Ebook Modern Control Systems PDF Full Chapter PDF

Modern control systems - eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://ebooksecure.com/download/modern-control-systems-ebook-pdf/
This is a special edition of an established title widely used by
GLOBAL colleges and universities throughout the world. Pearson published
this exclusive edition for the benefit of students outside the
GLOBAL
EDITION United States and Canada. If you purchased this book within EDITION
EDITION
GLOB AL
the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been
imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author.
Modern Control Systems

Explicating the structure of feedback control theory, Dorf and Bishop’s Modern Control Systems
Modern
aids students in understanding feedback control systems and discusses exciting topics like green
engineering, human-centered design, and the Internet of Things. The fourteenth edition retains
the emphasis on design that has historically characterized this book, presenting a clear exposition
of the basic principles of frequency- and time-domain design techniques.
Control
This book helps students navigate various aspects of the control system design process,
illustrating these through detailed examples covering applications in robotics, manufacturing,
medicine, and transportation, among others. Using real-world engineering problems associated
with designing a controller for a disk drive read system, Modern Control Systems develops a
Sequential Design Example across chapters. In the same spirit, each chapter presents
Systems
a Continuous Design Problem in which students design a table slide for high-precision
machinery. Each chapter’s Continuous Design Problem helps students apply the concepts and
tools of that chapter to address a different design aspect of the overarching design problem.
Ideal for engineering students pursuing senior-level courses as well as for those with no previous
FOURTEENTH
background in control engineering, the fourteenth edition presents several key features.
EDITION
• Skills Check questions test students’ knowledge of the chapter material.
• Over 980 end-of-chapter exercises, around 300 of which are new or updated, help FOURTEENTH EDITION
students strengthen their problem-solving abilities as they work their way from the exercises
to the design- and computer-based problems.
• A companion website offers several additional resources including the m-files described in
the book and appendices on z-Transform pairs, matrix algebra, MATLAB, and the LabVIEW
Dorf • Bishop
MathScript RT Module, among others.
Richard C. Dorf
Robert H. Bishop
CVR_DORF2374_14_GE_CVR_Vivar.indd 1 17/09/21 10:04 AM

Modern
Control Systems
A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 1 20/09/21 12:23 PM

This page is intentionally left blank

Modern
Control Systems
FOURTEENTH EDITION
GLOBAL EDITION
Richard C. Dorf
University of California, Davis
Robert H. Bishop
University of South Florida

Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/ with any queries on this content.
Cover Image: Nguyen Quang Ngoc Tonkin/Shutterstock
Pearson Education Limited

KAO Two
KAO Park
Hockham Way
Harlow
CM17 9SR
United Kingdom
and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com
© Pearson Education Limited 2022
The rights of Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by
him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Modern Control Systems, 14th Edition, ISBN 978-0-
13-730725-8 by Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop published by Pearson Education © 2022.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written
permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. For information regarding
permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions
department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.
Attributions of third-party content appear on the appropriate page within the text.
PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING is an exclusive trademark owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates in
the U.S. and/or other countries.
Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their
respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or
descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or
promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson
Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors.
This eBook may be available as a standalone product or integrated with other Pearson digital products like MyLab
and Mastering. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher
reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.
ISBN 10: 1-292-42237-8 (print)

ISBN 13: 978-1-292-42237-4 (print)
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-42235-0 (uPDF eBook)
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
eBook formatted by B2R Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

Dedicated to the memory of
Professor Richard C. Dorf


Brief Contents
Preface 15
About the Authors 27
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Control Systems 29
CHAPTER 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 79
CHAPTER 3 State Variable Models 184
CHAPTER 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics 256
CHAPTER 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems 321
CHAPTER 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems 394
CHAPTER 7 The Root Locus Method 446
CHAPTER 8 Frequency Response Methods 545
CHAPTER 9 Stability in the Frequency Domain 622
CHAPTER 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems 728
CHAPTER 11 The Design of State Variable Feedback Systems 812
CHAPTER 12 Robust Control Systems 882
CHAPTER 13 Digital Control Systems 945
References 997
Index 1014


Contents
Preface 15
About the Authors 27
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Control Systems 29

1.1 Introduction 30
1.2 Brief History of Automatic Control 33
1.3 Examples of Control Systems 39
1.4 Engineering Design 46
1.5 Control System Design 47
1.6 Mechatronic Systems 50
1.7 Green Engineering 54
1.8 The Future Evolution of Control Systems 55
1.9 Design Examples 57
1.10 Sequential Design Example: Disk Drive Read System 62
1.11 Summary 63
Skills Check 63 • Exercises 66 • Problems 68 • Advanced
Problems 73 • Design Problems 75 • Terms and Concepts 78
CHAPTER 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 79

2.1 Introduction 80
2.2 Differential Equations of Physical Systems 80
2.3 Linear Approximations of Physical Systems 85
2.4 The Laplace Transform 88
2.5 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems 95
2.6 Block Diagram Models 107
2.7 Signal-Flow Graph Models 112
2.9 The Simulation of Systems Using Control Design Software 136
2.11 Summary 153
Problems 176 • Design Problems 178 • Computer Problems 180 •
Terms and Concepts 182
CHAPTER 3 State Variable Models 184

3.1 Introduction 185
3.2 The State Variables of a Dynamic System 185
3.3 The State Differential Equation 188
9

10 Contents
3.4 Signal-Flow Graph and Block Diagram Models 194
3.5 Alternative Signal-Flow Graph and Block Diagram Models 205
3.6 The Transfer Function from the State Equation 209
3.7 The Time Response and the State Transition Matrix 210
3.9 Analysis of State Variable Models Using Control Design
Software 228
3.11 Summary 235
CHAPTER 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics 256

4.2 Error Signal Analysis 259
4.3 Sensitivity of Control Systems to Parameter Variations 261
4.4 Disturbance Signals in a Feedback Control System 264
4.5 Control of the Transient Response 269
4.6 Steady-State Error 272
4.7 The Cost of Feedback 274
4.9 Control System Characteristics Using Control Design
Software 285
4.11 Summary 295
CHAPTER 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems 321

5.2 Test Input Signals 322
5.3 Performance of Second-Order Systems 325
5.4 Effects of a Third Pole and a Zero on the Second-Order System
Response 330
5.5 The s-Plane Root Location and the Transient Response 335
5.6 The Steady-State Error of Feedback Control Systems 337
5.7 Performance Indices 344
5.8 The Simplification of Linear Systems 349
5.10 System Performance Using Control Design Software 364

Contents 11
5.12 Summary 372
CHAPTER 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems 394

6.1 The Concept of Stability 395
6.2 The Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion 399
6.3 The Relative Stability of Feedback Control Systems 407
6.4 The Stability of State Variable Systems 408
6.6 System Stability Using Control Design Software 419
6.8 Summary 427
CHAPTER 7 The Root Locus Method 446

7.2 The Root Locus Concept 447
7.3 The Root Locus Procedure 452
7.4 Parameter Design by the Root Locus Method 466
7.5 Sensitivity and the Root Locus 472
7.6 PID Controllers 477
7.7 Negative Gain Root Locus 488
7.9 The Root Locus Using Control Design Software 502
7.11 Summary 510
CHAPTER 8 Frequency Response Methods 545

8.2 Frequency Response Plots 548
8.3 Frequency Response Measurements 569
8.4 Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain 571
8.5 Log-Magnitude and Phase Diagrams 574
8.7 Frequency Response Methods Using Control Design Software 584

12 Contents
8.9 Summary 591
CHAPTER 9 Stability in the Frequency Domain 622

9.2 Mapping Contours in the s-Plane 624
9.3 The Nyquist Criterion 630
9.4 Relative Stability and the Nyquist Criterion 641
9.5 Time-Domain Performance Criteria in the Frequency Domain 648
9.6 System Bandwidth 655
9.7 The Stability of Control Systems with Time Delays 655
9.9 PID Controllers in the Frequency Domain 677
9.10 Stability in the Frequency Domain Using Control Design Software 678
9.12 Summary 689
CHAPTER 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems 728

10.2 Approaches to System Design 730
10.3 Cascade Compensators 731
10.4 Phase-Lead Design Using the Bode Plot 735
10.5 Phase-Lead Design Using the Root Locus 741
10.6 System Design Using Integration Compensators 747
10.7 Phase-Lag Design Using the Root Locus 750
10.8 Phase-Lag Design Using the Bode Plot 753
10.9 Design on the Bode Plot Using Analytical Methods 758
10.10 Systems with a Prefilter 759
10.11 Design for Deadbeat Response 762
10.13 System Design Using Control Design Software 774
10.15 Summary 783

Contents 13
CHAPTER 11 The Design of State Variable Feedback Systems 812

11.2 Controllability and Observability 813
11.3 Full-State Feedback Control Design 819
11.4 Observer Design 825
11.5 Integrated Full-State Feedback and Observer 829
11.6 Reference Inputs 835
11.7 Optimal Control Systems 837
11.8 Internal Model Design 845
11.10 State Variable Design Using Control Design Software 855
11.12 Summary 862
CHAPTER 12 Robust Control Systems 882

12.2 Robust Control Systems and System Sensitivity 884
12.3 Analysis of Robustness 888
12.4 Systems with Uncertain Parameters 890
12.5 The Design of Robust Control Systems 892
12.6 The Design of Robust PID-Controlled Systems 896
12.7 The Robust Internal Model Control System 900
12.9 The Pseudo-Quantitative Feedback System 914
12.10 Robust Control Systems Using Control Design Software 916
12.12 Summary 921
CHAPTER 13 Digital Control Systems 945

13.2 Digital Computer Control System Applications 946
13.3 Sampled-Data Systems 948
13.4 The z-Transform 951
13.5 Closed-Loop Feedback Sampled-Data Systems 955
13.6 Performance of a Sampled-Data, Second-Order System 959

14 Contents
13.7 Closed-Loop Systems with Digital Computer Compensation 961
13.8 The Root Locus of Digital Control Systems 964
13.9 Implementation of Digital Controllers 968
13.11 Digital Control Systems Using Control Design Software 977
13.13 Summary 984
References 997
Index 1014
WEB RESOURCES
APPENDIX A MATLAB Basics

APPENDIX B MathScript RT Module Basics
APPENDIX C Symbols, Units, and Conversion Factors
APPENDIX D Laplace Transform Pairs
APPENDIX E An Introduction to Matrix Algebra
APPENDIX F Decibel Conversion
APPENDIX G Complex Numbers
APPENDIX H z-Transform Pairs
APPENDIX I Discrete-Time Evaluation of the Time Response
APPENDIX J Design Aids

Preface
MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS—THE BOOK
Global issues such as climate change, clean water, sustainability, pandemics, waste man-
agement, emissions reduction, and minimizing raw material and energy use have led
many engineers to re-think existing approaches to engineering design. One outcome
of the evolving design strategy is to consider green engineering and human-centered
design. The goal of these approaches to engineering is to design products that mini-
mize pollution, reduce the risk to human health, and improve the living environment.
Applying the principles of green engineering and human-centered design highlights the
power of feedback control systems as an enabling technology.
To reduce greenhouse gases and minimize pollution, it is necessary to
improve both the quality and quantity of our environmental monitoring systems.
One example is to use wireless measurements on mobile sensing platforms to
measure the external environment. Another example is to monitor the quality of
the delivered power to measure leading and lagging power, voltage variations, and
waveform harmonics. Many green engineering systems and components require
careful monitoring of c urrent and voltages. For example, current transformers
are used in various capacities for measuring and monitoring current within the
power grid network of interconnected systems used to deliver electricity. Sensors
are key components of any feedback control system because the measurements
provide the required information as to the state of the system so the control sys-
tem can take the appropriate action.
The role of control systems will continue to expand as the global issues facing
us require ever increasing levels of automation and precision. In the book, we
present key examples from green engineering such as wind turbine control and
modeling of a photovoltaic generator for feedback control to achieve maximum
power delivery as the sunlight varies over time.
The wind and sun are important sources of renewable energy around the
world. Wind energy conversion to electric power is achieved by wind energy tur-
bines connected to electric generators. The intermittency characteristic of the
wind makes smart grid development essential to bring the energy to the power
grid when it is available and to provide energy from other sources when the wind
dies down or is disrupted. A smart grid can be viewed as a system comprised of
hardware and software that routes power more reliably and efficiently to homes,
businesses, schools, and other users of power in the presence of intermittency
and other disturbances. The irregular character of wind direction and power also
results in the need for reliable, steady electric energy by using control systems on
the wind turbines themselves. The goal of these control devices is to reduce the
effects of wind intermittency and the effect of wind direction change. Energy stor-
age systems are also critical technologies for green engineering. We seek energy
storage systems that are renewable, such as fuel cells. Active control can be a key
element of effective renewable energy storage systems as well.
15

16 Preface
Another exciting development for control systems is the evolution of the
Internet of Things—a network of physical objects embedded with electronics,
software, sensors and connectivity. As envisioned, each of the millions of the
devices on the network will possess an embedded computer with connectivity
to the Internet. The ability to control these connected devices will be of great
interest to control engineers. Indeed, control engineering is an exciting and a
challenging field. By its very nature, control engineering is a multidisciplinary
subject, and it has taken its place as a core course in the engineering curriculum.
It is reasonable to expect different approaches to mastering and practicing the
art of control engineering. Since the subject has a strong mathematical founda-
tion, we might approach it from a strictly theoretical point of view, emphasizing
theorems and proofs. On the other hand, since the ultimate objective is to imple-
ment controllers in real systems, we might take an ad hoc approach relying only
on intuition and hands-on experience when designing feedback control systems.
Our approach is to present a control engineering methodology that, while based
on mathematical fundamentals, stresses physical system modeling and practical
control system designs with r ealistic system specifications.
We believe that the most important and productive approach to learning is for
each of us to rediscover and re-create anew the answers and methods of the past.
Thus, the ideal is to present the student with a series of problems and questions
and point to some of the answers that have been obtained over the past decades.
The traditional method—to confront the student not with the problem but with
the finished solution—is to deprive the student of all excitement, to shut off the
creative impulse, to reduce the adventure of humankind to a dusty heap of theo-
rems. The issue, then, is to present some of the unanswered and important prob-
lems that we continue to confront, for it may be asserted that what we have truly
learned and understood, we discovered ourselves.
The purpose of this book is to present the structure of feedback control theory
and to provide a sequence of exciting discoveries as we proceed through the text
and problems. If this book is able to assist the student in discovering feedback
control system theory and practice, it will have succeeded.
WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION
This latest edition of Modern Control Systems incorporates the following key updates:
❏ Available as both an eText and print book.
❏ Video solutions for select problems throughout the text.
❏ Interactive figures added throughout the eText to enhance student learning.
❏ In the eText, interactive Skills Check multiple-choice questions at the end of each
chapter.
❏ Over 20% new or updated problems. There are over 980 end-of-chapter exercises,
problems, advanced problems, design problems, and computer problems.
❏ Expanded use of color for clarity of presentation.
❏ An updated companion website available at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com for
students and faculty.

