becomes
equal to ωc
ωc
Let uc = ωn

Substituting into equation (7)
1
0.707 = q
(1 − u2c )2 + (2ξuc )2
2
1 − u2c + (2ξuc )2 = 2
p
u2c = 1 − 2ξ 2 ± 4ξ 4 − 4ξ 2 + 2
h p i1
2
BW = ωc = ωn 1 − 2ξ 2 ± 4ξ 4 − 4ξ 2 + 2 (37)
Conclusions
From (11) BW is a function of ωn and ξ
1. BW is directly proportional to ωn
2. BW and Mr are directly proportional for 0 < ξ < 0.707
3. As time increases, BW decreases
Example
For a second order system with unity feedback
200
G (s) =
s (s + 8)
Determine the frequency domain specifications
Solution
200
M (s) =
s2 + 8s + 200
ωn2
s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn
ωn = 14.14 and ξ = 0.283
1
Mr = p = 1.842
2ξ 1 − ξ2

p
ωr = ωn 1 − 2ξ 2 = 12.96rad/s
h p i1
2
BW = ωc = ωn 1 − 2ξ 2 ± 4ξ 4 − 4ξ 2 + 2 = 30.25rad/s
Example
Consider a closed loop unity feedback system with
k
G (s) =
s (s + a)
Determine the values of k and a that will satisfy the conditions Mr = 1.04 and ωr = 11.55rad/s.
Determine also the settling time and bandwidth.
Solution
k
M (s) = s2 +as+k
√ a
ωn = k and ξ = √
2 k
1 2k
Mr = p = √
2ξ 1 − ξ 2 a 4k − a2
Substituting forMr = 1.04
p
1.04a 4k − a2 = 2k
4k 2 − 4.32a2 k + 1.08a4 = 0
k = 0.686a2 or k = 0.393a2
From ωr = 11.55rad/s condition
p
ωr = ωn 1 − 2ξ 2
1p
= 2k − a2
2

2k − a2 = 266.7
For k = 0.686a2
1.372a2 − a2 = 266.7
a = 26.77 and k = 491.61
For k = 0.393a2
0.786a2 − a2 = 266.7
This does not give real value of a
a = 26.77 and k = 491.61
√
ωn = k = 22.17
and
a
ξ = √ = 0.604
2 k
4
ts = = 0.298
ξωn
h p i1
2
2
BW = ωc = ωn 1 − 2ξ 4 2
± 4ξ − 4ξ + 2 = 28.15rad/s

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EET 3357 Control Systems I

Dr. Wawerũ Njeri

Upon completion of this module, students will demonstrate:

2). model systems in both time and frequency domain;

4). use feedback control technique to determine stability of the system;

Core Reading Material

1 Introduction to Control Systems 1

2 Transfer Function and Mathematical Modelling 7

4 Block Diagram Representation 25

5 Time Domain Analysis 38

8 Frequency Domain Analysis 88

1 Introduction to Control Systems

System: An arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to form

Control system: an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner

 An arrangement to achieve this input-output combination

1.2 Requirements of a good control system

Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

1.3 Classification of Control systems

1. Open loop systems

2. Closed looped systems

Open loop systems

Figure 1.1: Open Loop Control System

Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

i). Automatic washing machine

ii). Automatic hand drier

iii). Traffic control by means of signal operated on time basis.

iv). Bread toaster.

Advantages of open loop systems

1. They are simple in construction and design

2. They are easy to maintain

3. Convenient to use when the output is difficult to measure

4. Not much problems of stability

Disadvantages of open loop systems

1. Inaccurate and unreliable

2. Inaccurate results obtained with parameter variations, internal disturbances

Closed loop control system

Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

Figure 1.2: Closed Loop Control System

1. Automatic electric iron

2. DC motor speed controlled by tacho feedback

3. Sun-seeker solar systems

4. Automatic water level controller.

Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

Advantages of closed loop systems

1. Accuracy is very high since any error arising is corrected.

2. Reduced effects of non-linearities

Disadvantages of closed loop systems

1. Complicated in design and maintenance costlier

2. System may become unstable

Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

Comparison of open loop and closed loop systems

Table 1.1: Open loop and closed loop systems

Sr. No. Open Loop System Closed Loop System

1. No feedback. Hence feedback Feedback exists. Hence feedback

Figure 1.3: Servomechanism of automobile steering system

Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

2 Transfer Function and Mathematical Modelling

2.1 Transfer Function

Therefore the transfer function G (s)for Figure above is

Laplace of output C (s)

Lecture notes by Wawerũ Njeri EET 3357 Control Systems I

s2 Y (s) + 3sY + 2Y (s) = 3sX (s) − X (s)

And the transfer function is obtained as

An arrangement to achieve this input-output combination