PDC Lecture Notes 7 - Stability of Closed-Loop Systems 2018

Stability of Closed-Loop System
Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan
I. GENERAL STABILITY CRITERION
The stability of a control system is often extremely important and is generally a safety issue in the
engineering of a system. An example to illustrate the importance of stability is the control of a nuclear
reactor. An instability of this system could result in an unimaginable catastrophe.
Definitions
The stability of of system relates to its response to inputs or disturbance. A system which remains in
a constant state unless affected by an external action which returns to a constant state when the
external action is removed can be considered to be stable.
A systems stability can be defined in terms of its response to external impulse inputs.
Definition a:
A system is stable if its impulse response approaches zero as time approaches infinity.
The system stability can also be defined in terms of bounded (limited) inputs.
Definition b:
A system is stable if every bounded input produces a bounded output.
Stability Notes
Control analysis is concerned not only with the stability of a system but also the degree of stability of
a system.. A typical system equation without considering the concept of integral action is of the form.
[a2 D2 + a1 D + a0 ]x = f(D) y
This is defined as be the highest order of D on the LHS as a equation of order 2.
The transient response, and as a result the stability, of such a system depends on the coefficients a 0,
a1 , a2.
Assuming a0 >0 then provided that a1 > 0 and a2 > 0 the complementary function will not contain any
positive time exponentials and the system will be stable. If either a1 < 0 (negative damping) or a2 <
0 (negative mass) the transient response will contain positive exponentials and the system will be
unstable.
If a1 = 0 (As resulting from zero damping) then the complementary function will oscillate indefinitely.
This is not an unstable response but this marginally stable response is not satisfactory. Following are
a number of plots to illustrate the types of stability responses resulting from an input...
1
II. ROUTH STABILITY CRITERIA
Introduction
The Routh stability criterion provides a convenient method of determining control systems
stability. It determines the number of characteristic roots within the unstable right half of the s-
plane, and the number of characteristic roots in the stable left half, and the number of roots on the
imaginary axis. It does not locate the roots. The method may also be used to establish limiting values
for a variable factor beyond which the system would become unstable...
The characteristic equation being tested for stability is generally of the form
an s n + an-1 s n-1 +....a1 s + a0 = 0...
The Routh Array is constructed as follows

<TD&NBSP;> Col 1 Col 2 Col 3
Row 0 sn an a n-2 a n-4
Row 1 s n-1 a n-1 a n-3 a n-5
Row 2 s n-2 b1 b2 b3
Row 3 s n-3 c1 ... ...
. ... ... ... ...
. ... ... ... ...
Row n-1 s1 y1 y2
Row n s0 z1
b1= ( an-1.an-2 - an. a n-3 )/ an-1 b 2= ( an-1 .an-4 - an. a n-5)/ a n-1
The numerator in each case is formed from the elements in the two rows above in col 1 (pivot column)
and in the column to the right of the element being calculated. The calculated element is made 0 if the
row is too short to complete the calculation. The last row will have just one element.
c1= ( b1 .an-3- an-1. b n-2 )/ b1 c 2= ( b1 .an-5- an-1. b 3 )/ b1
Routh Stability Criteria

For system stability the primary requirement is that all of the roots of the characteristic equation have
negative real parts....
All of the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts only if the elements in column 1
of the Routh array are the same sign,
The number of sign changes in column 1 is equal to the number of roots of the characteristic equation
with positive real parts.
Example:
To test the stability of a system having a characteristic equation
F(s) = s 3 + 6 s 2 + 12 s 3 + 8 = 0
The Routh Array is constructed as follows.

Row 0 s3 1 12 0
Row 1 s2 6 8 0
Row 2 s1 64/6 0
2
Row 3 s0 8
Column 1 (pivot column) includes no changes of sign and therefore the roots of the characteristic
equation have only real parts and the system is stable.
Special cases for resolving Routh Stability Array

1) If a zero appears in the first column 1 of any row marginal stability or instability is indicated. The
normal method of constructing the array cannot be continued because the divisor would be zero. A
convenient method or resolving this method is to simply replace the zero by a small number δ and
continue as normal. The limit as δ -> 0 is then determined and the first column is checked for sign
changes.
Example
To test the stability of a system having a characteristic equation
F(s) = s 5 + 2 s 4 + 2 s 3 + 4 s 2 + s + 1
The Routh Array is constructed as follows

