Control Systems U3 (TEL306)

TEL 306/05
Control Systems
Unit 3
Stability Analysis
Contents
Unit overview 1
Unit outcomes 2
3.1 Stability analysis via characteristic equation 3
Introduction 3
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion 5
Application of Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion in system design 13
Example of system design via Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion 14
Suggested answers to activities 19
3.2 Stability analysis via root locus 24
Introduction 24
Root locus method 24
Interpreting root locus 34
Examples of root locus analysis 36
3.3 Stability analysis via frequency response 48
Introduction 48
Frequency response 49
Gain and phase angle 51
Bode plot 57
Example of Bode plot on stability analysis 66

Summary of Unit 3 77
References 80
Unit Overview
Unit 2 demonstrated the impact of the pole placement on a system
time response, which can be illustrated in Figure 3.1. If the poles of the
system are located on the left hand side of the s-plane, the system will
produce a bounded output response for a given bounded input force
function. The output response will converge to a final value when the time
approaches infinity. This is defined as a stable system. If the poles are
located on the imaginary axis (y-axis) of the s-plane, the system will still
give a bounded output for a given bounded input. However, the output
response will keep oscillating and will not converge to a final value. The
system is considered as marginally stable in this case. If the poles are
located on the right hand side of the s-plane, an unbounded system
output will be generated for a given bounded input. The magnitude of
the output response will keep growing! This is defined as an unstable
system. In this unit, three approaches of the stability analysis will be
introduced, namely:
1. The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion for a quick stability

estimation.
2. The root locus method to describe the system stability in the

variation of system gain, K.
3. The Bode plot for the frequency domain stability analysis.

These analyses are important to determine the feasibility of
a designed system.
1 TEL 306/05 Control Systems

jw
s
Stable region Marginally Unstable
stable region region
Figure 3.1 System stability response
Unit Outcomes
By the end of Unit 3, you should be able to:
1. Estimate the system stability using Routh-Hurwitz

stability criterion.
2. Investigate the effect of variation in the gain, K, to the

stability based on the root locus method.
3. Interpret the root locus graph to obtain the required

information for the system design.
4. Explain the closed loop stability and the frequency

specifications.
5. Analyse the closed loop stability by using Bode plot.
UNIT 3 Stability analysis 2

3.1 Stability Analysis via
Characteristic Equation
Introduction
It has been elaborated in the previous units that a linear time invariant
process or system could be expressed in a general form of a transfer
function as follows:
Y(s) b0 sm + b1 sm − 1 + ⋯⋯ + bm − 1s + bm
=
R(s) a0 sn + a1 sn − 1 + ⋯⋯ + an − 1s + an
where Y(s) is the output, R(s) is the input, ai and bi are coefficients and
m ≤ n. It is observed that the transfer function is described in algebraic
function and this makes the manipulation of the equation simpler. The
denominator of the transfer function has been introduced in Unit 1 as the
characteristic equation of the system. Taking an example of the following
second order transfer function:
Y(s) s+1
= 2
U(s) s + 3s + 2
The characteristic equation, CE, is therefore:
CE = s 2 + 3s + 2 = 0

The characteristic equation defines the system’s behaviour as discussed
in Unit 2 on the time response analysis. For the stability analysis, one of
the methods is to identify the roots of the characteristic equation, which
Y(s)
can be obtained by factorising the previous transfer function to
R(s)
the form of:
Y(s) K(s + z1 )(s + z2 ) ...... + (s + zm)

=
R(s) (s + p1)(s + p2) ...... (s + pn)
where zi and pi are the zeros and poles of the system respectively. If all
the poles in the above transfer function are with positive sign, which
means the poles are located on the left hand side of the s-plane, then
the system is stable.
For the characteristic equation of a first order or a second order

polynomial, the poles can be easily found. For example, in a second
order polynomial:
CE = s2 + 3s + 2 = 0 → as2 + bs + c = 0
The poles of the CE are therefore:
−b ± √b2 − 4ac −3 ± √32 − 4(1)(2)

p1, 2 = =
2a 2(1)
p1 = −1 and p2 = −2
Since both poles are located at the left hand side of the s-plane, the
system is said to be stable.

The calculation of poles in the above example is straightforward but for
a higher order system, the exact locations of poles are too cumbersome
to obtain. It requires a lot of mathematical calculations but serves only a
little purpose. To determine the stability of the system, the exact locations
of poles are not required. All that is necessary is just to identify the region
on the s-plane as illustrated in Figure 3.1 where the poles are located.
Therefore, a simple method, known as Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion,
is introduced to estimate the stability of the system without having to
calculate the values of the poles from the characteristic equation. It is
always stress relieving when it comes to a section of the course that is
straightforward yet useful as follows.
Web Reference
For more information on the methods of calculating the poles of

a higher order system, you may visit this website: https://www.
wikihow.com/Solve-Higher-Degree-Polynomials
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion provides a necessary and sufficient
criterion to assess the stability of a linear system (Richard & Robert,
2011). By using this method, the number of poles at each region (i.e.
stable, marginally stable and unstable regions) could be found without
the need to calculate the exact values of the poles. The method will be
elaborated in the procedures as follows:

Procedures
1. Obtain the characteristic equation, CE, from the denominator
Y(s)
of the closed loop system transfer function, in the
R(s)
following form:
CE = a0sn + a1sn − 1 + ⋯⋯ + an − 1s + an = 0
where, n is the order of the polynomials, a 0 to an are the

coefficients of the polynomials. It should be noted that an must
not be equal to a zero value. Any zero root must be removed
from the equation.
2. Check the polarity of coefficients from a0 to an. For a stable

system, all the coefficients must have the same polarity, either
all positive or all negative. This is a necessary condition, but
it is not sufficient. If any of the coefficients has an opposite
polarity, then the system is unstable.
3. If the necessity stability condition is fulfilled (all coefficients

are with the same polarity), arrange the coefficients of the
characteristic equation in the following Routh array:
sn a0 a2 a4 a6 ⋯
sn − 1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ⋯
sn − 2 b1 b2 b3 ⋯
sn − 3 c1 c2 c3 ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
s1 f1
s0 g1

where
a1 a2 − a0 a3 b1 a3 − a1 b2
b1 = c1 =
a1 b1
a1 a4 − a0 a5 b1 a5 − a1 b3
b2 = c2 =
a1 b1
a1 a6 − a0 a7 b1 a7 − a1 b4
b3 = c3 =
a1 b1
⋮ ⋮
⋮ ⋮
4. Examine the first column of the Routh array. Routh-Hurwitz

stability criterion states that the number of unstable poles
(poles appearing on the right of the s-plane) is equal to the
number of changes in polarity (+ve → −ve or −ve → +ve) of
the coefficients on the first column of the array.
Example 1
A fourth order transfer function of a system is given as:
Y(s) 1
= 4
R(s) s + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5
Perform a quick estimation on the system stability by using Routh-Hurwitz


Solution
Step 1: Obtain the characteristic equation, CE, from the transfer function
Y(s)
.
R(s)
CE = s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
Step 2: Check the polarity of all coefficients of the CE.
By inspection of the CE, all the coefficients are with positive polarity.
There is no change of polarity being observed. As the necessity stability
condition is fulfilled, we can proceed to form the Routh array.
Step 3: Construct the Routh array by referring to the formulae shown in

the third step of the Procedures section. The following Routh array is
obtained.
s4 1 3 5 Polarity changed
s3 2 4 from +ve to −ve
s2 1 5
s1 −6 Polarity changed
s0 5 from −ve to +ve
Step 4: By inspecting the first column of the Routh array, there are two
changes in polarity of the coefficients in the first column. Hence there
are two poles located on the right hand side of the s-plane. The system
is declared as unstable.