Preface 17
THE AUDIENCE
This text is designed for an introductory undergraduate course in control systems

for engineering students. There is very little demarcation between the various engi-
neering areas in control system practice; therefore, this text is written without any
conscious bias toward one discipline. Thus, it is hoped that this book will be equally
useful for all engineering disciplines and, perhaps, will assist in illustrating the utility
of control engineering. The numerous problems and examples represent all fields,
and the examples of the sociological, biological, ecological, and economic control sys-
tems are intended to provide the reader with an awareness of the general applicabil-
ity of control theory to many facets of life. We believe that exposing students of one
discipline to examples and problems from other disciplines will provide them with the
ability to see beyond their own field of study. Many students pursue careers in engi-
neering fields other than their own. We hope this introduction to control engineering
will give students a broader understanding of control system design and analysis.
In its first thirteen editions, Modern Control Systems has been used in senior-
level courses for engineering students at many colleges and universities globally. It
also has been used in courses for engineering graduate students with no previous
background in control engineering.
THE FOURTEENTH EDITION
With the fourteenth edition, we have created an interactive e-textbook to fully use
rich, digital content for Modern Control Systems to enhance the learning experience.
This version contains embedded videos, dynamic graphs, live Skills Check quizzes,
and active links to additional resources. The electronic version provides a powerful
interactive experience that would be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in a print
book.
A companion website is also available to students and faculty using the four-
teenth edition. The website contains many resources, including the m-files in the
book, Laplace and z-Transform tables, written materials on matrix algebra and
complex numbers, symbols, units, and conversion factors, and an introduction to
MATLAB and to the LabVIEW MathScript RT Module. The MCS website is
available at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com.
We continue the design emphasis that historically has characterized Modern
Control Systems. Using the real-world engineering problems associated with
designing a controller for a disk drive read system, we present the Sequential
Design Example, which is considered sequentially in each chapter using the meth-
ods and concepts in that chapter. Disk drives are used in computers of all sizes
and they represent an important application of control engineering. Various
aspects of the design of controllers for the disk drive read system are considered
in each chapter. For example, in Chapter 1 we identify the control goals, identify
the v ariables to be controlled, write the control specifications, and establish the
preliminary s ystem configuration for the disk drive. Then, in Chapter 2, we obtain

18 Preface
models of the process, sensors, and actuators. In the remaining chapters, we con-
tinue the design process, stressing the main points of the chapters.
Rotation Spindle
of arm
Disk
Actuator
motor
Track a
Arm
Track b
Head slider
(b)
In the same spirit as the Sequential Design Example, we present a design prob-
lem that we call the Continuous Design Problem to give students the opportunity
to build upon a design problem from chapter to chapter. High-precision machin-
ery places stringent demands on table slide systems. In the Continuous Design
Problem, students apply the techniques and tools presented in each chapter to the
development of a design solution that meets the specified requirements.
Cutting
tool
Table
x
The computer-aided design and analysis component of the book continues

to evolve and improve. Also, many of the solutions to various components of the
Sequential Design Example utilize m-files with corresponding scripts included in
the figures.
A Skills Check section is included at the end of each chapter. In each Skills
Check section, we provide three sets of problems to test your knowledge of the
chapter material. This includes True or False, Multiple Choice, and Word Match
problems. To obtain direct feedback, you can check your answers with the answer
key provided at the conclusion of the end-of-chapter problems.

Preface 19
PEDAGOGY
The book is organized around the concepts of control system theory as they have
been developed in the frequency and time domains. An attempt has been made to
make the selection of topics, as well as the systems discussed in the examples and
problems, modern in the best sense. Therefore, this book includes discussions on
robust control systems and system sensitivity, state variable models, controllability
and observability, computer control systems, internal model control, robust PID
controllers, and computer-aided design and analysis, to name a few. However, the
classical topics of control theory that have proved to be so very useful in practice
have been retained and expanded.
Building Basic Principles: From Classical to Modern. Our goal is to present a clear
exposition of the basic principles of frequency and time-domain design techniques.
The classical methods of control engineering are thoroughly covered: Laplace trans-
forms and transfer functions; root locus design; Routh–Hurwitz stability analysis;
frequency response methods, including Bode, Nyquist, and Nichols; steady-state
error for standard test signals; second-order system approximations; and phase and
gain margin and bandwidth. In addition, coverage of the state variable method is
significant. Fundamental notions of controllability and observability for state vari-
able models are discussed. Full state feedback design with Ackermann’s formula
for pole placement is presented, along with a discussion on the limitations of state
variable feedback. Observers are introduced as a means to provide state estimates
when the complete state is not measured.
Upon this strong foundation of basic principles, the book provides many oppor-
tunities to explore topics beyond the traditional. In the latter chapters, we present
introductions into more advanced topics of robust control and digital control, as
well as an entire chapter devoted to the design of feedback control systems with a
focus on practical industrial lead and lag compensator structures. Problem solving
is emphasized throughout the chapters. Each chapter (but the first) introduces the
student to the notion of computer-aided design and analysis.
Progressive Development of Problem-Solving Skills. Reading the chapters,

attending lectures and taking notes, and working through the illustrated examples
are all part of the learning process. But the real test comes at the end of the chapter
with the problems. The book takes the issue of problem solving seriously. In each
chapter, there are five problem types:
❏ Exercises
❏ Problems
❏ Advanced Problems
❏ Design Problems
❏ Computer Problems
For example, the problem set for Mathematical Models of Systems, Chapter 2
includes 31 exercises, 51 problems, 9 advanced problems, 6 design problems, and

20 Preface
10 computer-based problems. The exercises permit the students to readily utilize the
concepts and methods introduced in each chapter by solving relatively straightfor-
ward exercises before attempting the more complex problems. The problems require
an extension of the concepts of the chapter to new situations. The advanced prob-
lems represent problems of increasing complexity. The design problems emphasize
the design task; the computer-based problems give the student practice with prob-
lem solving using computers. In total, the book contains more than 980 problems.
The abundance of problems of increasing complexity gives students confidence in
their problem solving ability as they work their way from the exercises to the design
and computer-based problems. An instructor’s manual, available to all adopters of
the text for course use, contains complete solutions to all end-of-chapter problems.
A set of m-files, the Modern Control Systems Toolbox, has been developed
by the authors to supplement the text. The m-files contain the scripts from each

computer-based example in the text. You may retrieve the m-files from the com-
panion available at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com.
Design Emphasis without Compromising Basic Principles. The all-important

topic of design of real-world, complex control systems is a major theme through-
out the text. Emphasis on design for real-world applications addresses interest in
design by ABET and industry.
The design process consists of seven main building blocks that we arrange into
three groups:
1. Establishment of goals and variables to be controlled, and definition of speci-
fications (metrics) against which to measure performance
2. System definition and modeling
3. Control system design and integrated system simulation and analysis
In each chapter of this book, we highlight the connection between the design
process and the main topics of that chapter. The objective is to demonstrate differ-
ent aspects of the design process through illustrative examples.
Various aspects of the control system design process are illustrated in detail
in many examples across all the chapters, including applications of control design
in robotics, manufacturing, medicine, and transportation (ground, air, and space).
Each chapter includes a section to assist students in utilizing computer-aided
design and analysis concepts and in reworking many of the design examples.
Generally, m-files scripts are provided that can be used in the design and analyses
of the feedback control systems. Each script is annotated with comment boxes
that highlight important aspects of the script. The accompanying output of the
script ( generally a graph) also contains comment boxes pointing out significant
elements. The scripts can also be utilized with modifications as the foundation for
solving other related problems.
Learning Enhancement. Each chapter begins with a chapter preview describing

the topics the student can expect to encounter. The chapters conclude with an
end-of-chapter summary, skills check, as well as terms and concepts. These sections

Preface 21
In this column remarks
relate the design topics on
the left to specific sections,
figures, equations, and tables
Topics emphasized in this example
}
in the example.
Establish the control goals

Shading indicates the
topics that are emphasized
(1) Establishment of goals,
in each chapter. Some chapters
Identify the variables to be controlled variables to be controlled,
will have many shaded blocks,
and specifications.
and other chapters will emphasize
just one or two topics.
Write the specifications
}
Establish the system configuration
(2) System definition
and modeling.
Obtain a model of the process, the
actuator, and the sensor
}
Describe a controller and select key
parameters to be adjusted
(3) Control system design,
simulation, and analysis.
Optimize the parameters and
analyze the performance
If the performance does not meet the If the performance meets the specifications,
specifications, then iterate the configuration. then finalize the design.
reinforce the important concepts introduced in the chapter and serve as a refer-
ence for later use.
Color is used to add emphasis when needed and to make the graphs and fig-
ures easier to interpret. For example, consider the computer control of a robot to
spray-paint an automobile. We might ask the student to investigate the closed-loop
system stability for various values of the controller gain K and to determine the
response to a unit step disturbance, Td ( s) = 1 s, when the input R ( s) = 0. The
associated figure assists the student with (a) visualizing the problem, and (b) taking
the next step to develop the transfer function model and to complete the analyses.
THE ORGANIZATION
Chapter 1 Introduction to Control Systems. Chapter 1 provides an introduction

to the basic history of control theory and practice. The purpose of this chapter is to
describe the general approach to designing and building a control system.

22 Preface
2.0
1.5 Input
1.0
Output
0.5 ess
u (rad)
0
- 0.5
- 1.0
- 1.5 ess
- 2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (s)
(a)
%QORWVGVJGTGURQPUGQHVJG/QDKNG4QDQV%QPVTQN
5[UVGOVQCVTKCPIWNCTYCXGKPRWV

PWOI=?FGPI=?U[UIVH PWOIFGPI G(s)Gc (s)
=U[U?HGGFDCEM U[UI=?
V=?
Compute triangular
X=? X=? X=?
wave input.
W=XXX?
=[6?+UKO U[UWV Linear simulation.
RNQV 6[VW
ZNCDGN 6KOG U [NCDGN >VJGVC TCF ITKF
(b)
Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems. Mathematical models of physical

systems in input–output or transfer function form are developed in Chapter 2. A
wide range of systems are considered.
Chapter 3 State Variable Models. Mathematical models of systems in state vari-

able form are developed in Chapter 3. The transient response of control systems
and the performance of these systems are examined.
Chapter 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics. The characteristics of feed-

back control systems are described in Chapter 4. The advantages of feedback are
discussed, and the concept of the system error signal is introduced.
Chapter 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems. In Chapter 5, the per-

formance of control systems is examined. The performance of a control system is
correlated with the s-plane location of the poles and zeros of the transfer function
of the system.