Row 0 s5 1 2 1
Row 1 s4 2 4 1
Row 2 s3 δ 0,5
Row 3 s2 -1/δ 1
Row 4 s1 0.5 0
Row 5 s0 1
There are two sign changes in column 1 and there are therefore 2 positive roots and the system is
unstable.
2) If a all of the elements in a row is zero (two rows are proportional)

This indicates that the characteristic polynomial is divided exactly by the polynomial one row above
the all zero row (always even-ordered polynomial). Call this polynomial N(s).
This also indicates the presence of a divisor polynomial N(s) whose roots are all symmetrically
arranged about the origin i.e. they are of the form
s = α … or s =  j ω … or s =  α  j ω and s =  α  j ω
An all zero row will always be associated with and odd power of s
In order to complete the array, the previous row is differentiated with respect to s and the array is
completed in the normal way.
When assessing this modified array, the number of sign changes in the first column (before the all
zero row) indicate the number of roots of the remainder polynomial with positive real parts. From the
all zero row down, each change of sign in column 1 indicates the number of roots in the divisor
3
polynomial with positive real roots and as the roots are symmetrical this would indicate the number
of roots in the right half s plane and the number of roots in the left- hand s plane. Root not accounted
for in this way i.e., no sign change, must lie of the imaginary axis
Example
Consider a closed loop control system with negative feedback which has an open loop transfer
function.
KGH(s) = K /(s (s+1)( s 2 + s + 1) ..
The closed loop characteristic equation =

F(s) = s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + K = 0
The Routh Array is constructed as follows=

Row 0 s4 1 2 K
Row 1 s3 2 1
Row 2 s2 3/2 K
(3/2 -2
Row 3 s1
K)/(3/2)
In this array row 3 becomes an all zero row if K = 3/4 and the divisor polynomial of row 2 = (3/2) s 2
+ 3/4 = 0 ...= 2 s 2 + 1
By dividing F(s) by (2 s2 + 1) the equation is obtained:

F(s) = (1/2 s2 + s + 3/4)
N(s) = (2 s 2 + 1)
The array is completed when K = 3/4 by differentiating N(s) with respect to s.
The coefficients of N'(s) are used to replace the zero coefficients in row 3

Row 0 s4 1 2 K
Row 1 s3 2 1
Row 2 s2 3/2 3/4
Row 3 s1 4
Row 4 s0 3/4
There are no sign changes up to/including row 2 indicating the roots of the remainder polynomial are
in the right-hand s plane.
As there are no changes of sign from row 2 down the roots of the divisor polynomial must lie on the
imaginary axis.
To locate these roots set s in N(s) to jω
i.e., 2 (j ω) 2 + 1 = 0
Therefore, ω = 1/√2 rads/unit time
It is sometimes required to find a range of values of a parameter for which the system is stable. This
can be achieved by use of the Routh Criteria using the method illustrated by the following example...
4
The system characteristic equation = F(s) = s 3 + 3 s 2 + 3s + K = 0

Row 0 s 3 1 3 0
Row 1 s2 1+K 0
Row 2 s1 (8-K)/3 0
Row 3 s0 1 +K
In order for the system to be stable there should be no sign change in column 1. To achieve this K
must be greater than -1 and K must be less than 8. Therefore for system stability: -1 < K < 8
Stability analysis
Know that the system is stable is not generally sufficient for the requirements of control system design.
There is a need for stability analysis to determine how close the system is to instability and how much
margin when disturbances are present and when the gain is adjusted.
The objectives of stability analysis are the determination of the following

 The degree or extent of system stability
 The steady state performance
 The transient response
The standard method of completing a system analysis includes the following steps.
 Determine the equations or transfer functions for each component
 Create a model - generally a block diagram
 Formulate the system model by appropriately connecting the blocks nodes and branches
 Determine the system characteristics
III. ROOT-LOCUS CRITERIA
A Simple Example to Motivate Root Loci

To understand what root locus plots are, and why they are important, let's examine the behavior of
a system when it is in a control system. Assume that the system is defined by the transfer function:
G s  
1
ss  3
We'll control this system with a very simple proportional controller in which the input to the system
to be controlled is proportional (with gain, K) to the difference between the input, R(s), and the
output, C(s).
The loop gain is K·G(s), so the closed loop gain is given by
5
K
C s  K  G s  ss  3
 