Example 2
An overall transfer function of a system is given as:
Y(s) s+b
=
R(s) a 0s 3 + a 1s 2 + a 2s + a 3
Provide the conditions to obtain a stable system by using Routh-Hurwitz

Solution
Although it is good to follow the procedures, you should be able to

simplify the steps and perform the neccessity to obtain the solution.
Let’s apply Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion to the following characteristic
equation, CE:
CE = a0s3 + a1s2 + a2s + a3 = 0
Note that all the coefficients are positive, hence the necessity condition
for a stable system is fulfilled. To obtain a sufficient condition, the
coefficients are arranged in the Routh array as below:
s3 a0 a2
s2 a1 a3
a1 a2 − a0 a3 a1 0 − a0 0
s1
a1 a1
s0 a3 0

Therefore, the following conditions should be met to ensure the stability:
a0 > 0, a1 > 0, a3 > 0, a 1a 2 − a 0a 3 > 0
Example 1 and Example 2 demonstrated the efficiency and simplicity

of using the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion to estimate the stability of
a higher order system. However, a problem arises if a value of zero is
obtained while calculating the Routh array. Those special cases will be
discussed as follows:
Special cases:
Case 1: A value of zero appears in the first column of array, but others
are not zero values.
Extra procedure: Replace the zero value with a very small positive number,
∈, and proceed with calculating the rest of the array.
Example:
s3 + 2s2 + s + 2 = 0
s3 1 1
s2 2 2
s1 0=∈
s0 2
Note:
a. If the polarity of the coefficient above the value of zero is the

same as that below it, this means that there is a pair of
imaginary poles (s = ±j). Hence the system is marginally
stable.

b. If the polarity of the coefficient above the value of zero is
opposite to that below it, this means that a polarity change
has occurred. Hence the system is said to be unstable.
Case 2: Entire calculated row (third row onwards) is zero.
Extra procedure:
1. Form an auxiliary polynomial using the coefficients of the

previous row.
2. Differentiate the polynomial with respect to s.
3. Replace the row of zeros with the coefficients newly obtained.
Example:
Given the characteristic equation of a system as follows:
s6 + 9s5 + 31.25s4 + 61.25s3 + 67.75s2 + 14.75s + 15 = 0
Construct the Routh array by referring to the formulae shown in the third
step of the Procedures section. The following Routh array is obtained:
s6 1 31.25 67.75 15
s5 9 61.25 14.75 0
s4 24.44 66.11 15 0
s3 36.87 9.23 0 0
s2 60 15 0 0
s1 0 0 0 0 ← Apply auxiliary
polynomial, P(s)

As the entire row of s1 is found to have zero values, an auxiliary polynomial,
P(s), should be formed so the calculation could proceed. The auxiliary
polynomials could be obtained by referring to the coefficients in the row
of s2 as below:
P(s) = 60s2 + 15
Differentiating the P(s) with respect to s,
dP(s)
= 120s
ds
dP(s)
The coefficients obtained from , are entered into the row
ds
corresponding to s3 as follows:
s6 1 31.25 67.75 15
s5 9 61.25 14.75 0
s4 24.44 66.11 15 0
s3 36.87 9.23 0 0
s2 60 15 0 0
s1 120 0 0 0 ← Coefficients from
s0 15
dP(s)
ds
The derivation for the following rows proceeds. The system is considered
as marginally stable, even though there is no change in polarity on the
first column of the Routh array after applying the auxiliary polynomial.
Another useful function of the auxiliary polynomial is to determine the
poles of the marginally stable system, which are located on the imaginary
axis of the s-plane.

Given that the auxiliary polynomial P(s), is:
P(s) = 60s2 + 15
The locations of the poles can be calculated from the roots of the
P(s) as:
p1, 2 = s1, 2 = ±j 0.5
Activity 3.1
Given an overall system transfer function of
1
T(s) = ,
s3 + 20s2 + 5s + 100
determine if the system is stable using the Routh-Hurwitz stability
criterion.
Application of Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion in

system design
Designing a stable system promotes the feasibility and safety of the
operation. However, in some applications, enforcing too much on the
stability might sacrifice other appealing characteristics of the system.
For instance, designing a bicycle running on two wheels seems to be
unstable as the bicycle falls when not being ride (without a controller).
Putting on a pair of side-supporting wheels will definitely make the
bicycle stable, but on the other hand, the flexibility of manoeuvre such
as making a sharp turn is sacrificed! Therefore, it is not always true that
a better system is a more stable system.

The example of the system design via pole placement discussed in Unit
2 indicated that the gain, K, in a closed loop control system will have
an impact on the system response. The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion
is particularly efficient in finding the range of the gain, K, for a stable
system and calculating the natural frequency, ωn. The control system
designer can then apply a suitable gain, K, within the range for a stable
and desired performance!
Example of system design via Routh-Hurwitz

stability criterion
Figure 3.2 shows a closed loop control system with the gain, K and a
unity feedback. Design a system with a suggested range of K for stability
and determine the natural frequency, ωn of the system.
R(s) 1 Y(s)
+ K
� s(s + 2)(s2 + s + 1)
Figure 3.2 A closed loop system with gain, K
Solution
The overall closed loop transfer function can be derived as:
Y(s) K K
T(s) = = =
R(s) s(s2 + s + 1)(s + 2) + K s4 + 3s3 + 3s2 + 2s + K

The characteristic equation, CE, can be obtained from the denominator
of the transfer function:
CE = s4 + 3s3 + 3s2 + 2s + K = 0
To fulfil the necessity condition for a stable system, the gain, K must be
larger than zero. We may proceed to construct the Routh array as follows:
s4 1 3 K
s3 3 2
7
s2 K
3
9
s1 2− K
7
s0 K
For a stable system, all the coefficients in the first column must be
positive, hence:
9
2− K>0
7
14
>K
9
Therefore, the range of gain, K for a stable system must be:
14
0<K<
9

14
Setting K = will cause a marginally stable system where the
9
damping ratio, ζ = 0. The frequency of oscillation at this point will be
the natural frequency of the system, which can be found by forming an
auxiliary polynomial in the s2 row where:
7 2 14
s + =0
3 9
Calculating the roots of the above quadratic equation:
Hence s1, 2 = ± j0.8165
The system will oscillate without any damping at a frequency of 0.8165

rad/s, which is the natural freqeuncy of the system.
Activity 3.2
This activity could serve as a refreshing workout after a long

and exhausted study. Apart from stress relieving, it also helps
you to appreciate the stability and flexibility of the human body
mechanics. In a safe environment such as an empty room, perform
these two simple workouts:
1. Stand on both feet and close both eyes. Count to 10, then
swing to rotate your whole body to face the right hand side
without lifting the feet.

2. Stand on one foot and close both eyes. Count to 10 again,
then swing to rotate your whole body to face the right hand
side again without lifting the standing foot.
Share your experience on both exercises based on how difficult

it is to maintain the stability of the stand within the count. Which
workout would be easier to rotate your whole body?
Activity 3.3
A closed loop transfer function of a system is given as below:
Y(s) 10(s + 3)
= 3
R(s) s + (3 + K)s2 + (3K + 10)s + 40
where K represents the gain of a physical constant for one of the
components used in the system. Find the range of the gain, K for
a stable system.
Activity 3.4
A remote control drone has found its application in many fields

including the bird’s eye view photography. Stabilising the drone
at a specific altitude is much desired for a vivid snapshot of a
photo. Figure 3.3 depicts the control system of a drone altitude
in the form of a block diagram.