Preface 23
Line conveyor
Line encoder
Hydraulic motor
Screw
Table encoder Robot and table
Computer
Input
(a)
Td (s)
+
+ 1 1
R(s) K s+5 s+1
Y(s)
+
-
Computer
(b)
Chapter 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems. The stability of feedback

systems is investigated in Chapter 6. The relationship of system stability to the
characteristic equation of the system transfer function is studied. The Routh–
Hurwitz stability criterion is introduced.
Chapter 7 The Root Locus Method. Chapter 7 deals with the motion of the roots
of the characteristic equation in the s-plane as one or two parameters are v aried.
The locus of roots in the s-plane is determined by a graphical method. We also
introduce the popular PID controller and the Ziegler-Nichols PID tuning method.
Chapter 8 Frequency Response Methods. In Chapter 8, a steady-state sinusoid

input signal is utilized to examine the steady-state response of the system as the
frequency of the sinusoid is varied. The development of the frequency response
plot, called the Bode plot, is considered.
Chapter 9 Stability in the Frequency Domain. System stability utilizing fre-

quency response methods is investigated in Chapter 9. Relative stability and the
Nyquist criterion are discussed. Stability is considered using Nyquist plots, Bode
plots, and Nichols charts.
Chapter 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems. Several approaches to

designing and compensating a control system are described and developed

24 Preface
in Chapter 10. Various candidates for service as compensators are presented and
it is shown how they help to achieve improved performance. The focus is on lead
and lag compensators.
Chapter 11 The Design of State Variable Feedback Systems. The main topic of
Chapter 11 is the design of control systems using state variable models. Full-state
feedback design and observer design methods based on pole placement are
discussed. Tests for controllability and observability are presented, and the concept
of an internal model design is discussed.
Chapter 12 Robust Control Systems. Chapter 12 deals with the design of highly
accurate control systems in the presence of significant uncertainty. Five methods
for robust design are discussed, including root locus, frequency response, ITAE
methods for robust PID controllers, internal models, and pseudo-quantitative feed-
back.
Chapter 13 Digital Control Systems. Methods for describing and analyzing the
performance of computer control systems are described in Chapter 13. The stabil-
ity and performance of sampled-data systems are discussed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to express our sincere appreciation to the following individuals who

have assisted us with the development of this Fourteenth edition, as well as all
previous editions: John Hung, Auburn University; Zak Kassas, University of
California-Irvine; Hanz Richter, Cleveland State Universtiy; Abhishek Gupta,
The Ohio State University; Darris White, Embry Riddle Aeronautical Univer-
sity; John K. Schueller, University of Florida; Mahmoud A. Abdallah, Cen-
tral Sate University (OH); John N. Chiasson, University of Pittsburgh; Samy
El-Sawah, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona; Peter J. Gorder,
Kansas State University; Duane Hanselman, University of Maine; Ashok Iyer,
University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Leslie R. Koval, U
niversity of Missouri-Rolla;
L. G. Kraft, University of New Hampshire; Thomas Kurfess, Georgia Institute
of Technology; Julio C. Mandojana, Mankato State University; Luigi Mariani,
University of Padova; Jure Medanic, University of Illinois at Urbana- Cham-
paign; Eduardo A. Misawa, Oklahoma State University; Medhat M. Morcos,
Kansas State University; Mark Nagurka, Marquette University; D. Subbaram
Naidu, Idaho State University; Ron Perez, University of Wisconsin-Milwau-
kee; Carla Schwartz, The MathWorks, Inc.; Murat Tanyel, Dordt College; Hal
Tharp, University of Arizona; John Valasek, Texas A & M University; Paul
P. Wang, Duke University; and Ravi Warrier, GMI Engineering and Manage-
ment Institute. Special thanks to Greg Mason, Seattle University, and Jonathan
Sprinkle, University of Arizona, for developing the interactives and the video
solutions.

Preface 25
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS FOR THE GLOBAL EDITION
Pearson would like to acknowledge and thank the following for the Global Edition:
CONTRIBUTORS
Benjamin Chong, University of Leeds

Murat Doğruel, Marmara University
Quang Ha, University of Technology Sydney
Ashish Rajeshwar Kulkarni, Delhi Technological University
Savita Nema, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal
Mark Ovinis, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Bidyadhar Subudhi, National Institute of Technology Rourkela
REVIEWERS
Quang Ha, University of Technology Sydney

Shen Hin Lim, University of Waikato
Mark Ovinis, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Fuwen Yang, Griffith University
OPEN LINES OF COMMUNICATION
The authors would like to establish a line of communication with the users of
Modern Control Systems. We encourage all readers to send comments and sugges-
tions for this and future editions. By doing this, we can keep you informed of any
general-interest news regarding the textbook and pass along comments of other
users.
Keep in touch!
Robert H. Bishop robertbishop@usf.edu


About the Authors
Richard C. Dorf was Emeriti Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering at
the University of California, Davis. Known as an instructor who was highly con-
cerned with the discipline of electrical engineering and its application to social and
economic needs, Professor Dorf wrote and edited several successful engineering
textbooks and handbooks, including the best selling Engineering Handbook, sec-
ond edition and the third edition of the Electrical Engineering Handbook. Professor
Dorf was also co-author of Technology Ventures, a leading textbook on technology
entrepreneurship. Professor Dorf was a Fellow of the IEEE and a Fellow of the
ASEE. Dr. Dorf held a patent for the PIDA controller.
Robert H. Bishop is the Dean of Engineering at the University of South Flor-

ida, President and CEO of the Institute of Applied Engineering, and a Professor
in the Department of Electrical Engineering. Prior to c oming to The University
of South Florida, he was the Dean of Engineering at Marquette University and
before that a Department Chair and Professor of Aerospace Engineering and
Engineering Mechanics at The University of Texas at Austin where he held the
Joe J. King Professorship and was a Distinguished Teaching Professor. Professor
Bishop started his engineering career as a member of the technical staff at the
Charles Stark Draper Laboratory. He authors the well-known textbook for teach-
ing graphical programming entitled Learning with LabVIEW and is also the edi-
tor-in-chief of the Mechatronics Handbook. Professor Bishop remains an active
teacher and researcher and has authored/co-authored over one hundred and
forty-five journal and conference papers. He is a Fellow of the AIAA, a Fellow
of the American A stronautical Society (AAS), a Fellow of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and active in ASEE and in the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
27


CHAPTER
1
Introduction to Control
Systems
1.1 Introduction 30
1.2 Brief History of Automatic Control 33
1.3 Examples of Control Systems 39
1.4 Engineering Design 46
1.5 Control System Design 47
1.6 Mechatronic Systems 50
1.7 Green Engineering 54
1.8 The Future Evolution of Control Systems 55
1.11 Summary 63
PREVIEW
A control system consists of interconnected components to achieve a desired
purpose. In this chapter, we discuss open- and closed-loop feedback control systems.
We examine examples of control systems through the course of history. Early
systems incorporated many of the basic ideas of feedback that are employed in
modern control s ystems. A design process is presented that encompasses the estab-
lishment of goals and variables to be controlled, definition of specifications, system
definition, modeling, and analysis. The iterative nature of design allows us to handle
the design gap effectively while accomplishing necessary trade-offs in complexity,
performance, and cost. Finally, we introduce the Sequential Design Example: Disk
Drive Read System. This example will be considered sequentially in each chapter of
this book. It represents a practical control system design problem while simultane-
ously serving as a useful learning tool.
DESIRED OUTCOMES
Upon completion of Chapter 1, students should be able to:
❏ Give illustrative examples of control systems and describe their relationship to key
contemporary issues.
❏ Recount a brief history of control systems and their role in society.
❏ Predict the future of controls in the context of their evolutionary pathways.
❏ Recognize the elements of control system design and possess an appreciation of
appreciate c ontrols in the context of engineering design.
29
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 29 13/09/2021 14:17

30 Chapter 1 Introduction to Control Systems
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineers create products that help people. Our quality of life is sustained and
enhanced through engineering. To accomplish this, engineers strive to understand,
model, and control the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of humankind.
A key area of engineering that reaches across many technical areas is the multi-
disciplinary field of control system engineering. Control engineers are concerned
with understanding and controlling segments of their environment, often called
systems, which are interconnections of elements and devices for a desired purpose.
The system might be something as clear-cut as an automobile cruise control sys-
tem, or as extensive and complex as a direct brain-to-computer system to control
a manipulator. Control engineering deals with the design (and implementation)
of control systems using linear, time-invariant mathematical models representing
actual physical nonlinear, time-varying systems with parameter uncertainties in the
presence of external disturbances. As computer systems—especially embedded
processors—have become less expensive, require less power and space, while grow-
ing more computationally powerful, at the same time that sensors and actuators
have simultaneously experienced the same evolution to more capability in smaller
packages, the application of control systems has grown in number and complexity.
A sensor is a device that provides a measurement of a desired external signal. For
example, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are sensors used to measure
temperature. An a ctuator is a device employed by the control system to alter or
adjust the environment. An electric motor drive used to rotate a robotic manipu-
lator is an example of a device transforming electric energy to mechanical torque.
The face of control engineering is rapidly changing. The age of the
Internet of Things (IoT) presents many intriguing challenges in control system
applications in the environment (think about more efficient energy use in homes
and businesses), manufacturing (think 3D printing), consumer products, energy,
medical devices and healthcare, transportation (think about automated cars!),
among many others [14]. A challenge for control engineers today is to be able
to create simple, yet reliable and accurate mathematical models of many of our
modern, complex, interrelated, and interconnected systems. Fortunately, many
modern design tools are available, as well as open source software modules and
Internet-based user groups (to share ideas and answer questions), to assist the
modeler. The implementation of the control systems themselves is also becom-
ing more automated, again assisted by many resources readily available on the
Internet coupled with access to relatively inexpensive computers, sensors, and
actuators. Control s ystem engineering focuses on the modeling of a wide assort-
ment of physical systems and using those models to design controllers that will
cause the closed-loop systems to possess desired performance characteristics,
such as stability, relative stability, steady-state tracking with prescribed maxi-
mum errors, transient tracking (percent overshoot, settling time, rise time, and
time to peak), rejection of external disturbances, and robustness to modeling
uncertainties. The extremely i mportant step of the overall design and implemen-
tation process is d esigning the control systems, such as PID controllers, lead and
lag controllers, state variable feedback controllers, and other popular controller
structures. That is what this textbook is all about!
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 30 13/09/2021 14:17

Section 1.1 Introduction 31
FIGURE 1.1
Process to be Input Process Output
controlled.
FIGURE 1.2
Open-loop control Desired output
system (without Controller Actuator Process Output
response
feedback).
Control system engineering is based on the foundations of feedback theory

and linear system analysis, and it integrates the concepts of network theory and
communication theory. It is founded on a strong mathematical foundation, yet is
very practical and impacts our lives every day in almost all we do. Indeed, control
engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally applicable to
aerospace, agricultural, biomedical, chemical, civil, computer, industrial, electrical,
environmental, mechanical, nuclear engineering, and even computer science. Many
aspects of control engineering can also be found in studies in systems engineering.
A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system con-
figuration that will provide a desired system response. The basis for analysis of a
system is the foundation provided by linear system theory, which assumes a cause–
effect relationship for the components of a system. A component, or process, to be
controlled can be represented graphically, as shown in Figure 1.1. The input–output
relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship of the process, which in
turn represents a processing of the input signal to provide a desired output signal.
An open-loop control system uses a controller and an actuator to obtain the desired
response, as shown in Figure 1.2. An open-loop system is a system without feedback.
An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the process

directly without using feedback.
In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system utilizes

an additional measure of the actual output to compare the actual output with the
desired output response. The measure of the output is called the feedback signal.
A simple closed-loop feedback control system is shown in Figure 1.3. A feedback
control system is a control system that tends to maintain a prescribed relationship of
one system variable to another by comparing functions of these variables and using
the difference as a means of control. With an accurate sensor, the measured output
is a good approximation of the actual output of the system.
Desired output Error Actual

Controller Actuator Process
response output
-
FIGURE 1.3
Closed-loop
feedback control
system (with Sensor
feedback). Measurement output Feedback
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 31 13/09/2021 14:17

A feedback control system often uses a function of a prescribed relationship

between the output and reference input to control the process. Often the difference
between the output of the process under control and the reference input is ampli-
fied and used to control the process so that the difference is continually reduced. In
general, the difference between the desired output and the actual output is equal
to the error, which is then adjusted by the controller. The output of the control-
ler causes the actuator to modulate the process in order to reduce the error. For
example, if a ship is heading incorrectly to the right, the rudder is actuated to direct
the ship to the left. The system shown in Figure 1.3 is a negative feedback control
system, because the output is subtracted from the input and the difference is used as
the input signal to the controller. The feedback concept is the foundation for con-
trol system analysis and design.
A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output and feedback

of this signal to compare it with the desired output (reference or command).
A closed-loop control has many advantages over open-loop control, including

the ability to reject external disturbances and improve measurement noise attenua-
tion. We incorporate disturbances and measurement noise in the block diagram as
external inputs, as illustrated in Figure 1.4. External disturbances and measurement
noise are inevitable in real-world applications and must be addressed in practical
control system designs.
The feedback systems in Figures 1.3 and 1.4 are single-loop feedback systems.
Many feedback control systems contain more than one feedback loop. A common
multiloop feedback control system is illustrated in Figure 1.5 with an inner loop
and an outer loop. In this scenario, the inner loop has a controller and a sensor and
the outer loop has a controller and sensor. Other varieties of multiloop feedback
systems are considered throughout the book as they represent more practical situ-
ations found in real-world applications. However, we use the single-loop feedback
system for learning about the benefits of feedback control systems since the out-
comes readily scale to multiloop systems.
Due to the increasing complexity of systems under active control and the inter-
est in achieving optimum performance, the importance of control system engineering
continues to grow. Furthermore, as the systems become more complex, the interre-
lationship of many controlled variables must be considered in the control scheme.
A block diagram depicting a multivariable control system is shown in Figure 1.6.
Disturbance
+
Desired output Error Actual
Controller Actuator Process
response - + output
FIGURE 1.4
Closed-loop +
Measurement
feedback system
with external + noise
disturbances and
measurement Sensor
noise. Measurement output Feedback
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 32 13/09/2021 14:17