Rs  1  K  G s  1  K
ss  3
K K
  2
ss  3  K s  3s  K
Trial and Error Solution

We want to examine how the behavior of the system varies as K changes, so let's try several values
of K. Let's arbitrarily try K = 1, 10 and 100 so that we have a wide range of K values.
K Transfer Function Step Response
C s  1
K=1  2
Rs  s  3s  1
C s  10
K=10  2
Rs  s  3s  10
6
C s  100
K=100  2
Rs  s  3s  100
The response with K = 1 was too slow, the response with K = 100 was too oscillatory, and the
response with K = 10 is almost just right, though we may want to adjust K to get a little bit less
overshoot. Clearly this method is rather "hit-or-miss" and it may take us a long time to find a
suitable value for K.
A More Sophisticated Method

A more analytical method might involve finding the poles of the closed loop transfer function. Since
the transfer function is second order, we can factor the denominator using the quadratic
equation. The roots of the denominator are at:
 3  9  4K
s
2
This will give overdamped response for 9 > 4K, underdamped response for 9 < 4K, and critically
damped response for 9 = 4K. If we specify that we want an underdamped response with ζ=1/√2 we
must set the magnitudes of the real and imaginary parts of the roots equal to each other. So starting
from
3 4K  9
s  j
2 2
we know that the real and imaginary parts must have equal magnitude
3 4K  9

2 2
and we can solve for K.
3  4K  9
9  4K  9
18 9
K    4.5
4 2
Let's try this value. If we use K = 4.5 we get the transfer function
7
C s  4.5
 2
Rs  s  3s  4.5
and the step response is shown below. As you can see, it is superior to our other attempts; it is
reasonably fast with fairly small overshoot.
While this technique is suitable for simple problems, like the one given, it quickly becomes
untenable for more complicated systems. For example, what would we do if
s 1
G s  
s  4s 2  6s  4
3
We will need another approach to deal with such systems. This is introduced in the next section
(though in the context of the simple system we have been dealing with).
Another Way of Looking at the Problem

For the very simple problem described above, it was possible to calculate the precise location of the
roots, and choose a value of K that gave us a good response. For more complicated systems it is not
so straightforward so we need a more general method for approaching the problem. This more
general method is called the "root locus" method. With this technique we make a plot of the path
of the roots as a parameter (usually the gain, as above) varies. (Note)
Consider the simple example from above,

C s  K
 2
Rs  s  3s  K
If we want to plot the path of the roots as K varies we can calculate the roots of the equation
s2 + 3s + K = 0
for many values of K by using the quadratic equation.
K Roots
1 -2.62, -0.38
2 -2, -1
8
4 -1.5 ± j1.32
10 -1.5 ± j2.78
20 -1.5 ± j4.21
40 -1.5 ± j6.14
100 -1.5 ± j9.89
These values are plotted below (for complex conjugate roots, the value of K are only shown for the
root with a positive imaginary part).
There is a lot of information in this diagram. It tells us that the system starts out overdamped for
small values of K, and becomes underdamped as K increases, and becomes increasingly
underdamped as K continues to increase.
A root locus plot is a variation on this kind of plot. It shows the path of the roots as K is varied, but
does not show the actual values of K. This kind of plot is sufficiently important that MatLab has a
command specifically for generating these plots. A root locus plot for this system is shown below,
along with the Matlab used to create it.
>> G=tf(1,[1 3 0]) %Define gain of system in the

loop
Transfer function:
1
---------
s^2 + 3 s
>> rlocus(G)
>> axis([-4 0 -10 10])
9
The starting points for the roots, when K = 0, are shown by the two small "x" marks at s = 0 and s
= -3. As K increases, the two roots move horizontally towards each other, meet at s = -1.5, and then
move vertically away from each other.
Though the value of K isn't plotted on the graph it is easily found. For example, if we want to know
the value of K at s = -1.5 we can use the fact that the characteristic equation of
C s  K  Gs 

Rs  1  K  Gs 
is given by the denominator,

1  K  Gs   0 or K  -
1
Gs 
This equation is true for any point on the root locus, and in particular it is true at s = -1.5. Since at
s = -1.5
G s  
1
ss  3
G  1.5  
1
2.25
We can use this information to calculate the desired value of K:

1
K   2.25
Gs 
Last Words
For the very simple system of this problem, there were many ways to find how the roots varied as
we varied the gain of the system. For a more complicated system this is not easy. The root locus
plot gives us a graphical way to observe how the roots move as the gain, K, is varied. The next page
gives a description of techniques for sketching the location of the closed loop poles of a system for
systems that are much more complicated.
10
Key concept: The Root Locus Plot

The root locus plot indicates how the closed loop poles of a system vary with a system
parameter (typically a gain, K).
DERIVATION OF ROOT LOCUS RULES

This document will discuss the derivation of rules for sketching the root locus. It is not necessary
to understand all of these in order to do the sketches, but it can be helpful to understand whence
the various rules come. Instead of presenting examples in this document, there are links to files
that contain five separate examples. After each rule, you can select the link for each of the five
examples, and the application of that specific rule to the selected rule is displayed (along with a
brief discussion).
Examples
1 2 3 4 5
1 1 s3 s2 s  2s  2
2
ss  3   
s s  5s  6 s  s  2 s  4 s  6 s  4 s s  9s 3  33s 2  51s  26
2 2 3 2 4

To sketch a root locus there are several techniques that can be used as a guide. Not all of these are
applicable to all loci. The steps used to sketch a root locus plot are enumerated below:
 Gather Background Information from Transfer Function
 Rules
1. Symmetry
2. Number of Branches
3. Starting and Ending Points
4. Locus on Real Axis
5. Asymptotes as |s|→∞
6. Break-Away and -In Points
7. Angle of Departure
8. Angle of Arrival
9. Locus Crosses Imaginary Axis
 Given Gain "K," Determine Location of Poles
 Given Pole Location, Determine Value of "K"
Get Background Information from Transfer Function
The closed loop transfer function of the system shown is
K  Gs 
T s  
1  K  Gs   H s 
So the characteristic equation is
N s 
1  K  Gs   H s  1  K 0
Ds 
11
We can write the loop gain as a ratio of polynomials, (we will assume K > 0, a0 > 0, b0 > 0; generally,
a0 = 1). N(s), the numerator polynomial, is defined to be mth order; D(s) is nth order. N(s) has zeros
at zi (i = 1…m); D(s) has zeros at pi (i = 1...n). Note the zeros of D(s) are the poles of the loop
gain. The difference between the orders of the numerator and denominator polynomial, n and m,
is q, so q = n - m. We assume here that the transfer function is proper - in other words q ≥ 0.
b0 s m  b1 s m1    bm1 s  bm
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
a0 s n  a1s n1    an1 s  an
or we can write the loop gain in its factored form:
b0 s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
a0 s  p1 s  p2 s  pn 
As K changes, so do locations of closed loop poles (i.e., zeros of characteristic equation).
It is convenient for the derivation of many of the rules that follow to rewrite the characteristic
equation as follows.
N s 
K  1
Ds 
Many of the rules discussed below come from two conditions imposed by the characteristic
equation. Since this equation involves a complex quantity both the magnitude and phase of the
two sides of the equation must be equal.
The magnitude condition is expressed as
N s 
K  1
Ds 
Since K ≥ 0, we can rewrite this as

N s 
K 1
Ds 
The phase angle is expressed as

 N s  
  K     1
 Ds  
Since K ≥ 0, it has a phase of 0° and can be ignored. The angle of -1 is any odd multiple of 180°.
 N s  
     r 180 0 , r  1, 3, 5, 
 Ds  
Key Concept: The Magnitude and Angle Conditions

Magnitude Condition Phase Condition
N s   N s  
K 1      r 180 0 , r  1, 3, 5, 
Ds   Ds  
12
Note: an alternate set of rules, for K<0 can be derived; this is referred to as the complementary
root locus.
Key Concept: Properties of Open Loop Gain Used to Draw Root Locus
 The loop gain is KG(s)H(s) which can be rewritten as KN(s)/D(s).
 N(s), the numerator polynomial, is mth order; D(s) is nth order:
b0 s m  b1 s m1    bm1 s  bm
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
a0 s n  a1s n1    an1 s  an
 K > 0, a0 > 0, b0 > 0.