R(s) 1 4s2 + 2s + 1 Y(s)
+ K
� s(s2 + s + 4) s2
Figure 3.3 Control system of a drone altitude
where K represents the gain of the controller. Determine the range

of gain K for stabilising the drone.
Summary
This section introduced the concept of system stability. A

system is said to be stable if it produces a bounded output for
a bounded input. Two approaches of analysing the stability of
a system by referring to the characteristic equation of a system
are studied. The first approach is based on the calculated values
of poles of the closed loop system. If any of the poles is with
a positive polarity, the pole is located on the right hand side of
the s-plane and hence the system is classified as unstable. A
system is stable if all the poles are with negative polarity and
therefore on the left hand side of the s-plane. Poles calculation
is feasible for the first and second order system. For a higher
order system, calculating the poles is a tedious task but the exact
values of the poles are not required for determining the stability
of a system. Therefore, the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion
is introduced in the second approach. The procedures of the
criterion are rather straightforward yet they provide a necessity

and sufficient criterion to determine the stability. The criterion
could also be applied in the system design to find the range of
gain, K, to achieve a stable and desired performance.
Suggested answers to activities
Feedback
Activity 3.1
The characteristic equation of a system is given as:
CE = s3 + 20s2 + 5s + 100 = 0
By inspection, all the coefficients are with positive polarity, which

grant the necessity condition for a stable system. To obtain a
sufficient condition for stability, construct the Routh array as
follows:
s3 1 5 0
s2 20 100 0
100 − 100
s1 =0 0 ← Apply auxiliary
20 polynomial, P(s)
s0 100 0
An auxiliary polynomial, P(s), is formed as below:
P(s) = 20s2 + 100

Differentiating the P(s) with respect to s,
dP(s)
= 40s
ds
Hence the Routh array becomes:
s3 1 5 0
s2 20 100 0
dP(s)
s1 40 0 ← Coefficients from
s0 100 0 ds
There is a zero value in the coefficients of the first column before

applying the auxiliary polynomial. The system is considered as
marginally stable, even though there is no change in polarity on the
first column of the Routh array after applying auxiliary polynomial.
Activity 3.2
It is more difficult to maintain stability within the count when

standing on one foot but it is easier to rotate the body to face
the right hand side. Standing on one foot reduces stability but
improves the flexibility of the movement as in comparison with
standing on both feet. This activity is created for you to feel the
stability and flexibility of the human body mechanics.

Activity 3.3
The characteristic equation, CE, could be obtained from the

transfer function where:
CE = s3 + (3 + K)s2 + (3K + 10)s + 40 = 0
The Routh array is constructed as follows:
s3 1 3K + 10 0
s2 3+K 40 0
3K 2 + 19K − 10
s 1
0
3+K
s0 40 0
For the system to be stable, there must be no change in polarity

in the first column of the Routh array. Therefore, the following
conditions must be satisfied:
3 + K > 0 and,
3K 2 + 19K − 10
>0
3+K
For the first condition, K > −3,
For the second condition, two potential solutions exist as:
3K 2 + 19K − 10 = (K − 0.49)(K + 6.8) > 0

Hence:
K > 0.49 and K > −6.8
To fulfil both the first and second conditions, the range of K must
be greater than 0.49 in order for the system to be stable.
Activity 3.4
The closed loop transfer function can be derived as:
K(4s 2 + 2s + 1)
s5 + s4 + 4s3 + 4Ks2 + 2Ks + K
The characteristic equation, CE, could be obtained from the

transfer function
CE = s5 + s4 + 4s3 + 4Ks2 + 2Ks + K = 0
The Routh array is constructed as follows:
s5 1 4 2K 0
s4 1 4K K 0
s3 4 − 4K K 0
s2 b K 0
s1 c 0
s0 K 0
∴K>0

16K − 16K 2 − K −16K 2 + 15K
b= =
4 − 4K −4K + 4
−16K 2 + 15K
>0
−4K + 4
15K > 16K 2
∴ 0.93 > K
AK − 4K + 4K 2 −32K 3 + 47K 2 − 16K

c= =
A −16K 2 + 15K
−32K 2 + 47K − 16 > 0

(K − 0.93)(K − 0.54) > 0
∴ K > 0.54
Therefore, the system is stable when the gain, 0.54 < K < 0.93.

Root Locus
Introduction
Perhaps the simplest continuous control system is a system with a
proportional gain, K, controller as depicted in Figure 3.4. The controller
could be easily developed by means of a proper configuration of an
operational amplifier for the desired gain, K. However, designing such a
closed loop system needs careful analysis as the system stability may
vary in response to the variation of the gain, K. It has been demonstrated
in Activity 3.4 that by using Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, the drone is
found to be stable when the gain is in the range of 0.54 to 0.93. Routh-
Hurwitz stability criterion is indeed efficient in determining the system
stability, but it lacks details of the system response in the variation of
gain, K. In this section, the root locus method is introduced for the details
including the stability.
Root locus method

Root locus is a plot of the positions of the roots in the s-plane based on
the system characteristic equation when the gain, K, varies from zero
to infinity. It is a method devised by W.R. Evans before the advent of
computers (John, 1996). In these modern days, you might have access
to computer programs such as MATLAB and VisSim to generate the root
locus graph automatically. However, learning how to construct a root
locus graph will definitely aid in better understanding of the root locus
concept. This will help you to interpret a root locus graph correctly when
designing a system, whether the graph is constructed manually or by
means of a computer program.

R(s) Y(s)
+ K Process
�
Figure 3.4 A simple system with a proportional gain, K
An overview of root locus graphs is illustrated below. The open loop

transfer function, G(s), for each graph is provided at the side of each
graph. The arrow indicates the direction of poles when the closed loop
gain, K, increases. It is basically a method to estimate the positions of
close loop poles using the open loop poles when the gain is varied.
jw jw
2
s s
K K
G(s) = G(s) =
s s2
jw jw
s s
−p −z
K G(s) = (s + z)K
G(s) =
s+p

jw jw
s s
−p −z −p1 −p2
s+z K
G(s) = G(s) =
s+p (s + p1)(s + p2)
jw jw
ζ<1
s s
−p1 −p2 0
K K
G(s) = G(s) =
s + 2ζwn s + wn2
2
s(s + p1)(s + p2)
Rules of root locus method
1. The number of branches of the root locus equals the number

of the poles, p.
2. The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis, σ.
3. On the real axis, for K > 0, the root locus exists on the left of
an odd number of the real axis finite open loop poles, p,
and/or finite open loop zeros, z.

4. The root locus begins at the finite and infinite poles and ends
at the finite and infinite zeros.
5. The root locus approaches straight lines as asymptotes

when the root locus approaches infinity. Asymptotes exist
when the number of poles is more than the number of zeros.
The equation of the asymptotes is given by the real axis
intercept, σ0, and angle, θ, as follows:
∑finite poles − ∑finite zeros

σ0 =
# finite poles − # finite zeros
(2k + 1)180
q=
where k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...
The sketching of the root locus graph could be summarised into eight
steps using the following example.
Example 3
Sketch the root locus graph of the system with the open loop transfer
function, G(s) and the feedback loop function, H(s) as follows:
K(s + 2)
G(s) = , H(s) = 1
s2 + 2s + 3

+
R(s) � G(s) Y(s)
H(s)
Figure 3.5 A closed loop control system with gain, K
Solution
Step 1: Obtain the open loop poles, p, and open loop zero, z.
For the open loop poles,
−2 ± √22 − 4(1)(3)
s + 2s + 3 ⇒ p1, 2 =
2
2(1)
−2 ± j√8
p1, 2 =
2
p1, 2 = −1 ± j√2
p1, 2 = −1 + j√2 , −1 − j√2
For the open loop zero, s + 2 ⇒ z = −2
Step 2: Identify the starting points (K = 0) and the terminating points

(K = ∞).
According to the 4th rule, the starting points are from two poles, p1, 2,
(2 branches) and the terminating point is at the only one zero, z (only 1
branch).