Section 1.2 Brief History of Automatic Control 33
Desired output Error Error Actual
Controller #2 Controller #1 Actuator Process
response output
- -
Inner
loop
Outer
loop Sensor #1
Measurement output Feedback
Sensor #2
FIGURE 1.5 Multiloop feedback system with an inner loop and an outer loop.
Error
Desired
Actual
output Comparison Controller Actuator Process
output
response
Sensor
FIGURE 1.6 Multivariable control system.
A common example of an open-loop control system is a microwave oven set

to operate for a fixed time. An example of a closed-loop control system is a person
steering an automobile (assuming his or her eyes are open) by looking at the auto’s
location on the road and making the appropriate adjustments.
The introduction of feedback enables us to control a desired output and can
improve accuracy, but it requires attention to the issues of stability and performance.
1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
The use of feedback to control a system has a fascinating history. The first applications
of feedback control appeared in the development of float regulator mechanisms
in Greece in the period 300 to 1 b.c. [1, 2, 3]. The water clock of Ktesibios used
a float regulator. An oil lamp devised by Philon in approximately 250 b.c. used a
float regulator in an oil lamp for maintaining a constant level of fuel oil. Heron of
Alexandria, who lived in the first century a.d., published a book entitled Pneumatica,
which outlined several forms of water-level mechanisms using float regulators [1].
The first feedback system to be invented in modern Europe was the tem-
perature regulator of Cornelis Drebbel (1572–1633) of Holland [1]. Dennis Papin
(1647–1712) invented the first pressure regulator for steam boilers in 1681. Papin’s
pressure regulator was a form of safety regulator similar to a pressure-cooker valve.
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 33 13/09/2021 14:17

Shaft axis Measured Boiler

speed
Steam
Metal
ball Valve
Governor
Output
shaft
Engine
FIGURE 1.7
Watt’s flyball
governor.
The first automatic feedback controller used in an industrial process is gener-

ally agreed to be James Watt’s flyball governor, developed in 1769 for controlling
the speed of a steam engine [1, 2]. The all-mechanical device, illustrated in Figure
1.7, measured the speed of the output shaft and utilized the movement of the
flyball to control the steam valve and therefore the amount of steam entering
the engine. As depicted in Figure 1.7, the governor shaft axis is connected via
mechanical linkages and beveled gears to the output shaft of the steam engine.
As the steam engine output shaft speed increases, the ball weights rise and move
away from the shaft axis and through mechanical linkages the steam valve closes
and the engine slows down.
The first historical feedback system is the water-level float regulator said to
have been invented by I. Polzunov in 1765 [4]. The level regulator system is illus-
trated in Figure 1.8. The float detects the water level and controls the valve that
covers the water inlet in the boiler.
The next century was characterized by the development of automatic con-
trol systems through intuition and invention. Efforts to increase the accuracy of
the control system led to slower attenuation of the transient oscillations and even
to unstable systems. It then became imperative to develop a theory of automatic
control. In 1868, J. C. Maxwell formulated a mathematical theory related to con-
trol theory using a differential equation model of a governor [5]. Maxwell’s study
was concerned with the effect various system parameters had on the system perfor-
mance. During the same period, I. A. Vyshnegradskii formulated a mathematical
theory of regulators [6].
Prior to World War II, control theory and practice developed differently in the
United States and western Europe than in Russia and eastern Europe. The main
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 34 13/09/2021 14:17

Water
Steam
Float
FIGURE 1.8
Water-level float
regulator. Valve
impetus for the use of feedback in the United States was the development of the
telephone system and electronic feedback amplifiers by Bode, Nyquist, and Black
at Bell Telephone Laboratories [7–10, 12].
Harold S. Black graduated from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1921
and joined Bell Laboratories of American Telegraph and Telephone (AT&T).
At that time, the major task confronting Bell Laboratories was the improve-
ment of the telephone system and the design of improved signal amplifiers.
Black was assigned the task of linearizing, stabilizing, and improving the ampli-
fiers that were used in tandem to carry conversations over distances of several
thousand miles. After years of working on oscillator circuits, Black had the
idea of negative feedback amplifiers as a way to avoid self-oscillations. His idea
would enhance the stability of circuit stability over a wide range of frequency
bands [8].
The frequency domain was used primarily to describe the operation of the feed-
back amplifiers in terms of bandwidth and other frequency variables. In contrast,
the eminent mathematicians and applied mechanicians in the former Soviet Union
inspired and dominated the field of control theory. The Russian theory tended to
utilize a time-domain formulation using differential equations.
The control of an industrial process (manufacturing, production, and so on)
by automatic rather than manual means is often called automation. Automation
is prevalent in the chemical, electric power, paper, automobile, and steel in-
dustries, among others. The concept of automation is central to our industrial
society. Automatic machines are used to increase the production of a plant.
Industries are concerned with the productivity per worker of their plants.
Productivity is defined as the ratio of physical output to physical input [26]. In
this case, we are referring to labor productivity, which is real output per hour of
work.
A large impetus to the theory and practice of automatic control occurred
during World War II when it became necessary to design and construct auto-
matic airplane piloting, gun-positioning systems, radar antenna control sys-
tems, and other military systems based on the feedback control approach.
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 35 13/09/2021 14:17

The complexity and expected performance of these military systems necessitated

an extension of the available control techniques and fostered interest in control
systems and the development of new insights and methods. Prior to 1940, for
most cases, the design of control systems was an art involving a trial-and-error
approach. During the 1940s, mathematical and analytical methods increased in
number and utility, and control engineering became an engineering discipline in
its own right [10–12].
Another example of the discovery of an engineering solution to a control sys-
tem problem was the creation of a gun director by David B. Parkinson of Bell
Telephone Laboratories. In the spring of 1940, Parkinson was intent on improv-
ing the automatic level recorder, an instrument that used strip-chart paper to plot
the record of a voltage. A critical component was a small potentiometer used to
control the pen of the recorder through an actuator. If a potentiometer could be
used to control the pen on a level recorder, might it be capable of controlling other
machines such as an antiaircraft gun? [13].
After considerable effort, an engineering model was delivered for testing to the
U.S. Army on December 1, 1941. Production models were available by early 1943,
and eventually 3000 gun controllers were delivered. Input to the controller was pro-
vided by radar, and the gun was aimed by taking the data of the airplane’s present
position and calculating the target’s future position.
Frequency-domain techniques continued to dominate the field of control fol-
lowing World War II with the increased use of the Laplace transform and the com-
plex frequency plane. During the 1950s, the emphasis in control engineering the-
ory was on the development and use of the s-plane methods and, particularly, the
root locus approach. Furthermore, during the 1980s, the use of digital computers
for control components became routine. The technology of these new control ele-
ments to perform accurate and rapid calculations was formerly unavailable to con-
trol engineers. These computers are now employed especially for process control
systems in which many variables are measured and controlled simultaneously by
the computer.
With the advent of Sputnik and the space age, another new impetus was im-
parted to control engineering. It became necessary to design complex, highly
accurate control systems for missiles and space probes. Furthermore, the ne-
cessity to minimize the weight of satellites and to control them very accurately
has spawned the important field of optimal control. Due to these requirements,
the time-domain methods developed by Liapunov, Minorsky, and others have
been met with great interest. Theories of optimal control developed by L. S.
Pontryagin in the former Soviet Union and R. Bellman in the United States, as
well as studies of robust s ystems, have contributed to the interest in time-domain
methods. Control engineering must consider both the time-domain and the fre-
quency-domain approaches simultaneously in the analysis and design of control
systems.
A notable advance with worldwide impact is the U.S. space-based radionaviga-
tion system known as the Global Positioning System or GPS [82–85]. In the distant
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 36 13/09/2021 14:17

past, various strategies and sensors were developed to keep explorers on the oceans
from getting lost, including following coastlines, using compasses to point north, and
sextants to measure the angles of stars, the moon, and the sun above the horizon. The
early explorers were able to estimate latitude accurately, but not longitude. It was not
until the 1700s with the development of the chronometer that, when used with the
sextant, the longitude could be estimated. Radio-based navigation systems began to
appear in the early twentieth century and were used in World War II. With the advent
of Sputnik and the space age, it became known that radio signals from satellites could
be used to navigate on the ground by observing the Doppler shift of the received
radio signals. Research and development culminated in the 1990s with 24 navigation
satellites (known as the GPS) that solved the fundamental problem that explorers
faced for centuries by providing a dependable mechanism to pinpoint the current lo-
cation. Freely available on a continuous worldwide basis, GPS provides very reliable
location and time information anytime, day or night, anywhere in the world. Using
GPS as a sensor to provide position (and velocity) information is a mainstay of ac-
tive control systems for transportation systems in the air, on the ground, and on the
oceans. The GPS assists relief and emergency workers to save lives, and helps us with
our everyday activities including the control of power grids, banking, farming, survey-
ing, and many other tasks.
Global navigation satellite services (such as GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo)
providing position, navigation, and timing data coupled with evolving wireless
mobile technology, highly capable mobile computing systems and devices, global
geographic information systems, and semantic web are supporting the evolving
field of ubiquitous positioning [100-103]. These systems can provide information
on the location of people, vehicles, and other objects as a function of time across
the globe. As personal ubiquitous computing [104] contiues to push active control
technology to the edge where the action is taking place, we will be faced with
many opportunities to design and field autonomous systems based on the firm
ground of system theoretic concepts covered in this introductory text on modern
control systems.
The evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) is having a transformational
impact on the field of control engineering. The idea of the IoT, first proposed
by Kevin Ashton in 1999, is the network of physical objects embedded with elec-
tronics, software, sensors, and connectivity—all elements of control engineer-
ing [14]. Each of the “things” on the network has an embedded computer with
connectivity to the Internet. The ability to control connected devices is of great
interest to control engineers, but there remains much work to be done, especially
in establishing standards [24]. The International Data Corporation estimates that
there will be 41.6 billion IoT devices generating 79.4 zettabytes (ZB) of data by
the year 2025 [106]. One ZB is equal to one trillion GB! Figure 1.9 presents a
technology roadmap that illustrates that in the near future control engineering is
likely to play a role in creating active control applications for connected devices
(adopted from [27]).
A selected history of control system development is summarized in Table 1.1.
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 37 13/09/2021 14:17

Technology Artificial intelligence and

machine learning
Internet of Things
Internet
of Things
Ubiquitous Positioning
Ability to monitor and control

Document management distant objects
Vertical Markets
Locating people and objects
Transportation
Surveillance
Food safety
Healthcare
Security
RFID tags Application of control engineering

2nd wave of applications
Supply chain: Routing

and inventory Computer Science
2000 2010 2020 2030
FIGURE 1.9 Technology roadmap to the Internet of Things enhanced with artificial intelligence with
applications to control engineering (Source: SRI Business Intelligence).
Table 1.1 Selected Historical Developments of Control Systems

1769 James Watt’s steam engine and governor developed.
1868 J. C. Maxwell formulates a mathematical model for a governor control of a steam engine.
1913 Henry Ford’s mechanized assembly machine introduced for automobile production.
1927 H. S. Black conceives of the negative feedback amplifier and H. W. Bode analyzes feedback
amplifiers.
1932 H. Nyquist develops a method for analyzing the stability of systems.
1941 Creation of first antiaircraft gun with active control.
1952 Numerical control (NC) developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology for control of
machine-tool axes.
1954 George Devol develops “programmed article transfer,” considered to be the first industrial
robot design.
1957 Sputnik launches the space age leading, in time, to miniaturization of computers and advances
in automatic control theory.
1960 First Unimate robot introduced, based on Devol’s designs. Unimate installed in 1961 for tend-
ing die-casting machines.
1970 State-variable models and optimal control developed.
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 38 13/09/2021 14:17

Section 1.3 Examples of Control Systems 39
Table 1.1 (continued)
1980 Robust control system design widely studied.
1983 Introduction of the personal computer (and control design software soon thereafter) brought
the tools of design to the engineer’s desktop.
1990 The government ARPANET (the first network to use the Internet Protocol) was decommis-
sioned and private connections to the Internet by commercial companies rapidly spread.
1994 Feedback control widely used in automobiles. Reliable, robust systems
demanded in manufacturing.
1995 The Global Positioning System (GPS) was operational providing
positioning, navigation, and timing services worldwide.
1997 First ever autonomous rover vehicle, known as Sojourner, explores the Martian surface.
2007 The Orbital Express mission performed the first autonomous space rendezvous and docking.
2011 The NASA Robonaut R2 became the first US-built robot on the International Space Station
designed to assist with crew extravehicular activities (EVAs).
2013 For the first time, a vehicle—known as BRAiVE and designed at the University of Parma,
Italy—moved autonomously on a mixed traffic route open to public traffic without a passen-
ger in the driver seat.
2014 Internet of Things (IoT) enabled by convergence of key systems including embedded systems,
wireless sensor networks, control systems, and automation.
2016 Space X successfully lands the first rocket on an autonomous spaceport drone ship controllrd by
an autonomus robot.
2019 Alphabet’s Wing begins making first commercial drone deliveries in the US.
1.3 EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control engineering is concerned with the analysis and design of goal-oriented

systems. Therefore the mechanization of goal-oriented policies has grown into a hi-
erarchy of goal-oriented control systems. Modern control theory is concerned with
systems that have self-organizing, adaptive, robust, learning, and optimum qualities.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Automated vehicles

Driving an automobile is a pleasant task when the auto responds rapidly to the driver’s
commands. The era of autonomous or self-driving vehicles is almost upon us [15, 19,
20]. The autonomous vehicle must be able to sense the changing environment, perform
trajectory planning, prescribe the control inputs that include steering and turning, ac-
celerating and braking, and many other functions typically handled by the driver, and
actually implement the control strategy. Steering is one of the critical functions of au-
tonomous vehicles. A simple block diagram of an automobile steering control system
is shown in Figure 1.10(a). The desired course is compared with a measurement of the
actual course in order to generate a measure of the error, as shown in Figure 1.10(b).
This measurement is obtained by visual and tactile (body movement) feedback, as pro-
vided by the feel of the steering wheel by the hand (sensor). This feedback system is
a familiar version of the steering control system in an ocean liner or the flight controls
in a large airplane. A typical d
irection-of-travel response is shown in Figure 1.10(c). ■
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 39 13/09/2021 14:17