 N(s) has zeros at zi (i = 1...m); D(s) has zeros at pi (i = 1...n):
b0 s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
a0 s  p1 s  p2 s  pn 
 The difference between n and m is q, so q = n - m.
RULES
Rule 1: Symmetry
Since the characteristic equation has real coefficients, any zeros must occur in complex
conjugate pairs (which are symmetric about the real axis). Since the root locus is just a
diagram of the roots of the characteristic equation as K varies, it must also be symmetric about
the real axis.
Key Concept: Rule 1 – Symmetry of Root Locus

The Root locus is symmetric about the real axis.
Rule 2: Number of Branches

Since the root locus is just a diagram of the roots of the characteristic equation as K varies, and
the order of the characteristic equation is the same as that of the denominator of the loop gain,
the number of branches is n, the order of the denominator polynomial.
Key Concept: Rule 2 – Number of Branches of Root Locus

The number of branches of the root locus is equal to the order of characteristic equation.
Rule 3: Starting and Ending Points

Start from the magnitude condition:
N s 
K 1
Ds 
It is apparent that if K→0, the only way the left hand side of the equation can be equal to 1 is
if the quantity in the absolute value goes to infinity. This happens when D(s) → 0. So the
poles of the loop gain (D(s) = 0) are the starting points for the loci (when K=0).
It is also apparent that if K → ∞, the only way the left hand side of the equation can be equal
to 1 is if the quantity in the absolute value goes to zero. This happens when N(s) → 0, and it
also happens as s → ∞ if the order of the denominator is greater than the order of the
13
numerator. So the zeros of the loop gain (which occur at N(s) = 0, and perhaps as s→∞) are
the ending points for the loci (when K → ∞).
Key Concept: Rule 3 – Starting and Ending Points of Root Locus

The locus starts (when K = 0) at poles of the loop gain, and ends (when K → ∞) at the zeros.
Note: there are q zeros of the loop gain as s → ∞.
Rule 4: Locus on Real Axis

Start from the angle condition:
 N s  
     r 180 0 , r  1, 3, 5, 
 Ds  
Write out the ratio of polynomials:
 N s    b s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m  
    0 
 Ds    a0 s  p1 s  p2 s  pn  
 b s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m  
  0 
 0
a s  p1  s  p 2  s  p 
n 
We will take a0 > 0, b0 > 0 (generally a0 = 1), so:
 N s    s  z1 s  z 2  s  z m  
    
 D s    s  p1 s  p 2  s  p 
n 
s  z1   s  z 2     s  z m 


s  p1   s  p2     s  pn 
 s  z1   s  z 2     s  z m   s  p1   s  p2     s  pn 
m n
  s  zi    s  pi 
i 1 i 1
So the angle criterion can be restated as:
m n
 s  zi    s  pi   r 1800 , r  1, 3, 5, 

i 1 i 1
Now consider the angle between a point "s" (the red vector) on the real axis, and a point "z"
(the blue vector) that is also on the real axis. The diagrams below show the vector "s - z" f (the
green vector) or the case when "s" is to the left of "z," and when s is to the right of z.
14
In both figures, "s" is shown by a red vector, and "z" is shown by a blue vector. The difference
can be found by drawing a vector from the point "z" to the point "s," which is shown by a green
vector. When "s" is to the left of "z" (left diagram), the angle of the vector "s – z" is 180° (or
any odd multiple of 180°). When "s" is to the right of "z" (right diagram), the angle of the
vector "s  z" is 0° (or any even multiple of 180°).
However, we still need to consider complex conjugate poles and zeros. To see their
contribution, consider the diagram below.
In this diagram the vector "s" is red, "z" and its conjugate "z*" are blue and "s – z" and "s – z*"
are green. Clearly the angle contributions from "z" and its conjugate "z*" (shown in dotted
green) are equal and opposite, and so cancel each other out. Therefore, we need not consider
the contribution of complex conjugate zeros, or poles; we need only consider the contribution
of zeros and poles that are on the real axis.
Now reconsider our statement of the angle criterion:
15
m n
 s  zi    s  pi   r 1800 , r  1, 3, 5, 

i 1 i 1
This equation indicates that any zeros to the left of a quantity "s" on the real axis contributes
180°, a pole to the left will contribute -180°, but a pole or zero to the right of "s" on the real
axis contributes 0°. Since the sum of angle contributions from zeros on the real axis minus
the sum of contributions from poles on the real axis is an odd multiple of 180°, this indicates
that if a point "s" on the real axis will only be on the locus if it is to the left of an odd number
of zeros and poles that are on the axis.
Key Concept: Rule 4 – Root Locus on Real Axis