Step 3: Visualise the root loci on the real axis.
According to the 3rd rule, the root loci on the real axis is on the location
after the zero, z.
Step 4: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.
There is only one asymptote, since there are two poles and only one
zero. The angle of asymptote is:
(2k + 1)180° 180°

q= =
# finite poles − # finite zeros 2−1
= 180°
And the real axis intercept, σ0 is:

σ0 =
(−1 + j√2) + (−1 − j√2) − 0

= = −2
2−1
Step 5: Calculate the break-away and break-in points.
There is no break-away point, since the poles are complex numbers. The
break-in point could be calculated using the closed loop characteristic
equation as follows:
K(s + 2) s2 + 2s + 3
1 + G(s)H(s) = 1 + 2 =0 ⇒ K=−
s + 2s + 3 s+2

The break-in point could be found when:
dK (2s + 2)(s + 2) − (s2 + 2s + 3)

=− =0
ds (s + 2)2
⇒ s2 + 4s + 1 = 0 → solving the quadratic equation,
∴ s = �3.732 or s = −0.2608
Observing both values above, the break-in point is chosen to be the

point s = −3.732 as it is on the root locus (located to the left of the zero).
The point s = −0.2608 is not on the root locus and therefore it cannot
be the break-in point.
Step 6: Calculate the angle of departure/arrival (only applicable if complex

poles/zeros exist).
An arbitrary test point, s, is located as depicted in Figure 3.6, the angular

contribution from all poles and zeros is as follows:
∑ angles of zeros, φ − ∑ angles of poles, θ = ±180° (2k + 1)
φ1 − (q1 + q2) = ±180° (2k + 1)
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ......
As the poles are located at:
p1, 2 = −1 ± j√2
and the zero is located at:
z = −2

the φ1 can be calculated as:
√2
φ1 = tan−1
−2 − (−1)
φ1 = 55°
when k = 0,
q1 = 180° − q2 + φ1
= 180° − 90° + 55° = 145°
Hence the departure angle from the pole at s = −p1 is 145°.
According to the 2nd rule, the root locus is symmetric about the real
axis, hence the angle of departure from the pole at s = −p2 is −145°. The
angle of departure provides the direction for the initial sketching of the
root locus from the complex poles.
Figure 3.6 Test point, s, for calculation of departure angle

Step 7: Find the points where the root loci intersects with the imaginary
axis.
Not applicable for this case since the root loci moves towards the zero
at the left.
Step 8: Sketch the root locus as below based on the information acquired.
Root locus Start point

2
1.5
Imaginary axis (seconds�1)
1 departure angle = 145°

0.5
End point End point
0
−0.5 breakaway point

= �3.732
−1
Start point
−1.5
−2
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
Real axis (seconds�1)
Figure 3.7 Sketch of root locus

Activity 3.5
Sketch the root locus for the following system where the open
loop transfer function, G(s) is given as:
K(s2 − 4s + 20)
G(s) = , H(s) = 1
(s + 2)(s + 4)
+
R(s) � Y(s)
Figure 3.8 Unity feedback system
Web Reference
For more information on plotting the root locus graph using

MATLAB and VisSim, you may visit these websites:
1. MATLAB
https://www.mathworks.com/help/control/ref/rlocus.html
2. VisSim
http://www.adeptscience.co.uk/products/mathsim/vissim/
vissimanalyze-add-on.html

Interpreting root locus
The root locus graph provides an insight to the behaviour of a system
when the system gain varies from zero to infinity. Based on the root
locus graph that is sketched previously in Figure 3.7, the information
that can be interpreted is depicted in Figure 3.9. At a low gain, for
example K = 1, the system exhibits oscillatory output in the step
response as the poles are with complex numbers. Further increasing
the gain, K will shift the poles moving towards the real axis and that
reduces the oscillatory output response as shown in the graph when K
= 10. Further increasing the gain, K will force both poles, p1, 2, meeting
at the break-in point of −3.732. Both poles are then on real values
after the break-in point. For instance, at the gain K = 100, the system
step response is similar to a first order system without an overshoot.
The graph indicates that the system is stable with any value of gain, K
since the root locus is on the left hand side of the s-plane.
Imaginary Axis (seconds−1)
Figure 3.9 Interpreting the root locus graph

Another interesting interpretation of the root locus graph is depicted
in Figure 3.10 where the system is described in Activity 3.9. The poles
are located at the real axis initially at the start points when the gain K
is very low. No overshoot is found in the step response when the gain
K is 0.1. The increasing gain K shifts the poles towards the break-away
point at −2.879. Further increment of the gain K leads to complex poles
and the overshoots are observed in the step response such as in the
case when K = 1.0. There is a critical gain K = 1.5 where the root locus
intersects with the imaginary y-axis. This is the point where the system
is at marginally stable condition in which the amplitude of oscillation is
maintained. Further increasing the gain, K will cause instability to the
system as shown in the graph where gain K = 1.6.
The main reason of sketching the root locus graph is to analyse the
stability of the system in the variation of gain, K. If crossing points are
found in the graph, a critical gain K that leads to the instability should be
identified. The information which could be retrieved from the root locus
is more than just the system stability. With a proper analysis on the root
locus graph, a system designer may also acquire other information such
as the poles corresponding to the specific damping ratio to achieve the
desired output response. Examples of analysis will be provided in the
next section.

Figure 3.10 Root locus crossing imaginary y-axis
Examples of root locus analysis

Example 4
In Example 3, the root locus graph as shown in Figure 3.11 is sketched.

Using the sketch, the system designer wishes to design a system with
a damping ratio ς of 0.7. Determine the gain, K to achieve the desired
response.

jw
−1.67 + j1.7
ζ = 0.7 line 145°
q = 45° s
−2 0
−1.67 + j1.7
Figure 3.11 Root locus graph with damping ratio ς of 0.7
Solution
The gain, K at any point of the root locus can be calculated by substituting
the corresponding value of s found in the graph into the characteristic
equation of the system. The open loop transfer function of Example 3 is:
K(s + 2)
G(s) = , H(s) = 1
s2 + 2s + 3
Hence from the characteristics equation, the gain, K equation could be

found:
K(s + 2) s2 + 2s + 3
1 + G(s)H(s) = 1 + 2 =0 ⇒ K=−
s + 2s + 3 s+2

Draw the lines corresponding to ζ = 0.7 ⇒ ±cos−1 0.7 = ±45°
∴ From the root locus, the root loci at the intersections of root locus and
the lines of ζ = 0.7 are:
⇒ s = −1.67 ± j1.7
Substituting these values into the equation:
K= | (s + 1 − j√2)(s + 1 + j√2)
s+2 | = 1.34
s = −1.67 ± j1.70
Example 5
Figure 3.12 shows a closed loop system with an integrator controller
K
function, . Sketch the root locus and determine the range of gain, K
s
for a stable output response.
R(s) K 1 1 Y(s)
+
� s s+5 s+1
Figure 3.12 Root locus graph with damping ratio ς of 0.7

Solution
Step 1: Obtain open loop poles and zeros.
The system is without any open loop zero and there is a total of three
open loop poles since:
s(s + 1)(s + 5) ⇒ p1 = 0, p2 = −1, p3 = −5
Step 2: Identify the starting points (K = 0) and the terminating points

(K = ∞).
The starting points are from the poles but asymptotes are needed to
direct the root locus as the system is without any zeros as the end points.
Step 3: Visualise the root loci on the real axis.
The root loci on the real axis are in between the poles at the origin and
−1, and after the pole at −5.
Step 4: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.
There are three asymptotes, since there are three poles and no zero. The
angles of asymptotes are:
(2k + 1)180° (2k + 1)180°

q= =
# finite poles − # finite zeros 3−0
(2(0) + 1)180° (2(1) + 1)180° (2(2) + 1)180°

= = 60°, = 180°, = 300°
3−0 3−0 3−0

And the real axis intercept, σ0 is:

σ0 =
(0 − 1 − 5) − 0
= = −2
3−0
Step 5: Calculate the break-away and break-in points.
There is a break-away point, since the open loop poles are real numbers.
The break-away point could be calculated using the closed loop
characteristic equation, CE, as follows:
K
T(s) = ,
s(s + 1)(s + 5) + K
CE = s3 + 6s2 + 5s + K = 0
K = −s3 + 6s2 + 5s
dK
= −3s2 − 12s − 5 = 0
ds
12 √84 12 √84
∴ s1 = − + = −0.47 s2 = − − = −3.53
6 6 6 6
Observing both values above, the break-away point is chosen to be the

point s = −0.47 as it is on the real root locus (0 > s > −1) as visualised
in Step 3.
Step 6: Calculate the angle of departure/arrival (only applicable if complex

poles/zeros exist).
Not applicable as no complex poles or zeros.