Desired + Error Actual

Steering
course Driver Automobile course
mechanism
of travel - of travel
Measurement,
visual and tactile
(a)
Desired
direction
Actual of travel
direction
of travel
(b)
FIGURE 1.10
Response—direction of travel
(a) Automobile
steering control Desired direction of travel
system. (b) The Actual direction of travel
driver uses the
difference be-
tween the actual
and the desired
direction of travel
to generate a con-
trolled adjustment
of the steering 0
wheel. (c) Typical Time, t
direction-of-travel
(c)
response.
EXAMPLE 1.2 Human-in-the-loop control

A basic, manually controlled closed-loop system for regulating the level of fluid in a
tank is shown in Figure 1.11. The input is a reference level of fluid that the operator
is instructed to maintain. (This reference is memorized by the operator.) The power
amplifier is the operator, and the sensor is visual. The operator compares the actual
level with the desired level and opens or closes the valve (actuator), adjusting the
fluid flow out, to maintain the desired level. ■
EXAMPLE 1.3 Humanoid robots

The use of computers integrated with machines that perform tasks like a human
worker has been foreseen by several authors. In his famous 1923 play, entitled
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 40 13/09/2021 14:17

Fluid input
FIGURE 1.11
A manual control
system for
regulating the level
of fluid in a tank by
adjusting the output
valve. The opera-
tor views the level
of fluid through a
port in the side of
the tank. Valve Fluid output
R.U.R. [48], Karel Capek called artificial workers robots, deriving the word from
the Czech noun robota, meaning “work.”
A robot is a computer-controlled machine and involves technology closely
associated with automation. Industrial robotics can be defined as a particular field of
automation in which the automated machine (that is, the robot) is designed to substi-
tute for human labor [18, 33]. Thus robots possess certain humanlike characteristics.
Today, the most common humanlike characteristic is a mechanical manipulator
that is patterned somewhat after the human arm and wrist. Some devices even have
anthropomorphic mechanisms, including what we might recognize as mechanical
arms, wrists, and hands [28]. An example of an anthropomorphic robot is shown in
Figure 1.12. We recognize that the automatic machine is well suited to some tasks,
as noted in Table 1.2, and that other tasks are best carried out by humans [106]. ■
EXAMPLE 1.4 Electric power industry

There has been considerable discussion recently concerning the gap between practice
and theory in control engineering. However, it is natural that theory precedes the
applications in many fields of control engineering. Nonetheless, it is interesting to
note that in the electric power industry, the largest industry in the United States,
the gap is relatively insignificant. The electric power industry is primarily interested
in energy conversion, control, and distribution. It is critical that computer control
be increasingly applied to the power industry in order to improve the efficient use
of energy resources. Also, the control of power plants for minimum waste emis-
sion has become increasingly important. The modern, large-capacity plants, which
exceed several hundred megawatts, require automatic control systems that account
for the interrelationship of the process variables and optimum power production.
It is common to have 90 or more manipulated variables under coordinated con-
trol. A simplified model showing several of the important control v ariables of a
large boiler–generator system is shown in Figure 1.13. This is an example of the
importance of measuring many variables, such as pressure and oxygen, to provide
information to the computer for control calculations. ■
The electric power industry has used the modern aspects of control engineering
for significant and interesting applications. It appears that in the process industry,
the factor that maintains the applications gap is the lack of instrumentation to mea-
sure all the important process variables, including the quality and composition of
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 41 13/09/2021 14:17

FIGURE 1.12
The Honda ASIMO
humanoid robot.
ASIMO walks,
climbs stairs, and
turns corners.
(David Coll Blanco/
Alamy Stock Photo)
Table 1.2 Task Difficulty: Human Versus Automatic Machine

Tasks Difficult for a Machine Tasks Difficult for a Human
Displaying real emotions Operating in toxic environments
Acting based on ethical principles Highly repetitive activities
Precise coordination with other robots Deep underwater surveys
Anticipating human actions and responses Outer planet space exploration
Acquiring new skills on its own Working diligently with no breaks for long periods
the product. As these instruments become available, the applications of modern

control theory to industrial systems should increase measurably.
EXAMPLE 1.5 Biomedical engineering

There have been many applications of control system theory to biomedical
experimentation, diagnosis, prosthetics, and biological control systems [22, 23, 48]. The
control systems under consideration range from the cellular level to the central ner-
vous system and include temperature regulation and neurological, respiratory, and
cardiovascular control. Most physiological control systems are closed-loop systems.
However, we find not one controller but rather control loop within control loop,
forming a hierarchy of systems. The modeling of the structure of biological processes
confronts the analyst with a high-order model and a complex structure. Prosthetic
devices aid millions of people worldwide. Recent advances in feedback control
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 42 13/09/2021 14:17

Valve
Feed
water Turbine
Shaft Actual
Valve generation
Fuel Boiler Generator
Valve
Air
Speed
governor
Oxygen
measurement
Temperature Pressure
measurement measurement
Computer
FIGURE 1.13
Coordinated
control system for Desired temperature,
a boiler–generator.
pressure, O2, generation
technology will profoundly transform the lives of amputees and people living with
paralysis. Much progress has been made in the restoration of sensation of touch and
pain and in connecting prosthetic limb sensors with haptic feedback directly back
to the brain. Figure 1.14 depicts a prosthetic had and arm with the same dexterity
as a human arm. Especially fascinating are advances in brain-controlled feedback
of prosthetic limbs enabling the power of the human brain to guide the movement
[39]. Another fascinating advance in the development of prosthetic limbs is to make
possible the sense of touch and pain [22]. Much progress has been made in the res-
toration of sensation of touch and pain and in connecting sensors to the prosthetic
limbs with haptic feedback directly back to the brain. ■
EXAMPLE 1.6 Social, economic, and political systems

It is interesting and valuable to attempt to model the feedback processes preva-
lent in the social, economic, and political spheres. This approach is undeveloped at
present but appears to have a bright future. Society is composed of many feedback
systems and regulatory bodies, which are controllers exerting the forces on society
necessary to maintain a desired output. A simple lumped model of the national
income feedback control system is shown in Figure 1.15. This type of model helps
the analyst to understand the effects of government control and the dynamic ef-
fects of government spending. Of course, many other loops not shown also exist,
since, theoretically, government spending cannot exceed the tax collected without
generating a deficit, which is itself a control loop containing the Internal Revenue
Service and the Congress. In a socialist country, the loop due to consumers is de-
emphasized and government control is emphasized. In that case, the measurement
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 43 13/09/2021 14:17

FIGURE 1.14
Recent advances in electronic prosthetics have resulted in the development of a prosthetic hand
and arm that has the same dexterity as a human arm. (Kuznetsov Dmitriy/Shutterstock).
Private business
investment
Desired +
+ + Business National
national Government
Government production income
income - +
spending
Consumer
spending
Measurement Consumers
FIGURE 1.15
A feedback c ontrol - Tax
system model collections
of the national +
income.
block must be accurate and must respond rapidly; both are very difficult character-
istics to realize from a bureaucratic system. This type of political or social feedback
model, while usually nonrigorous, does impart information and understanding. ■
EXAMPLE 1.7 Unmanned aerial vehicles

The ongoing area of research and development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
is full of potential for the application of control systems. These aircrafts are also known
as drones. An example of a drone is shown in Figure 1.16. Drones are unmanned but
are usually controlled by ground operators. Typically they do not operate autono-
mously, and their inability to provide the level of safety required in a complex airspace
keeps them from flying freely in the commercial airspace although package delivery
via drones has begun. One significant challenge is to develop control systems that will
avoid in-air collisions. Ultimately, the goal is to employ the drone autonomously in
M01_DORF2374_14_GE_C01.indd 44 13/09/2021 14:17

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
UN SERPENT DU VIEUX NIL
Le Caire moderne est un endroit qui a un air négligé. Les rues