The locus exists on real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros on the axis.
Rule 5: Asymptotes as |s| ∞ (This is the most involved derivation; you may wish to skip it)
If q > 0 (in other words, the denominator polynomial of the loop gain is of higher order than
is the numerator), then the loop gain has q zeros as |s|→∞. We will show that we can make
some simple approximations that will describe the behavior of the closed loop poles as |s|→
∞. If q = 0, you need not do this step.
A simple approximation to get angle of asymptotes

First we will do a very simple approximation to study behavior of the root locus as
|s| → ∞. Consider the characteristic equation.
b0 s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
a0 s  p1 s  p2 s  pn 
We can rewrite this, and then if we let |s|→ ∞, all but the highest order terms of the polynomials go
become insignificant.
KGs H s   1
b0 s m
KGs H s   K
b 1 b 1 b
n
 K 0 nm  K 0 q  K 0 s q
s  a0 s a0 s a0 s a0
Now we can apply the angle criterion

KGs H s     1  180 0
KGs H s   K
b0 q
s   r 180 0 , r  1, 3, 5, 
s  a0
Now we can write "s" as

s  Me j
and complete the derivation

K
b0
a0
Me j 
q
  r 180 0
K, a0, b0 and M are all positive so they don't contribute to the angle, so
16
e  jq   q   r 180 0
180 0
  r , r  1, 3, 5, 
q
To summarize: as |s|→ ∞, the loci are asymptotic to a set of lines that that radiate outward from
the origin with angles of θ = ±r180°/q where r = 1, 3, 5...
Aside: Graphical Representation of sq = -β

If this isn't obvious, consider a positive number, β, with
sq = -β
Now use the polar form of "s,"

s = Mej
and we get
Me  j q
 
M q e jq   
Since the number is complex, both the magnitude and phase must be equal.
Consider first the magnitude.

M q e jq   
Mq  
M   1/ q
This tells us that as β goes from 0 to infinity, so does the magnitude of "s."
Now consider the phase.

 
 M q e jq    
q   r 180 0 , r  1, 3, 5, 
180 0
  r , r  1, 3, 5,
q
This tells us that the angle of "s" is given by ±r180°/q, where r=1, 3, 5...
Taking both the magnitude and phase into consideration this shows that
sq = - β
is represents lines emanating from the origin at equally spaced angles as β goes from 0 to ∞.
A better approximation to get both angle and real axis intersect of asymptotes
In the approximation above, we kept only the highest order term of the numerator and
denominator polynomial as |s|→ ∞. We can get a better approximation if we keep the two
highest order terms. Let's start with the factored form of the loop gain, and multiply it out:
17
b0 s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
KGs H s   K
a0 s  p1 s  p2 s  pn 
 m m

 s  s m1  zi  
K 0  
b i 1
a0  n n

 s  s n1  pi  
 i 1 
Aside: Approximation of polynomial as |s|→ ∞
Now let's do some manipulations to get this into a more useful form. First, we let |s|→ ∞ and only
keep the two highest order terms of the polynomials.
 b s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m  
lim 1  KGs H s   lim 1  K 0 
s  s 
 a0 s  p1 s  p2 s  pn 
 m m1 m 
 s  s  zi 
b0  i 1 
K
a0  n n1 n

 s  s  pi 
 i 1 
We can multiply the numerator and denominator by the same term. This simplifies the numerator.
 m m

 s  s m1  zi 
lim KGs H s   K 0  
b i 1
s  a0  n n

 s  s n1  pi 
 i 1 
 m

1  s 1  zi 
K
b0  i 1 
a0  n  m n

 s  s nm1  pi 
 i 1 
Note that the second term in the numerator polynomial is small, so we can use the binomial
approximation.
lim 1  x  
1
, so
x 0 x 1
lim KGs H s   K 0
b 1
s  a0  nm nm1 n
 m

s  s


i 1
p i 

1  s 1
i 1
zi 

b 1
K 0
a0  nm nm1 n m n m

s  s


i 1
p i  s n  m 1
i 1
z i  s nm2

i 1
p i  zi 
i 1 
Keep only the highest order terms from the denominator polynomial (since |s|→ ∞):
18
b0
lim KGs H s   K
1
s  a0  nm  n m

 s  s nm1    pi   z i  
  i 1 i 1 
b 1
K 0 q

a0 s  s q 1 
where
n m
   pi   z i and q=n–m
i 1 i 1
Now we note that a polynomial with repeated roots is given by
(s – )q = sq – qsq – 1 + …
Aside: Approximation of (s - )q