Step 7: Find the points where the root loci intersects with the imaginary
axis.
By using the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, the stability of the closed

loop system could be analysed through the characteristic equation, CE
as follows:
s3 1 6 0
s2 5 K 0
30 − K
s1 0
5
s0 K 0
The system is marginally stable when:
30 − K
=0
5
⇒ K = 30
The last row indicates that the gain, K must be more than zero for a stable
system. Therefore, the system is stable for the range of gain, 0 < K < 30.
Substituting the gain K = 30 into the Routh array, the crossing points
at imaginary axis could be calculated using the auxiliary polynomials at
the second row as:
5s2 + 30 = 0 ⇒ s2 = −6 ⇒ s = ±j√6 = ±j2.45

Step 8: The root locus graph can be sketched as depicted in Figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13 Sketch of root locus graph for the system
Reading
In this unit, the root locus is developed for systems with only
one variable, namely the gain K. The root locus method can be
extended to systems with more than one variable. This extension
is described in section 7.5 of the following textbook:
Richard, C. D. & Robert, H. B. (2011). Modern control systems

(12th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Activity 3.6
A unity feedback closed loop control system with an open loop

transfer function is given as follows:
K
G(s) = , H(s) = 1
s3 + 6s2 + 25s
Sketch the root locus of the system.
Summary
Root locus is a graphical method that gives insight to the system

behaviour in the variation of the closed loop gain, K. There are
several rules and procedures that provide guidelines on sketching
a root locus graph, although it is arguable that with the modern
aid of computer programs, a root locus graph could be easily
generated. Learning to sketch the root locus graph will improve
your understanding of the root locus concept. This is important
when interpreting the root locus graph either generated by
computers or sketched by hand for more accurate information.
This section also demonstrated two examples of analysis on root
locus graph in the design of closed loop control systems. Several
activities have also been provided to help you master the root
locus method.

Feedback
Activity 3.5
By following the steps of the root locus method, the sketch of the
root locus is as follows:
Activity 3.6
The solution indicates only the key calculations as the guideline.

You are suggested to follow the steps in the examples provided
in the section to produce the sketch.

There are three poles and no zero.
±180°(2k + 1)
Angles of asymptotes = = 60°, 180°, 300°
3
0−3−3
Intersection of the asymptotes at the real axis = = −2
3
Break-away and break-in points
K = −s(s2 + 6s + 25)
dK
= −(3s2 + 12s + 25) = 0
ds
a = 3, b = 12, c = 25
−b ± √b2 − 4ac
s=
2a
−12 ± √122 − 4 * 3 * 25
s=
2*3
s1, 2 = −2 ± j2.0817
Since the angle conditions are not satisfied, there are neither
break-away nor break-in points.

The points where root locus branches across the imaginary axis:
s3 + 6s2 + 25s + K = 0
s3 1 25 0
s2 6 K 0
6(25) − K
s1 0
6
s0 K 0
The system is marginally stable when:
150 − K
= 0 ⇒ K = 150
6
Therefore, the system is stable for the range of gain, 0 < K < 150.
Substituting the gain K = 150 into the Routh array, the crossing
points at imaginary axis could be calculated using the auxiliary
polynomials at second row as:
6s2 + 150 = 0 ⇒ s2 = −25 ⇒ s = ±j5

The sketch of the root locus can be obtained as illustrated as
follows:

Frequency Response
Introduction
A closed loop control system as depicted in Figure 3.14 is generally
designed with a negative feedback to promote stability. The controller
generates control actions to minimise the error signal. However, in the
presence of disturbances, time lags or phase shifts within the loop, the
feedback signal might turn into reinforcement for the setpoint signal. The
result is either the system becomes marginally stable, or in the worst
case, becomes completely unstable! This scenario may be analogised to
a child’s swing in the playground. To keep the swing in motion, pushes are
needed when the swing just reaches at a static transition point between
the forward and backward movements. The natural movement of the
swing is thus maintained. If the pushes are timed to coincide with the
backward movement when the swing approaches us, the swing will slow
down and stop eventually. This is the negative feedback and produces
a stable system. However, if the pushes are timed to coincide with the
forward movement when the swing moves away from us, the swing will
speed up and overturn eventually. This is the situation when time lags or
phase shifts at the angle of −180° occur in a negative feedback system.
The analogy indicates the effect of the timing (phase shift) to the stability
of the system, which is only one component of the frequency response.
The details of the frequency response and its effect on the system stability
will be discussed in this section.

Disturbances
Input or Output or
manipulating controlled
Setpoint Error variable variable
Controller Process
Sensors
Figure 3.14 A generic closed loop control system with negative feedback
Frequency response
Frequency response is referred to as the steady state response of a
system when a sinusoidal input force function is applied. In practical, the
frequency () of the sinusoidal input, r(t), is varied over a certain range
of interest. The resulting output response, y(t), such as Figure 3.15 could
be observed. The amplitude ratio and the phase shift are then measured
and studied.
r(t) = Ai sin wt
Φ y(t) = Ao sin (wt − Φ)
Figure 3.15 The sinusoidal input signal and the corresponding output signal

Amplitude ratio and phase shift are two quantities that characterise the
frequency response of a system:
1. Amplitude ratio: Modulus of the ratio of the amplitude of the

output signal to the amplitude of the input signal.
2. Phase shift: Phase angle difference of the output signal relative

to that of the input signal.
A major advantage of the frequency response test is that the closed loop
response of a system can be predicted from the open loop test results.
This would simplify the analysis of the system characteristic because
the open loop transfer function is easier to obtain and manipulate.
The frequency response of a system can be acquired by means of the
experimental approach as depicted in Figure 3.16.
+
r(t)= Ai sin (ωt) Process y(t)= Ao sin (ωt + Φ)
-
Recorder Sensor
Figure 3.16 Experimental approach to study the frequency response
The system is set as open loop at the point where the recorder is located
as shown in Figure 3.16. A sinusoidal input of reasonable amplitude, which
will not cause the system to saturate, with low frequency is first applied
to the input of the system. The system will respond with the output
producing a sinusoidal signal of the same frequency as the input. The
amplitudes and phase shift of the input and output signals are recorded.
The process is repeated many more times with the higher input signal
frequency. The recorded amplitude ratio and the phase shift for the range
of the frequency are then used to construct a Bode plot. The Bode plot

hence consists of two plots, namely amplitude ratio (magnitude) plot
and the phase plot as shown in Figure 3.17. Provided the system is of
higher order than second, then there is a certain frequency that a phase
shift of 180° is observed on the phase plot. If the signal of 180° phase
shift is fed back to the comparator, the signal will be inverted and hence
it becomes a reinforcement to the setpoint signal. If the amplitude of
this feedback signal is greater than unity, the signal as it passes around
the loop will build up and eventually the system becomes unstable. The
stability analysis via frequency response, therefore could be done by
identifying the frequency that causes −180° phase shift and its associate
amplitude built-up using a Bode plot.
Figure 3.17 Bode plot indicates the frequency that causes an unstable system
Gain and phase angle

Y(s)
When a system described by an open loop transfer function, , is
R(s)
subjected to a sinusoidal input force function, the transfer function could
be expressed in terms of frequency, w. For simplicity, we may use the
transfer function of an RC circuit that we studied in Unit 1 to demonstrate.
Given the transfer function:

Y(s) 1
= G(s) =
R(s) 1 + RCs
where R is the resistance and C is the capacitance of the circuit.