sont malpropres et mal construites, les trottoirs jamais balayés et
souvent démolis, les lignes de tramway plus souvent projetées sur le
sol que posées, et les ruisseaux mal entretenus. On s’attend à
mieux dans une ville où le touriste dépense tant d’argent chaque
saison. Il est entendu que le touriste n’est qu’un chien, mais du
moins vient-il un os à la bouche, os que se partagent bien des gens.
Vraiment on lui doit une niche plus propre. Officiellement on vous
répond que la circulation des touristes compte pour moins que rien
en comparaison de l’industrie cotonnière. Tout de même le terrain
dans la ville du Caire doit avoir trop de valeur pour qu’on l’emploie à
la culture du coton. On pourrait, tout bien considéré, la paver et la
balayer. On dit bien qu’il existe des autorités qui passent pour avoir
la haute direction des affaires municipales, mais son fonctionnement
se trouve être paralysé par ce que l’on appelle « Les Capitulations ».
On m’a assuré que tout le monde au Caire, exception faite pour les
Anglais qui apparemment sont les blancs inférieurs dans ces
régions, a le privilège de faire appel au consul de son pays à propos
de tout et de rien, que ce soit au sujet d’une boîte à ordures ou d’un
cadavre à enterrer. Or, comme presque tous ceux qui sont
respectables, et sans aucun doute tous ceux qui ne le sont pas, ont
un consul, il s’en suit naturellement qu’il existe un consul par chaque
mètre de superficie, chaque arshinon, chaque coudée d’Ézéchiel à
l’intérieur de la ville.
Et comme chaque consul montre un zèle extrême en l’honneur
de son pays et ne se gêne pas pour ennuyer les Anglais au point de
vue des principes généraux, les progrès municipaux sont lents.
Le Caire vous produit l’effet d’être une ville malsaine et pas
aérée, même lorsque le soleil et le vent la nettoient ensemble. Le
touriste, ainsi que vous vous en apercevez ici même, parle
beaucoup, mais l’Européen qui y réside d’une façon permanente
n’ouvre pas la bouche plus qu’il ne faut. Les sons vont si vite à
travers la surface de l’eau plate ! Sans compter que dans ce pays
toute la situation est, politiquement et administrativement, fausse.
Voici en effet un pays qui n’est pas un pays, mais bien une bande
passablement longue de jardin potager, nominalement sous la
direction d’un gouvernement qui n’est pas un gouvernement, mais
bien plutôt la satrapie disjointe d’un empire à moitié mort, régi avec
hypocrisie par une Puissance qui n’est pas une puissance mais une
Agence, laquelle Agence se trouve avoir été embobinée, par suite
du temps, de coutumes, de calomnies, jusqu’à être nouée en
relations très étroites avec six ou sept Puissances Européennes :
toutes ces Puissances possédant des droits, des pots de vin, sans
qu’aucun de leurs sujets puisse, apparemment, être justiciable à
aucune Puissance qui, directement ou indirectement, ou même de
quelque façon que ce soit, passe pour être responsable. Et ce n’est
là qu’une simple esquisse de l’ensemble. Compléter le tableau (si
quelqu’un au monde en sait assez pour le faire) serait aussi facile
que d’expliquer le base ball à un Anglais, ou le jeu du Mur, joué à
Eton, à un habitant des États-Unis. Mais c’est un jeu fascinant. Il y a
là-dedans des Français dont l’esprit logique se trouve offensé, et ils
se vengent en faisant imprimer les rapports financiers et le catalogue
du Musée de Bulak en un français pur. Il y a des Allemands là-
dedans dont il faut examiner soigneusement les exigences, non pas
qu’on puisse les satisfaire en quelque façon que ce soit, mais elles
servent à bloquer celles des autres. Il y a des Russes qui ne
comptent pas beaucoup actuellement, mais dont on entendra parler
plus tard. Il y a des Italiens et des Grecs (tous deux assez satisfaits
d’eux-mêmes en ce moment) remplis de haute finance et de belles
émotions. Il y a aussi des Pachas Égyptiens qui de temps en temps
rentrent de Paris et demandent plaintivement à qui ils sont censés
appartenir. Il y a son Éminence le Khédive, et celui-là, il faut en tenir
compte, et il y a des femmes tant que vous en voudrez. Et il y a de
grands intérêts cotonniers et sucriers anglais, et des importateurs
anglais demandant, avec des éclats de voix, pourquoi on ne leur
permet pas de faire des affaires d’une façon rationnelle et d’entrer
dans le Soudan qui, à leur avis, est mûr pour le développement, si
seulement l’administration qui le dirige consentait à agir
raisonnablement. Au milieu de tous ces intérêts et de ces passe-
temps qui se contrecarrent, le fonctionnaire anglais reste assis,
transpirant à grosses gouttes, lui qui a pour tâche d’irriguer, de
dessécher ou de défricher pour une bagatelle de dix millions de
gens, et il se trouve à tout propos empêtré dans des réseaux
d’intrigues qui le font échouer et qui s’étendent à travers une demi-
douzaine de harems et quatre consulats. Tout cela vous rend suave,
tolérant et l’on acquiert la bienheureuse habitude de ne plus
s’étonner de quoi que ce soit.
Ou du moins c’est ce qu’il semblait pendant que je suivais des
yeux un grand bal dans un des hôtels. Toutes les races et variétés
Européennes en même temps que la moitié des États-Unis s’y
trouvaient représentées, mais je crus pouvoir discerner trois groupes
distincts : celui des touristes, avec, dans leurs chers petits dos qui se
trémoussaient, les plis occasionnés par les malles des paquebots ;
celui des soldats et des fonctionnaires sûrs d’avance de leurs
partenaires, et disant clairement ce qui devait se dire ; celui d’un
troisième contingent à la voix plus basse, au pas plus doux, aux
yeux plus vifs que les deux premiers, très à l’aise comme le sont les
bohémiens lorsqu’ils se trouvent sur leur propre terrain, lançant par
dessus l’épaule à leurs amis des moitiés de mots en argot local, se
comprenant d’un signe de tête et mus par des ressorts
n’appartenant qu’à leur clan. Par exemple, une femme parlait un
anglais impeccable à son partenaire, un officier anglais. Juste avant
que ne commençât la danse suivante, une autre femme lui fit signe
de la main à la manière orientale, les quatre doigts abaissés. La
première femme traversa la salle et se dirigea vers un palmier qui
était dans un vase ; la deuxième s’y dirigea aussi jusqu’au moment
où toutes les deux s’arrêtèrent sans se regarder, avec le palmier
entre elles. Alors celle qui avait fait le signe de la main parla dans
une langue étrangère dans la direction du palmier. La première
femme, les yeux toujours ailleurs, répondit de la même manière avec
un flot de paroles qui passèrent comme une fusillade à travers les
feuilles raides, son ton n’avait rien à faire avec celui dont elle se
servit pour saluer son nouveau partenaire, qui survint au moment où
recommença la musique. Celui-ci était traînant et délicieux, l’autre
avait eu l’accent guttural et sec du bazar ou de la cuisine. Elle
s’éloigna et au bout d’un instant l’autre femme disparut dans la foule.
Très probablement, il ne s’était agi entre elles que de toilette ou
d’une question de programme, mais ce qu’il y avait là-dedans de
rapide, de furtif, de félin et de calme, cette navette, faite en un clin
d’œil, d’une civilisation à l’autre, toutes deux pourtant à ce point
distinctes, me resta dans la mémoire. De même la figure exsangue
d’un très vieux Turc, frais émoulu de quelque horrible assassinat à
Constantinople où il avait failli être tué à coup de pistolet. Mais,
disait-on, il avait discuté avec calme en présence du cadavre d’un
ancien collègue, en homme pour qui la mort importe peu, jusqu’à ce
que les Jeunes Turcs hystériques eussent honte et le laissassent
partir — pour entrer dans la lumière et la musique de cet hôtel
élégant.
Ces « Mille et une Nuits » modernes sont trop fiévreuses pour
des gens tranquilles ; je me réfugiai dans un Caire plus raisonnable,
les quartiers arabes où tout est tel qu’il était lorsque Marouf le
Savetier s’enfuit de Fatima-El-Orra et se rencontra avec le Djin dans
l’Adelia Musjid. Les artisans et les marchands étaient assis sur les
planches de leurs boutiques, avec, derrière eux, un ample mystère
d’obscurité, et les étroits défilés étaient polis jusqu’à hauteur
d’épaule par le simple frottement de la marée humaine. Le blanc qui
porte chaussure — à moins qu’il ne soit agriculteur, — frôle
légèrement, de la main tout au plus, en passant. L’Oriental, lorsqu’il
baguenaude, s’appuie, s’adosse aux murs et s’y frotte. Chez ceux
dont les pieds sont nus c’est tout le corps qui pense. Et puis il n’est
pas bien d’acheter ou de faire quoi que ce soit et d’en finir sur-le-
champ. Bon pour ceux qui portent des vêtements serrés ne
nécessitant aucun soin. Donc, nous autres, portant robe lâche,
pantalon ample, et savate large, faisons de grands saluts complets à
nos amis et les multiplions quand il s’agit de ceux à qui nous voulons
du mal ; si donc il s’agit d’un achat il nous faut toucher du doigt
l’étoffe, la louer en citant un proverbe ou deux, et s’il s’agit d’un
nigaud de touriste qui s’imagine qu’il ne va pas être volé, ô vrais
croyants ! approchez-vous, et soyez témoins de quelle manière nous
le mettrons à sac.
Mais je n’achetai rien. La ville m’offrait plus de richesses que je
ne pus en emporter. Elles sortaient des obscurs couloirs, sur le dos
des chameaux basanés, chargés de pots ; sur des ânes dont les
sabots clapotaient, à moitié enfouis sous des filets gonflés de trèfle
coupé ; dans des mains exquisement façonnées de petits enfants
qui rentraient en vitesse des restaurants avec le repas du soir, le
menton collé contre le rebord de l’assiette, les yeux dépassant la pile
d’aliments, tout arrondis par la responsabilité ressentie ; dans les
lumières brisées qui radiaient des chambres surplombant la rue
dans lesquelles s’étalaient les femmes, le menton appuyé contre les
deux paumes en regardant par des fenêtres surélevées d’un pied à
peine au-dessus du niveau du parquet ; dans chaque regard jeté
dans chaque cour où, auprès du bassin d’eau, fument les hommes ;
dans les tas de débris et de briques pourries amoncelés au flanc des
maisons nouvellement peintes et qui attendaient qu’on s’en servît de
nouveau pour en faire des maisons ; dans le trémoussement et le
glissement des savates sans talons, rouges et jaunes, qu’on entend
de tous côtés, et surtout dans les odeurs mélangées si délicieuses
de beurre que l’on fait frire, de pain musulman, de kababs, de cuir,
de fumée de cuisine, de poivres et de tumeric. Les diables ne
peuvent supporter l’odeur de tumeric, mais l’homme sensé l’accepte.
Cela évoque le soir qui ramène tout le monde à la maison, le repas
du soir, les mains amies qui plongent dans le plat, la face unique, le
voile tombé et, en fin de séance, la grosse pipe qui gargouille.
Loué soit Allah pour la diversité de ces créatures et pour les Cinq
Avantages du Voyage et pour les gloires des Cités de la Terre !
Aroun-al-Raschid dans le bruyant Bagdad de jadis ne connut jamais
les délices infinies dont je jouis cet après-midi-là. Il est vrai que
l’appel à la prière, la cadence de certains des cris de la rue, et la
coupe de certains vêtements différaient assez sensiblement de ce à
quoi j’étais accoutumé par l’éducation, mais quant au reste l’ombre
sur le cadran avait rétrogradé pour moi de vingt degrés, et je me
trouvais en train de dire, tout comme, peut-être, disent les morts
lorsqu’ils ont retrouvé leurs esprits : « Voici de nouveau mon monde
réel ! »
Certains hommes sont musulmans par naissance, certains par
éducation, mais je n’ai jamais encore fait la rencontre d’un Anglais
qui déteste l’Islam et ses peuples, comme j’ai vu des Anglais
détester certaines autres croyances. Musalmani awadani — comme
on dit, — là où il y a des musulmans, là se trouve une civilisation
qu’on peut comprendre.
Ensuite nous rencontrâmes sur notre route une mosquée
abandonnée avec des colonnes en briques autour d’une vaste cour
intérieure ouverte au ciel pâle. Elle était complètement vide,
exception faite de l’esprit qui lui était propre et qui lui convenait ;
c’était cela qui vous prenait à la gorge lorsqu’on y entrait. Les églises
chrétiennes peuvent faire un compromis avec des statues et des
chapelles latérales où les indignes ou les éhontés font un trafic avec
des saints abordables. L’Islam, lui, n’a qu’une chaire et une
affirmation que l’on soit vivant ou mourant, une seule ; et, dans
l’endroit où les hommes ont répété cela avec une croyance
enflammée, à travers des siècles, l’air en est encore tout vibrant.
Actuellement certains prétendent que l’Islam est en train de mourir et
que personne n’en a cure ; d’autres disent que s’il s’étiole en
Europe, il ressuscitera en Afrique et en Asie, et reviendra terrible au
bout de quelques années à la tête de tous les neuf fils de Ham ;
d’autres s’imaginent que les Anglais comprennent l’Islam mieux que
n’importe qui, et que dans les siècles à venir l’Islam le reconnaîtra et
tout l’univers en sera modifié. Au cas où vous vous rendriez à la
mosquée de Al Azhar — université vieille de mille ans du Caire — il
vous sera possible d’en juger vous-même. Rien à y voir sauf de
multiples cours, fraîches en été, entourées de murs de briques hauts
comme des falaises. Des hommes vont et viennent par des entrées
sombres donnant sur des cloîtres plus sombres encore, et cela aussi
librement que si c’était un bazar. Là nul appareil d’enseignement qui
soit agressif et moderne : les étudiants s’asseyent à terre et les
maîtres leur enseignent, le plus souvent de vive voix, la grammaire,
la syntaxe, la logique ; al-hisab qui est l’arithmétique ; al-jab’r, w’al
muqabalah qui est l’algèbre ; al-tafsir, ou commentaires sur le Koran,
et le dernier et le plus ennuyeux, al-ahadis, traditions et nouveaux
commentaires sur la loi d’Islam, qui de nouveau ramènent, comme
toutes choses, au Koran, (car il est écrit : « En vérité Le Quran n’est
rien autre qu’une révélation »). C’est un plan d’études très étendu.
Nul ne peut s’en rendre maître entièrement, mais libre à chacun d’y
séjourner aussi longtemps qu’il le désire. L’université procure des
vivres, vingt-cinq mille pains par jour si je ne me trompe ; de plus il y
a toujours un endroit où se coucher si l’on ne veut pas de chambre
fermée et un lit. Rien ne saurait être plus simple, ni, étant donné
certaines conditions, plus efficace. Tout près de six cents
professeurs qui, officiellement ou non, représentent toutes les
variétés de la pensée, enseignent à dix ou douze mille étudiants qui
viennent de toutes les communautés musulmanes de l’ouest à l’est
entre Manille et le Maroc, et du nord au sud entre Kamechatka et la
mosquée malaise à Cape-Town. Ceux-ci s’en vont, à l’aventure, pour
devenir maîtres dans de petites écoles, prédicateurs dans des
mosquées, étudiants dans la Loi connue par des millions d’êtres
(mais rarement par des Européens), rêveurs dévots ou faiseurs de
miracles dans l’univers entier. L’individu qui m’intéressait le plus ce
fut un Mullah de la frontière indienne, à la barbe rouge, aux yeux
caves, qui très certainement ne serait jamais le dernier à une
distribution d’aliments, et se dressait, tel un chien-loup hâve au
milieu de chiens de berger, dans une petite assemblée sur le seuil
d’une porte.
Il y avait encore une autre mosquée somptueusement tapissée et
illuminée (chose que le Prophète n’approuve pas) où des hommes
parlaient au milieu du sourd marmottement qui, parfois, monte et
croît sous les dômes comme un roulement de tambour ou un
grondement de ruche avant que l’essaim ne s’élance dehors. A
l’extérieur, et au coin même de cet édifice, nous sommes tombés
presque dans les bras d’un représentant de Notre Simple Fantassin,
personnage qui ne tire pas l’œil et qui personnifie la distraction. La
tunique déboutonnée, la cigarette allumée, il était adossé à une grille
tandis qu’il contemplait la ville à ses pieds. Les hommes dans les
forts, les citadelles et les garnisons par le monde entier montent
aussi automatiquement au crépuscule pour jeter un dernier coup
d’œil général que le font les moutons au coucher du soleil. Ils parlent
peu et reviennent aussi silencieusement en passant sur le gravier
qui grince et, détesté des pieds nus, jusqu’à leurs chambres
badigeonnées en blanc et leurs vies bien réglées. Un de ceux-ci me
dit qu’il se plaisait au Caire. C’était un endroit intéressant. — Croyez-
m’en, me dit-il, cela vaut la peine de voir des pays, parce que vous
pouvez vous en souvenir plus tard.
Il avait bien raison : les brumes pourpres et citron, formées du
crépuscule et du jour qui projetait encore ses reflets, se répandaient
au-dessus des rues toutes palpitantes et scintillantes, masquaient
les grands contours de la citadelle et des collines du désert et
conspiraient à susciter, à éveiller des souvenirs, à les rendre confus,
tellement que la Ville sorcière se dépouilla de sa forme vraie et
devant moi dansa sous la ressemblance désolante de chaque cité
qu’un peu plus bas sur la route j’avais connue et aimée.
C’était là une sorcellerie cruelle, car à l’heure même où mon âme
nostalgique venait de se livrer au rêve de l’ombre qui sur le cadran
avait rétrogradé, je me rendis compte combien désolés, combien
nostalgiques devaient être les jours de tous ceux qui sont parqués
en des lieux lointains, au milieu de bruits étranges et d’odeurs
étranges.
EN REMONTANT LE FLEUVE
Il y avait une fois un assassin qui s’en tira avec les travaux forcés
à perpétuité. Ce qui l’impressionna le plus, dès qu’il eut le temps d’y
penser, ce fut l’ennui, réel et assommant, éprouvé par tous ceux qui
avaient pris part au rite. — C’était comme si l’on allait chez le
Docteur ou chez le Dentiste, expliqua-t-il. C’est vous qui arrivez chez
eux, plein de vos affaires à vous, et vous découvrez que tout cela ne
forme pour eux qu’une partie de leur travail quotidien. Sans doute,
ajouta-t-il, que j’aurais découvert que c’était encore la même chose
si, — ahem… — j’étais allé jusqu’au bout !
Sans aucun doute. Entrez dans n’importe quel nouvel Enfer ou
Paradis, et, sur le seuil bien usé, vous trouverez à vous attendre les
experts pleins d’ennui qui assurent le service.
Pendant trois semaines nous restâmes assis sur des ponts
copieusement meublés de chaises et de tapis, soigneusement isolés
de tout ce qui en quelque façon se rapportait à l’Égypte, et sous le
chaperonnage d’un drogman convenablement orientalisé. Deux ou
trois fois par jour notre bateau s’arrêtait devant un rivage de boue
couvert d’ânes. On sortait des selles de l’écoutille de l’avant, on
harnachait les ânes qui étaient ensuite distribués comme autant de
cartes, puis nous partions au galop à travers les moissons ou les
déserts, selon le cas, on nous présentait en termes retentissants à
un temple, puis finalement on nous rendait à notre pont et à nos
Baedekers. En tant que confort, pour ne pas dire paresse ouatée, la
vie n’avait pas d’égale, et comme la majeure partie des passagers
étaient des citoyens des États-Unis (l’Égypte en hiver devrait faire
partie des États-Unis comme territoire temporaire) l’intérêt ne faisait
pas défaut. C’étaient, en nombre accablant, des femmes, avec, par-
ci par-là, un mari ou un père placide, mené par le bout du nez,
souffrant visiblement d’une congestion de renseignements sur sa
ville natale. J’eus la joie de voir se rencontrer deux de ces hommes.
Ils tournèrent le dos résolument à la rivière, coupèrent avec leurs
dents et allumèrent leurs cigares, et, pendant une heure et quart, ne
cessèrent d’émettre des statistiques touchant les industries, le
commerce, la manufacture, les moyens de transport, et le
journalisme de leurs villes, mettons Los Angeles et Rochester, N. Y.
On aurait dit un duel entre deux enregistreurs de caisse.
On oubliait, bien entendu, que tous ces chiffres lugubres étaient
animés pour eux, aussi, à mesure que Los Angeles parlait,
Rochester voyait en imagination. Le lendemain je rencontrai un
Anglais venu de l’autre bout du monde, c’est-à-dire du Soudan, très
renseigné sur un chemin de fer peu connu installé dans un pays qui,
de prime abord, n’avait paru être qu’un désert aride et qui s’était
révélé en fin de compte comme plein de produits à transporter. Il
était lancé en plein flot d’éloquence lorsque Los Angeles, fasciné par
le seul roulement de chiffres, accosta et jeta l’ancre.
— Commânt ç’a, interposa-t-il avec vivacité pendant une pause.
On lui expliqua comment ; mais il commença aussitôt à mettre