Substituting s = jw,
Y(jw) 1
= G(jw) =
R(jw) 1 + RC jw
It is remarked that the term “s” has been replaced by “jw” in the above
transfer function, where w is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal input
signal. The relationship between the Laplace transfer function and the
transfer function in the frequency domain (Fourier transform) is simply
that the Laplace operator, s, is replaced by jw. If you are interested to
know the proof of the replacement, you can refer to the web reference
suggested below. The content of this section should keep focused as
the intention of this section is to discuss on analysing the stability of
frequency response of the system.
To determine the frequency response of the system, the values for the
amplitude ratio and the phase shift, (w), must be calculated for a desired
frequency range of the input signals. In complex number, the amplitude
ratio is referred to as gain modulus denoted by, |G(w)|. To obtain the gain
modulus and phase shift, the transfer function must be expressed in the
form of complex number by multiplying with the complex conjugate of
the denominator as follows:
1 1 − RC jw 1 − jRCw
G(jw) = ∙ =
1 + RC jw 1 − RC jw 1 + (RCw)2
=
( 1
1 + (RCw)2) (
− j
RCw
1 + (RCw)2 )
where j = √−1

Web Reference
For more information about the relationship between Laplace

transform and Fourier transform, you may visit this website:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace_transform#Fourier_
transform
The gain modulus, |G(w)|, could be calculated by using Pythagoras

equation as follows:
√( 1
) ( −RCw 2
)
2
|G(w)| = +
(1 + (RCw)2 (1 + (RCw)2
|G(w)| =
√ 1 + (RCw)2
[1 + (RCw)2]2
|G(w)| =
√ 1
1 + (RCw)2
The phase angle, (w), could be calculated by inverse Tangent of the

imaginary term divided by the real term of the G(jw) as follows:
− RCw
1 + (RCw)2 RCw
(w) = tan−1 = −tan−1 = −tan−1 RCw
1 1
1 + (RCw)2
Calculation of the gain modulus and the phase shift is the fundamental
of Bode plot to be studied later.

Example 6
A system open loop transfer function is given as follows:
4
T(s) =
(s + 1)2
Determine the frequency response of the system when subjected to a

sinusoidal input signal at a frequency of 10 rad/s.
Solution
The frequency response is governed by the gain modulus and the phase
shift equations. The transfer function in the frequency domain could be
obtained by replacing the Laplace operator “s” by “jw”:
4
G(w) =
(jw + 1)2
since j = √−1, therefore j2 = −1.
4
 G(w) =
(−w2 + 1) + (2jw)
Multiplying with complex conjugates of the denominator:
4(−w2 + 1) 8w
G(w) = 4 − j
(w + 2w2 + 1) (w4 + 2w2 + 1)

The gain modulus, |G(w)|, of the system is thus:
|G(w)| =
√ 16(−w2 + 1)2 + 64w2
(w4 + 2w2 + 1)2
|G(w)| =
√ 16(w4 + 2w2 + 1)
(w4 + 2w2 + 1)2
4
|G(w)| =
√(w4 + 2w2 + 1)
At 10 rad/s, the gain modulus is:
4
|G(w = 10)| = = 0.04
√(104 + 2(10)2 + 1
The gain in frequency response is more commonly expressed in the unit

of decibel (dB) as follows:
|G(w)|dB = 10 log ( )
Pout
Pin
= 20 log ( )
Vout
Vin
where Pout is the output power, Pin is the input power, Vout is the output
voltage and Vin is the input voltage. It is to be noted that the log term is
referred to as log10 throughout the content.
As the transfer function is in the term of voltage signals (more commonly

used in the control system), hence:
|G(w)|dB = 20 log ( )
Vout
Vin
=20 log[G(w)] = 20 log(0.04) = −28.1 dB

The phase angle, (w), could be calculated by inverse Tangent of the
imaginary term divided by the real term of the G(jw) as follows:
−8w
w4 + 2w2 + 1 8w
(w) = tan−1 = −tan −1
4(−w2 + 1) 4(−w2 + 1)
w4 + 2w2 + 1
8(10)
(w) = −tan−1 = 11.42°
4(−102 + 1)
Activity 3.7
A closed loop system with a unity feedback is illustrated in the

figure below.
R(s) 1 1 0.27 Y(s)

s 2s + 1 5s + 1
Obtain the open loop transfer function and determine the frequency
response of the system when subjected to sinusoidal input signal
at the frequency of 0.1 rad/s.

Bode plot
A Bode plot is an efficient way of representing the frequency response
of a system over the desired frequency range of sinusoidal input signal.
The major advantages of the Bode plot could be stated as follows:
1. Vast information of the system response could be squeezed in

a short distance on the plot in the form of logarithmic (log)
scale.
2. When calculating the gain of a system in the unit of decibel

(dB), the multiplication of gains becomes an addition in dB’s.
3. A complex transfer function is accomplished by adding together

the basic Bode plot elements, which will be described later.
Straight line approximation can then be applied to sketch the
Bode plot.
A Bode plot consists of two graphs:
1. Plot of gain magnitude of the open loop transfer function (in

unit dB) against the frequency (in unit rad/s) on a log scale,
i.e., |G()|dB = 20log| G() |;
2. Plot of phase angle (in unit degree) against the frequency (in
unit rad/s) on a log scale, i.e. ().
In Bode plot, a complicated resultant function of a system could be

composed by adding a number of relevant simpler basic elements. Some
basic elements of Bode plot that could be constructed using straight
line approximation is shown in Table 3.1 below:

Elements
1. Constant gain K
1
2. Integral and derivative factors & jw
jw
1
3. First order factor
1 + jwT
1
4. Second order factor
1 + 2Ϛ( jw/wn) + ( jw/wn) 2
Table 3.1 Basic elements of Bode plot
1. Constant gain , K
The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a horizontal

straight line at the magnitude of |G()|dB = 20logK dB.
a. If K > 1 ⇒ positive value in dB.
b. If K < 1 ⇒ negative value in dB.
Note:
1
If , | G()| = −20logK
K
 = 0°
The phase angle, , of the gain K is zero.

For example, Figure 3.18 depicts the Bode plot when K =10
|G()|(dB)
40
20log10 = 20
20
0
−
− w(rad/s)
0. 1 10 100
°
90°
0
−
w(rad/s)
0. 1 10 100
Figure 3.18 Bode plot for K = 10
1
2. Integral function, , Bode plot is depicted in Figure 3.19(a)
jw
with the calculation as follows: = 20log
| | 1
w
= −20logwdB
|G()|dB
 = −90º
The derivative function, j, Bode plot is depicted in Figure

3.19(b). The calculation is as follows:
|G()|dB = 20log|w| = 20log w dB

 = 90º

(a) Integral factor Bode plot
(b) Derivative factor Bode plot
Figure 3.19

If the integral function contains the factor
1 n
jw ( )
, where n is
the number of the factor, then:
20log | | 1
(w)n
= −n × 20log|w| = −20n log w dB
Or for the nth derivative function, (j)n:
20log|(w)n| = 20nlogw dB
a. A straight line with a slope for integral factor
1
= −20n dB/decade
( jw)n
b. A straight line with a slope for derivative factor (j)n = 20n

dB/decade
c. A straight line crosses 0 dB at the frequency of  = 1 rad/s
1
d. Phase angle, : = −90° × n and (j) n
= 90° × n
( jw)n
1
3. First order integral function, , |G()| dB may be
1 + jwT
approximated by:
20log | 1
1 + wT | = −20log√12 + (wT)2 dB

1
At low frequency, w <<
T
−20log√1 + (wT)2 = −20log(1) = 0 dB
1
At high frequency, w >> ,
T
−20log√1 + (wT)2 = −20logwT dB
Hence, we may realise that
1
w= ⇒ |G(w)| = 0 dB
T
10
w= ⇒ |G(w)| = −20 dB
T
100
w= ⇒ |G(w)| = −40 dB
T
1000
w= ⇒ |G(w)| = −60 dB
T
1
w >> ⇒ |G(w)| is a straight line with the slope of −20
T dB/decade.
In general, the |G()| for the first order factor can be

approximated using two straight lines by means of straight
line approximation, where:
1
a. 1 straight line at 0 dB for frequency of 0 < w < .
T

20db
b. 1 straight line with the slope of − for frequency of
decade
1
<w<
T
Both lines meet at a point namely the break (corner) frequency which is
1
w= . Straight line approximation could be applied on gain plot in unit
T
dB as shown in Figure 3.20.
1
Phase angle, , for factor
1 + jwT
 = −tan−1 T
when  = 0 ⇒  = 0°
1
w= ⇒  = −45°
T
w→ ⇒  = −90°

Figure 3.20 First order integral factor Bode plot
The first order derivative function, (1 + jwT), could be calculated as

follows:
|G(w)|dB = 20log|1 + wT| = 20log√12 + (wT)2dB

The phase angle, ,
wT
 = tan−1
1
= tan−1 (wT)

Figure 3.21 First order derivative factor Bode plot
We realise that when,
1
w << ⇒ |G(w)| = 0 dB
T
 = 0°
1
w= ⇒ |G(jw)| = 20log√2 = 3.01 dB
T
 = tan−11 = 45°
10
w= ⇒ |G(w)| = 20log√100 = 20 dB
T
 = tan−110 = 84.3°  90°

The straight line approximation of the derivative factor on the gain plot
and the associated phase angle plot are depicted in Figure 3.21. The
approximation is also applicable for a complex system that combines
different factors discussed previously.
Example of Bode plot on stability analysis

The stability of a closed loop system could be determined from its open-
loop transfer function using the Bode plot. On the Bode plot, a system
is stable if the gain of the system is less than 0dB when the phase is at
−180°. Two measures of the degree of stability are given by:
1. Gain margin (GM) = 0 dB − 20 log(G(w)) when the phase is at

−180°.
2. Phase margin (PM) = 180° + phase angle when the amplitude

ratio is 0 dB.
The GM is the amount by which the gain can be increased before the
system becomes unstable, while the PM is the amount of additional
time lag which can be imposed before the system becomes unstable.
Both measures could be easily read from the Bode plot as depicted in
Figure 3.22.

Figure 3.22 Example of reading GM and PM on the Bode plot
Reading
In this unit, Bode plot is the method used to perform the stability
analysis based on the frequency response of the system. Nyquist
stability criterion is an alternative and the details could be found
in the following textbook:
Richard, C. D. & Robert, H. B. (2011). Modern control systems

(12th ed.). Boston: Pearson, Chapter 9.

Example 7
For the same system as discussed in Activity 3.7, with the open loop
transfer function given as follows:
R(s) 1 1 0.27 Y(s)

s 2s + 1 5s + 1
Construct the Bode plot by using straight line approximation and

determine if the system is stable.
Solution
The open loop transfer function is given as:
Y(s) 1 1 0.27
= ∙ ∙
R(s) s 1 + 2s 5s + 1
The frequency response is governed by the gain modulus and the phase
shift equations. The transfer function in the frequency domain is:
Y(jw) 1 1 0.27
= G(jw) = ∙ ∙
R(jw) jw 1 + 2jw 1 + 5jw
1 1 1
|G(w)| = 0.27 ∙ ∙ ∙
w √1 + (2w)2 √1 + (5w)2

Convert the gain modulus in unit dB,
|G(w)|dB = 20 log[G(w)]
|G(w)|dB = 20 log(0.27) − 20 log(w) − 20 log[√1 + (2w)2] − 20 log[√1 + (5w)2]
Now construct the Bode plot using the straight line approximation for
each basic element accordingly to the number depicted in Figure 3.23:
1. 20 log(0.27) element is a straight line with constant value of

−11.4dB.
2. −20 log(w) element is a continuous straight line of slope −20dB/

decade, which passes through 0dB when w = 1 rad/s.
3. −20 log(√1 + (2w) 2) element has a corner frequency of
1 1
= = 0.5 rad/s. This is plotted as a line along 0dB till
t 2
0.5 rad/s corner frequency, then a line of slope of −20dB/
decade.
4. −20 log(√1 + (5w)2) element has a corner frequency of
1 1
= = 0.2 rad/s. This is plotted as a line along 0 dB till
t 5
0.2 rad/s corner frequency, then a line of slope of −20dB/
decade from the corner frequency.
The resultant gain (magnitude) plot is obtained by the summation

of these individual plots of basic elements. Note that every “s” or
“(1 + ts)” term in the denominator introduces −20dB/decade slope in the
gain plot. Hence the final slope of Bode plot is −60dB/decade.

The phase angle plot could be obtained more accurately by calculation
and tabulated in the format of Table 3.2 using the equation below until
the phase angle is close to −180°.
[
(w) = − 0 + 90° + tan−1
2w
1
+ tan−1
5w
1 ]
w(rad/s) 90° tan−1(2 w) tan−1(5 w) (w)
0.1 90° 11.31° 26.56° −128°
0.15 90° 16.70° 36.87° −144°
… … … … …
Table 3.2 Tabulation of phase angle for Bode plot
Figure 3.23 Magnitude plot using straight line approximation and the phase
angle plot

The gain margin (GM) and the phase margin (PM) can now be read from
the Bode plot as depicted in Figure 3.24. The GM is read to be 8dB while
the PM is approximated to be 35°. The gain is at 8dB below the 0dB
(−8dB) at the phase shift of −180°. This means that the output signal is
an attenuation of the input signal at the phase shift of −180°. The system
also provides 35° of allowance to the further phase shift. The system is
therefore considered as a stable system.
GM 8dB
PM 35°
Figure 3.24 GM and PM read from the Bode plot

Activity 3.8
Construct a Bode plot for the system depicted in Figure 3.25 and
determine its stability.
R(s) 5 Y(s)
+
- 4s2 + 3s + 2
6
s+1
Figure 3.25 Closed loop system with non-unity feedback
Summary
In this section, the frequency response of the system is discussed.

The frequency response is referred to as the steady state response
of the system when subjected to sinusoidal input signals with a
range of frequency. The output signals of the system are then
converted into the amplitude ratio and the phase shift to construct
a Bode plot. The stability of the system is determined by referring
to the critical point of −180° (phase shift) on the phase plot and
its associate amplitude ratio on the gain plot. The Bode plot could
also be constructed by using the open loop transfer function
of the system. The Bode plot is with a major advantage that a
complicated transfer function could be composed by adding
a number of relevant simpler basic elements. The technique
of constructing the Bode plot is demonstrated. Straight line

approximation could be used to provide a quick sketch of the
gain plot. An example has been provided to elaborate the details
of sketching a Bode plot by means of straight line approximation
and interpreting the system stability from the Bode plot.
Feedback
Activity 3.7
The open loop transfer function is given as:
Y(s) 1 1 0.27
= · ·
R(s) s 1 + 2s 5s + 1
The frequency response is governed by the gain modulus and

the phase shift equations. The transfer function in the frequency
domain could be obtained by replacing the Laplace operator, s,
by jw:
Y(jw) 1 1 0.27
= G( jw) = · ·
R(jw) jw 1 + 2jw 1 + 5jw
1 1 1
|G(w)| = 0.27 · · ·
w √1 + (2w)2 √1 + (5w)2

At 0.1 rad/s, the gain modulus is:
|G(w = 0.1)| = 2.35

|G(w)|dB = 20 log[G(w)] = 20 log(2.35) = 7.42 dB
The phase angle,
[
(w) = − 0 + 90° + tan−1
2w
1
+ tan−1
5w
1 ]
At 0.1 rad/s,
(w = 0.1) = −[0 + 90° + tan−1(0.2) + tan−1(0.5)] = −128°
Activity 3.8
The open-loop transfer function for the system could be obtained

by disconnecting the feedback loop to the comparator as:
30
G(s) =
(4s2 + 3s + 2)(s + 1)
Converting to the frequency domain by substituting operator “s”

with “jw”, the open-loop transfer function is:
30 30
G( jw) = =
[(2 − 4w2) + j3w](1 + jw)
(
1+j
3w
(2 − 4w2) )
(1 + jw)