mon ami à sec au sujet de cette voie ferrée, mû uniquement par
l’intérêt fraternel qu’il éprouvait, ainsi qu’il nous l’expliquait, « pour
n’importe quel satané truc qui se fasse où qu’on veut ».
— Ainsi donc, poursuivait mon ami, nous allons pouvoir amener
du bétail abyssin jusqu’au Caire.
— A pied ? Puis un rapide regard lancé vers le Désert :
— Mais non, mais non ! par voie ferrée et par la rivière. Et ensuite
nous ferons pousser du coton entre le Nil Bleu et le Nil Blanc et
« ficherons la pile » aux États-Unis.
— Commânt ç’a ?
— Voici. L’interlocuteur étendit en forme d’éventail ses deux
doigts sous l’énorme bec intéressé. Voici le Nil Bleu, et voici le Nil
Blanc. Il existe une différence de niveau de tant, entre les deux, et
ici, dans la fourche formée par mes deux doigts, nous allons…
— Oui, oui, je comprends, vous ferez de l’irrigation en profitant de
la petite différence qui existe entre les deux niveaux. Combien
d’acres ?
De nouveau on renseigna Los Angeles. Il se dilata comme une
grenouille sous une ondée. — Et dire que je me figurais que l’Égypte
n’était que des momies et la Bible ! Moi, je m’y connaissais autrefois
en coton. Maintenant nous allons pouvoir causer.
Pendant la journée entière nos deux hommes arpentèrent le pont
du navire avec l’insolence distraite des amoureux, et, tels des
amoureux, chacun s’en allait dire à la dérobée quelle âme rare était
son compagnon.
C’était là un des types à bord, mais il y en avait bien d’autres —
des professionnels, qui ne fabriquaient ni ne vendaient rien — ceux-
là, la main d’une démocratie exigeante semblait les avoir
malheureusement tous coulés dans un même moule. Ils ne se
taisaient pas, mais d’où qu’ils venaient leur conversation était aussi
conforme à un modèle fixe que le sont les agencements d’un wagon
Pullman.
J’en touchai un mot à une femme qui était bien au courant des
sermons de l’une et l’autre langue.
— Je crois, dit-elle, que la banalité dont vous vous plaignez… »
— Je n’ai jamais dit banalité, protestai-je.
— Mais vous le pensiez. La banalité que vous avez remarquée
provient de ce que nos hommes sont si souvent élevés par des
vieilles femmes, des vieilles filles. Pratiquement, jusqu’au moment
où il va à l’Université, et même pas toujours à ce moment, un garçon
ne peut pas s’en affranchir.
— Alors qu’arrive-t-il ?
— Le résultat naturel. L’instinct d’un homme c’est d’apprendre à
un garçon à penser par lui-même. Si une femme ne peut pas arriver
à faire penser un garçon comme elle, elle se laisse crouler et se met
à pleurer. Un homme n’a pas de modèles fixes, il les crée. Il n’y a
pas d’être au monde qui soit plus conforme à un modèle fixe qu’une
femme. Et cela de toute nécessité. Et maintenant comprenez-vous ?
— Pas encore.
— Et bien, l’ennui en Amérique, c’est qu’on nous traite toujours
comme des enfants à l’école. Vous pouvez le voir dans n’importe
quel journal que vous ramassez. De quoi parlaient-ils tout à l’heure
ces hommes ?
— De la falsification des denrées, de la réforme de la police, de
l’embellissement des terrains vagues dans les villes, répondis-je
vivement. Elle leva les deux bras : « J’en étais sûre » s’écria-t-elle,
« Notre Grande Politique Nationale de la coéducation ménagère.
Frimes et hypocrisies que tout cela ! Avez-vous jamais vu un homme
conquérir le respect d’une femme en se paradant par le monde avec
un torchon épinglé aux pans de ses habits ?
— Mais si cette femme le lui ordonne — lui disait de le faire,
proposai-je.
— Alors elle le mépriserait d’autant plus. N’en riez pas, vous.
Bientôt vous en serez là en Angleterre.
Je retournai auprès de la petite assemblée. Il y avait là une
femme qui leur parlait comme quelqu’un qui en a l’habitude depuis le
jour de sa naissance. Ils écoutèrent, avec l’extrême attention
d’hommes dressés de bonne heure à écouter les femmes, mais non
à converser avec elles. Elle était, pour ne pas dire davantage, la
mère de toutes les femmes assommantes qui furent jamais, mais
lorsqu’elle s’éloigna enfin, personne ne s’aventura à l’avouer.
— Voilà ce que j’appelle se faire traiter comme des enfants à
l’école, dit méchamment mon amie.
— Mais voyons, elle les a figés d’ennui ; pourtant ils sont si bien
élevés qu’ils ne s’en sont même pas rendu compte. Viendra un jour
où l’Homme Américain se révoltera.
— Et que fera la Femme Américaine ?
— Elle se mettra à pleurer, et ça lui fera beaucoup de bien.
Un peu plus tard, je rencontrai une femme d’un certain État de
l’Ouest, et qui voyait pour la toute première fois le grand, l’heureux,
l’inattentif monde du Créateur, et se trouvait assez affligée parce
qu’il ne ressemblait pas à celui qu’elle connaissait, elle. Elle avait
toujours compris que les Anglais étaient brutaux envers leurs
femmes. — C’étaient les journaux de son État qui l’affirmaient — (si
seulement vous pouviez connaître les journaux de son État !) —
Mais jusqu’à présent elle n’avait pas remarqué de sévices exercés et
les Anglaises, qu’elle renonçait, disait-elle, à jamais comprendre,
avaient l’air de jouir d’une certaine liberté et d’une certaine égalité
agréables à l’œil. D’autre part les Anglais se montraient
manifestement bons envers des jeunes filles ayant des difficultés au
sujet de leurs bagages et de leurs billets lorsqu’elles se trouvaient
dans des chemins de fer étrangers. Gens tout à fait gentils, dit-elle
en terminant, mais assez dépourvus d’humour.
Un jour elle me montra ce qui avait tout l’air d’être une gravure
tirée de quelque journal de modes, représentant une étoffe pour
robe — joli médaillon ovale d’étoiles sur un fond de rayures grenat
— qui, je ne sais trop pourquoi, me semblait assez familier.
— Que c’est gentil ! Qu’est-ce donc ? dis-je.
— Notre Drapeau National, répondit-elle.
— Ah oui, mais il n’a pas tout à fait l’air…
— Non ; c’est une nouvelle manière d’arranger les étoiles pour
qu’elles soient plus faciles à compter et plus décoratives. Nous
allons voter là-dessus dans notre État, où nous avons le droit de
vote — je voterai quand je serai de retour là-bas.
— Vraiment ! et comment voterez-vous ?
— C’est là justement à quoi je réfléchis.
— Elle étala le dessin sur ses genoux, elle le contempla la tête
penchée d’un côté, comme si, en réalité, il eût été de l’étoffe pour
robe.
Et pendant, tout ce temps la terre d’Égypte se déroulait à notre
droite et à notre gauche, en marche solennelle. Comme la rivière
était basse nous la vîmes du bateau telle une longue plinthe de boue
pourpre et brunâtre, qui aurait de onze à vingt pieds de haut,
soutenue visiblement tous les cent mètres par des caryatides en
cuivre reluisant, sous forme d’hommes nus écopant de l’eau pour les
récoltes qui se trouvaient en dessus.
Derrière cette éclatante ligne émeraude courait le fond fauve ou
tigré du désert et un ciel bleu pâle encadrait le tout.
C’était là l’Égypte, celle-là même que les Pharaons, leurs
ingénieurs, leurs architectes, avaient vue ; terre à cultiver, gens et
bétail pour travailler, et en dehors de ce travail nulle distraction,
aucune attirance, sauf lorsqu’on transportait les morts à leur
sépulture au delà des limites des terres cultivables. Lorsque les rives
devinrent plus basses la vue s’étendait sur au moins deux kilomètres
de verdure bondée, tout comme une arche de Noé, de gens, de
chameaux, de moutons, de bœufs, de buffles, et, de temps à autre,
d’un cheval. Et les bêtes se tenaient aussi immobiles que des jouets
parce qu’elles étaient attachées ou entravées chacune à son
hémisphère de trèfle, s’avançant lorsque cet espace se trouvait
tondu. Seuls les tout petits chevreaux étaient libres, et jouaient sur
les bords plats des toits de boue comme des petits chats.
Rien d’étonnant que « chaque berger soit une abomination pour
les Égyptiens ». Les sentiers à travers les champs, poussiéreux,
foulés des pieds nus, sont ramenés jusqu’à la plus mesquine
étroitesse qu’il soit possible d’obtenir ; les routes principales sont
soulevées bien haut sur les flancs des canaux, à moins que la route
permanente de quelque voie de chemin de fer très légère ne puisse
être contrainte à les remplacer. Le froment, la canne à sucre, mûre,
pâle et à touffe, le millet, l’orge, les oignons, les bouquets de ricin
frangés, se bousculent pour trouver place où planter le pied puisque
le désert leur refuse l’espace et que les hommes poursuivent le Nil
dans sa chute, centimètre par centimètre, chaque matin, avec de
nouveaux sillons où faire pousser les melons, tout le long des rives
dégouttant encore d’humidité.
Administrativement un tel pays devrait être une pure joie. Les
habitants n’émigrent pas ; toutes leurs ressources sont là devant les
yeux, ils sont aussi accoutumés que leur bétail à être menés de-ci
de-là. Tout ce qu’ils désirent, et on le leur a accordé, c’est d’être mis
à l’abri de l’assassinat, de la mutilation, du viol et du vol. Tout le
reste, ils pourront s’en occuper dans leurs villages silencieux,
ombragés de palmiers où roucoulent leurs pigeons et où, dans la
poussière, jouent leurs petits enfants.
Mais la civilisation occidentale est un jeu dévastateur et égoïste.
Comme la jeune femme de « Notre État » elle dit en substance : « Je
suis riche. Je n’ai rien à faire. Il faut que je fasse quelque chose. Je
vais m’occuper de réforme sociale. »
Actuellement, il existe en Égypte une petite réforme sociale qui
est assez plaisante. Le cultivateur égyptien emprunte de l’argent —
ce à quoi sont astreints tous les fermiers. — Cette terre, sans haie,
sans fleur sauvage est sa passion par héritage et souffrance, tous
deux immémoriaux, il vit grâce à Elle, chez Elle et pour Elle. Il
emprunte pour la développer, pour pouvoir en acheter davantage,
soit de trente à deux cents livres anglaises par acre, faisant là-
dessus un profit, tous frais payés, de cinq à dix livres par acre. Jadis
il empruntait à des prêteurs locaux, Grecs pour la plupart, à 30 %
par an, ou davantage. Ce taux n’est pas excessif, à condition que
l’opinion publique tolère que de temps en temps celui qui emprunte
assassine celui qui prête : mais l’administration moderne qualifie
cela désordre et meurtre.
Donc il y a quelques années on établit une banque avec garantie
sur l’État qui prêtait aux cultivateurs à huit pour cent, et le cultivateur
s’empressa de profiter de ce privilège. Il n’était pas plus en retard
pour régler que de raison, mais étant fermier il ne payait
naturellement pas avant d’avoir été menacé de saisie. De sorte qu’il
fit de bonnes affaires et acheta encore de la terre, c’était là ce que
désirait son cœur. Cette année-ci, c’est-à-dire 1913, l’administration
promulgua soudain des ordres selon lesquels aucun fermier
possédant moins de cinq acres ne pourrait emprunter sur ses terres.
L’affaire m’intéressait directement, parce que j’avais cinq cents livres
sterling d’actions dans cette même banque garantie par l’État et plus
de la moitié de nos clients étaient des individus ne possédant pas
plus de cinq acres. Donc je pris des renseignements dans des
milieux qui semblaient être au courant. On me dit que la nouvelle loi
était complètement d’accord avec le Décret des États-Unis, celui de
la France et les intentions de la Divine Providence, — ou ce qui
revenait au même.
— Mais, demandai-je, est-ce que cette limitation de crédit
n’empêchera pas les hommes qui ont moins de cinq acres
d’emprunter davantage pour acheter davantage de terrain et de faire
leur chemin dans le monde ?
— Si fait, me répondit-on, évidemment. Et c’est justement là ce
que nous voulons éviter. La moitié de ces gens-là se ruinent en
essayant de s’agrandir. Il faut que nous les protégions contre eux-
mêmes.
C’est là, hélas ! l’unique ennemi contre lequel aucune loi ne
saurait protéger aucun fils d’Adam, puisque les véritables raisons qui
font ou perdent un homme sont absurdes ou trop obscènes pour
qu’on les atteigne du dehors. Donc je cherchai ailleurs pour
découvrir comment le cultivateur allait faire.
Lui ? me dit une des nombreuses personnes qui m’avaient
renseigné, lui ! il va bien, rien à craindre. Il y a environ six façons que
je connais, moi, d’éluder le Décret. Et très probablement que le
Fellah en connaît six autres. Il a été dressé à se débrouiller tout seul
depuis les temps de Ramsès. Ne serait-ce que pour la cession du
terrain, il sait falsifier les documents, emprunter assez de terre pour
que son bien dépasse cinq acres le temps nécessaire pour faire faire
l’enregistrement de l’emprunt ; obtenir de l’argent de ses femmes
(oui, voilà un résultat du progrès moderne dans ce pays !) ou bien
aller retrouver le vieil ami le Grec à 30 %.
— Mais le Grec le ferait saisir et ce serait contraire à la loi, n’est-
ce pas ? dis-je.
— Ne vous tracassez pas au sujet du Grec. Il sait tourner
n’importe quelle loi qui existe pourvu qu’il y ait cinq piastres à gagner
là-dedans.
— Sans doute, mais est-ce que réellement la Banque Agricole
faisait saisir trop de cultivateurs ?
— Pas le moins du monde. Le nombre de petits biens est plutôt
en augmentation. La plupart des cultivateurs ne consentent à payer
un emprunt que si on les menace d’une assignation. Ils s’imaginent
que cela les pose et cependant leur inconséquence fait augmenter le
nombre des assignations bien que ces dernières n’impliquent pas
toujours la vente du terrain. Et puis il y a autre chose encore : tout le
monde (dans la vie réelle) ne réussit pas de même. Ou bien ils ne
font pas le métier de fermier comme il faut, ou bien ils s’adonnent au
hashish, ou s’entichent bêtement de quelque fille, et empruntent
pour elle ou font quelque chose d’analogue ; et alors ils sont saisis.
Vous avez pu le remarquer.
— Assurément. Et en attendant que fait le fellah ?
— En attendant, le fellah a mal lu le Décret — comme toujours. Il
s’imagine que son effet sera rétrospectif, et qu’il n’a pas à payer ses
dettes anciennes. Il se peut qu’ils causent des embarras, mais je
crois que votre Banque restera tranquille.
— Restera tranquille ! Avec les trois quarts de ses affaires
compromises — et mes cinq cents livres engagées !
— C’est là votre ennui ? Je ne crois pas que vos actions montent
bien vite, mais si vous voulez vous amuser allez en causer avec les
Français.
C’était là évidemment un moyen aussi bon qu’un autre de se
distraire. Le Français auquel je m’adressais parlait avec une certaine
connaissance de la finance et de la politique et avec la malice
naturelle que porte une race logique à une horde illogique :
— Oui, me dit-il. C’est une idée absurde que de limiter le crédit
dans de telles circonstances. Mais là n’est pas tout. Les gens ne
sont pas effrayés, les affaires ne sont pas compromises par suite
d’une seule idée absurde, mais bien par l’éventualité d’autres
pareilles.
— Il y a donc bien d’autres idées encore que l’on voudrait
essayer dans ce pays ?
— Deux ou trois, me répondit-il avec placidité. Elles sont toutes
généreuses, mais toutes sont ridicules. L’Égypte n’est pas un endroit
où l’on devrait promulguer des idées ridicules.
— Mais, mes actions, mes actions, m’écriai-je, elles ont déjà
baissé de plusieurs points.
— C’est fort possible. Elles baisseront davantage. Puis elles
remonteront.
— Merci, mais pourquoi ?
— Parce que l’idée est fondamentalement absurde. Votre pays
ne l’admettra jamais, mais il y aura des arrangements, des
accommodements, des ajustements, jusqu’à ce que tout soit comme
auparavant. Cela sera l’affaire du fonctionnaire permanent — pauvre
diable ! — d’y mettre bon ordre. C’est toujours son affaire. En
attendant la hausse va se porter sur toutes les denrées.
— Pourquoi cela ?
— Parce que le terrain est la principale caution en Égypte. Si un
homme ne peut pas emprunter sur cette caution, les intérêts
augmenteront sur tous les autres cautionnements qu’il offre. Cela
aura une répercussion sur le travail en général, les gages et les
contrats gouvernementaux.
Il s’exprimait avec tant de conviction et avec tant de preuves
historiques à l’appui, que je voyais perspective sur perspective
d’anciens Pharaons, énergiques maîtres de la vie et de la mort, sur
tout le parcours de la rivière, arrêtés en plein essor par des
comptables impitoyables, qui annonçaient prophétiquement que les
dieux eux-mêmes ne sauraient faire que deux et deux fassent plus
de quatre. Et la vision, parcourant les siècles, aboutit à une seule
petite tête grave, à bord d’un bateau Cook, penchée de côté, en train
d’examiner ce problème vital : l’arrangement de notre « Drapeau
National » pour que ce soit « plus facile de compter les étoiles. »
— Pour la millième fois loué soit Allah pour la diversité de ses
créatures !
POTENTATS MORTS
Les Suisses sont les seules gens qui aient pris la peine de se
rendre maîtres de l’art de gérer des hôtels. En conséquence, pour
toutes choses qui importent réellement — lits, bains et victuailles —
ils contrôlent l’Égypte ; et puisque chaque pays fait un retour à sa vie
primitive (c’est là la raison pour laquelle les États-Unis trouvent un
plaisir extrême à raconter de vieilles histoires) tout Égyptien ancien
comprendrait aussitôt la vie qui rugit tout le long de la rivière où tout
le monde s’ébat au soleil dans les casernes à touristes revêtues de
nickel, la comprendrait et y prendrait part.
De prime abord le spectacle vous permet de moraliser à peu de
frais jusqu’au moment où l’on se souvient que les gens occupés ne
sont visibles que lorsqu’ils sont oisifs, et les gens riches que
lorsqu’ils ont fait fortune. Un citoyen des États-Unis — c’était son
premier voyage à l’étranger — m’indiqua du doigt un Anglo-Saxon
entre deux âges qui se détendait à la manière de plusieurs écoliers.
— En voilà un exemple ! s’écria avec dédain le Fils de l’Activité
Fiévreuse. Vous voudriez me faire croire qu’il a jamais rien fait de sa
vie ? Malheureusement il était tombé sur quelqu’un qui, lorsqu’il est
sous le harnais, trouve que treize heures et demie de travail par jour
n’est qu’une journée passable.
Parmi l’assemblée se trouvaient des hommes et des femmes
brûlés jusqu’à n’avoir plus qu’une seule teinte bleu-noir — des gens
civilisés aux cheveux blanchis, aux yeux étincelants. Ils s’appelaient
des « fouilleurs », rien que des « fouilleurs », et me découvrirent un
monde nouveau. Si l’on accorde que l’Égypte tout entière n’est
qu’une vaste entreprise de pompes funèbres, quoi de plus fascinant
que d’obtenir la permission du Gouvernement de farfouiller dans un
coin quelconque, de former une compagnie et de passer le temps
froid à payer des dividendes sous forme de colliers d’améthystes, de
scarabées lapis-lazulis, de pots d’or pur, et de fragments de statues
inestimables ? Ou bien, si l’on est riche, quoi de plus amusant que
de fournir le nécessaire pour une expédition jusque sur
l’emplacement supposé d’une cité morte, et voir ce qu’il en advient ?
Il y avait parmi les voyageurs un grand chasseur qui connaissait la
plus grande partie du Continent, et qui était tout à fait emballé par ce
sport.
— J’ai l’intention de prendre des obligations dans l’exploration
d’une ville l’année prochaine, et je surveillerai les fouilles moi-même,
dit-il, c’est cent fois plus agréable que la chasse aux éléphants.
Dans cette partie-ci on déterre des choses mortes pour les rendre
vivantes. N’allez-vous pas vous payer une partie ?
Il me fit voir un attrayant petit prospectus. Pour ce qui est de moi-
même, je préférerais ne pas profaner les effets ou l’équipement d’un
mort, surtout lorsqu’il s’est couché dans la tombe avec la conviction
que ces babioles-là sont garantes de son salut. Bien entendu il
existe l’autre argument, que font valoir les gens sceptiques, à savoir
que l’Égyptien était un fanfaron et un vantard, et que rien ne lui ferait
plus de plaisir que la pensée qu’on le regardât, qu’on l’admirât après
tant d’années. Pourtant il se pourrait aussi qu’il nous arrive de voler
quelque âme offusquée qui ne verrait pas les choses de la même
façon.
A la fin du printemps les fouilleurs rentrent en foule du désert et
échangent des plaisanteries et des nouvelles sur les vérandas
somptueuses. Par exemple la bande A a fait la découverte de
choses inestimables, vieilles Dieu sait combien, et ne s’en montre —
pas trop modeste. La bande B, moins heureuse, insinue que si
seulement la bande A savait à quel point ses ouvriers indigènes ont
volé et disposé de leurs vols sous son archéologique nez même, elle
ne serait pas si heureuse.
— Bêtise, dit la bande B, nos ouvriers ne sauraient être
soupçonnés, et puis nous les avons surveillés.

Ebook Modern Control Systems PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Modern Control Systems PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modern control systems - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

Modern Control Systems

CVR_DORF2374_14_GE_CVR_Vivar.indd 1 17/09/21 10:04 AM

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 1 20/09/21 12:23 PM

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 2 20/09/21 12:23 PM

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 3 20/09/21 12:23 PM

Cover Image: Nguyen Quang Ngoc Tonkin/Shutterstock

Pearson Education Limited

and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com

© Pearson Education Limited 2022

ISBN 10: 1-292-42237-8 (print)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

eBook formatted by B2R Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 5 20/09/21 12:23 PM

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 6 20/09/21 12:23 PM

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Control Systems 29

CHAPTER 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 79

CHAPTER 3 State Variable Models 184

CHAPTER 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics 256

CHAPTER 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems 321

CHAPTER 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems 394

CHAPTER 7 The Root Locus Method 446

CHAPTER 8 Frequency Response Methods 545

CHAPTER 9 Stability in the Frequency Domain 622

CHAPTER 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems 728

CHAPTER 11 The Design of State Variable Feedback Systems 812

CHAPTER 12 Robust Control Systems 882

CHAPTER 13 Digital Control Systems 945

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 7 20/09/21 12:23 PM

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 8 20/09/21 12:23 PM

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Control Systems 29

CHAPTER 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 79

CHAPTER 3 State Variable Models 184

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 9 20/09/21 12:23 PM

CHAPTER 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics 256

CHAPTER 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems 321

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 10 20/09/21 12:23 PM

CHAPTER 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems 394

CHAPTER 7 The Root Locus Method 446

CHAPTER 8 Frequency Response Methods 545

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 11 20/09/21 12:23 PM

CHAPTER 9 Stability in the Frequency Domain 622

CHAPTER 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems 728

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 12 20/09/21 12:23 PM

CHAPTER 11 The Design of State Variable Feedback Systems 812

CHAPTER 12 Robust Control Systems 882

CHAPTER 13 Digital Control Systems 945

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 13 20/09/21 12:23 PM

APPENDIX A MATLAB Basics

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 14 20/09/21 12:23 PM

MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS—THE BOOK

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 15 20/09/21 12:23 PM

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 16 20/09/21 12:23 PM

This text is designed for an introductory undergraduate course in control systems

THE FOURTEENTH EDITION

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 17 20/09/21 12:23 PM

The computer-aided design and analysis component of the book continues

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 18 20/09/21 12:23 PM

Progressive Development of Problem-Solving Skills. Reading the chapters,

A01_DORF2374_14_GE_FM.indd 19 20/09/21 12:23 PM