1 1
|G(w)| = 30 · =
√ ( 3w
) √1 + (w)2
2
1+
(2 − 4w2)
Convert the gain modulus in unit dB,
|G(w)|dB = 20 log [G(w)]
|G(w)|dB = 20 log (30) − 20 log 1 +

[√ (
3w 2
(2 − 4w )
2 )]
− 20 log [√1 + (w)2]
Phase angle, (w) = tan−1

( )
0
30
− tan−1
3w
(
2 − 4w2
− tan
)
−1 w
1( )
Alternatively, we may also use the equations of both the gain
modulus and phase angle to tabulate the frequency response as
shown in Table 3.3.
Frequency (rad/s) (w) (degree) |G(w)|dB

0.001 −0.14323954 23.52183
0.01 −1.43248282 23.52215
0.1 −14.4128169 23.55352
1 11.3099325 15.39269
10 −79.978781 −42.5231
100 −88.9973295 −102.499
1000 −89.8997324 −162.499
10000 −89.9899732 −222.499
100000 −89.9989973 −282.499
1000000 −82.8749837 −342.499
10000000 −82.8749837 −402.499
Table 3.3 Calculated gain and phase using different values for frequency

The Bode plot for the frequency response analysis can then be
plotted by using the calculated values in Table 3.3 as illustrated
in Figure 3.26.
GM = −8 dB
PM = −40°
Figure 3.26 Bode plot for the frequency response of the system
Figure 3.26 indicates that the gain margin, GM, is approximately

-8dB, which is 8dB above the reference 0dB at frequency of around
1.1rad/s. This means that the system output at this frequency will
be kept increasing at the rate of 8dB. The phase margin, PM, is
found to be around −40° which is 40° below the critical point of
−180°. The large phase shift is undesired due to the long time lag
of the system response. The frequency response of the system
is considered as unstable based on the GM and PM observed.

Summary of Unit 3
Summary
1. This unit mainly introduced three methods of stability analysis,

namely the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, the root locus
method and the Bode plot.
2. A linear time invariant system can be expressed in the

form of transfer function. The dynamic behaviour of the
system is determined by the characteristic equation, which
is the denominator of the transfer function.
3. The stability of the system could be determined by identifying

the location of poles on the s-plane. However, for a higher
order of system, calculating the poles from the characteristic
equation could be complicated.
4. The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion provides a necessary

and sufficient criterion to assess the stability of the system.
By following the procedures of this method, the stability could
be determined by using the characteristic equation without
the need of poles calculation.
5. Special cases that you might encounter while using the

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion are provided for completeness
of mastering this useful method.
6. The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion could also be applied

to calculate the range of system gain, K, for a stable system
and determine the natural frequency, wn of the system. This
information may contribute to a better control system design.

7. In the study of stability of a system in the variation of system
gain K, the root locus method is introduced. Root locus is
a plot of the positions of the roots in the s-plane based on
the system characteristic equation when the gain K, varies
from zero to infinity.
8. Although modern computing program provides an aid to

construct the root locus graph conveniently, learning to
sketch a root locus graph remains important as it may
improve understanding of the root locus method. The
sketching of the root locus graph could be summarised into
eight steps as demonstrated in the examples.
9. The root locus graph provides full information on the path of

poles when the gain K, varies. The ability to interpret the
information would help in achieving the desired controlled
performance using the suitable gain, K.
10. It is also important to analyse the stability of the system

from the aspect of frequency response as most of the systems
inherently exhibit time lags or phase shifts when subjected
to input force function.
11. The frequency response is referred to as the steady state

response of a system when a sinusoidal input force function is
applied with the frequency varied over a certain range of
interest.
12. Within the range of frequency variation, there will be a

situation when the system shows time lags or phase shifts
at the angle of −180°. Looping back this signal into a negative
feedback system may cause the system to be unstable.

13. The amplitude ratio (gain) and the phase shift of the frequency
response are then studied. Amplitude ratio is the modulus of
the ratio of the amplitude of the output signal to the amplitude
of the input signal. Phase shift is the phase angle difference
of the output signal relative to that of the input signal.
14. A Bode plot is introduced as a compact way of plotting

the gain and the phase angle in response to the range of input
frequency in logarithmic scale. It consists of two graphs with
the gain plot expressed in the unit of decibel (dB) and the
phase angle plot expressed in degree. The input frequency
for both plots is expressed in the unit of rad/s.
15. The basic elements of the Bode plot are described, which
could be composed to replace a complicated system. An
example of sketching a Bode plot was demonstrated using
the straight line approximation as a quick sketch for the gain
plot of the Bode plot.
16. The stability of the system in the frequency response is then

determined by analysing the gain margin and the phase
margin measured from the Bode plot.

References
John, S. (1996). Essentials of control. London: Addison Wesley Longman
Limited.
Nise, N. S. (2011). Control systems engineering (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ:

John Wiley.
Richard, C. D. & Robert, H. B. (2011). Modern control systems (12th ed.).

Boston: Pearson.

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Associate Professor Dr. Yeap Kim Ho, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman
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Control Systems U3 (TEL306)

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TEL 306/05

3.1 Stability analysis via characteristic equation 3

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion 5

Application of Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion in system design 13

Example of system design via Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion 14

Suggested answers to activities 19

3.2 Stability analysis via root locus 24

Root locus method 24

Interpreting root locus 34

Examples of root locus analysis 36

Suggested answers to activities 44

3.3 Stability analysis via frequency response 48

Gain and phase angle 51

Example of Bode plot on stability analysis 66

Suggested answers to activities 73

1. The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion for a quick stability

2. The root locus method to describe the system stability in the

3. The Bode plot for the frequency domain stability analysis.

1 TEL 306/05 Control Systems

Figure 3.1 System stability response

1. Estimate the system stability using Routh-Hurwitz

2. Investigate the effect of variation in the gain, K, to the

3. Interpret the root locus graph to obtain the required

4. Explain the closed loop stability and the frequency

5. Analyse the closed loop stability by using Bode plot.

UNIT 3 Stability analysis 2

The characteristic equation, CE, is therefore:

3 TEL 306/05 Control Systems

Y(s) K(s + z1 )(s + z2 ) ...... + (s + zm)

For the characteristic equation of a first order or a second order

The poles of the CE are therefore:

−b ± √b2 − 4ac −3 ± √32 − 4(1)(2)

UNIT 3 Stability analysis 4

For more information on the methods of calculating the poles of

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion

5 TEL 306/05 Control Systems

1. Obtain the characteristic equation, CE, from the denominator

where, n is the order of the polynomials, a 0 to an are the

2. Check the polarity of coefficients from a0 to an. For a stable

3. If the necessity stability condition is fulfilled (all coefficients

UNIT 3 Stability analysis 6

4. Examine the first column of the Routh array. Routh-Hurwitz

A fourth order transfer function of a system is given as:

Perform a quick estimation on the system stability by using Routh-Hurwitz

7 TEL 306/05 Control Systems

Step 2: Check the polarity of all coefficients of the CE.

Step 3: Construct the Routh array by referring to the formulae shown in

UNIT 3 Stability analysis 8

An overall transfer function of a system is given as:

Provide the conditions to obtain a stable system by using Routh-Hurwitz

Although it is good to follow the procedures, you should be able to

CE = a0s3 + a1s2 + a2s + a3 = 0

9 TEL 306/05 Control Systems

a0 > 0, a1 > 0, a3 > 0, a 1a 2 − a 0a 3 > 0

Example 1 and Example 2 demonstrated the efficiency and simplicity

a. If the polarity of the coefficient above the value of zero is the

UNIT 3 Stability analysis 10

Case 2: Entire calculated row (third row onwards) is zero.

1. Form an auxiliary polynomial using the coefficients of the

2. Differentiate the polynomial with respect to s.

3. Replace the row of zeros with the coefficients newly obtained.

Given the characteristic equation of a system as follows:

s6 + 9s5 + 31.25s4 + 61.25s3 + 67.75s2 + 14.75s + 15 = 0