Again, if this isn't obvious, consider the third order case (which generalizes to higher
order):
s   3  s 3  3s 2  3s   3
As |s|→∞ we can, again, simplify this by keeping only the highest order term
s   q  s q  q s q1
s
This is expression has the same form as the one in the denominator of the expression we just
derived (i.e., loop gain as |s|→∞). We can make the substitution:
n m
  pi   zi
  i 1 i 1
q q
our expression for the loop gain as |s|→∞ becomes

lim KGs H s   K
b0 1
s  a0 s   q
Putting this back into our expression for the characteristic equation we get (as |s|→∞):
KGs H s   1
b 1
K 0  1
a0 s   q
s   q   K b0
a0
This represents a set of vectors that intersect the real axis at s=-σ, that radiate outward with angles
of θ = ±r180°/q where r = 1, 3, 5...
Aside: Graphical representation of (s - )q as s→∞ .
Since
sq = – β
represents lines emanating from the origin at equally spaced angles as β goes from 0 to ∞ , then the
expression
19
s   q  
is just shifted by σ. In other words, it represents lines emanating from σ at equally space angles.
This tells us that the locus is asymptotic to these lines because both the locus and (s – σ)q have the
same form as |s|→∞ .
Key Concept: Rule 5 – Asymptotes of the Root Locus as |s|→∞

If q > 0 there are asymptotes of the root locus, and...
 asymptotes intersect real axis at
n m
 pi   z i
 i 1 i 1
 asymptotes radiate out with angles

1800
  r , r  1, 3, 5, 
q
Rule 6: Break-Away and -In Points

To find where the locus breaks away from the axis (or converges on the axis), we note that this
always occurs when two (or more) roots intersect. It is a well-known fact, that when a
polynomial has multiple roots, not only is the value of the polynomial zero, but its derivative
is zero also.
Start by considering the characteristic equation

N s 
1  KGs H s   1  k 0
Ds 
At the break-away (and -in) points, the derivative of the characteristic equation is also zero.
d  N s  
1  K 0
ds  Ds  
If we simplify this, we get:

N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s) = 0
I prefer to switch the order of the subtraction (though it really makes no difference),
N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s) = 0.
Key Concept: Rule 6 – Break-Away and Break-In Points on Real Axis

There are break-away or in points of the locus on the real axis wherever N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s)
= 0.
Note: Many times, especially for simple root loci, there are no break-away or break-in
points. In these cases, this step is not necessary.
Rule 7: Angle of Departure from Complex Pole

If the loop gain, G(s)H(s), has a simple pole on the real axis, we know that the locus will leave
from the pole, as K→0, along the axis. However, if the pole is complex it can leave at any
20
angle. To find the angle at which the locus leaves a complex pole, we start from the re-stated
angle criterion (from the "Locus on Real Axis" rule):
 s2  zi    s  pi   s  p j   r1800 , r  1, 3, 5 

m n
i 1 i 1
To find the angle at which the locus leaves from the pole pj, we can rewrite the angle criterion
by isolating the angle between the locus and pj.
180 0   s2  zi    s  pi   s  p j    r180 0 , r  1, 3, 5 

m n
i 1 i 1
i j
or
s  z j   180 0   s2  zi    s  pi 

m n
i 1 i 1
i2
In this equation we have taken r = 1 since the solutions are the same for all values of r. Now
if we consider a point "s" on the locus that is very close to p j, then all the terms on the right
hand side can be approximated by the angle between the pole or zero and p j. In other words,
if "s" is very close to pj, then we can approximate the angle criterion as:
s  z   180    p
m n
j
0
2  zi     p2  pi 
i 1 i 1
i2
This is demonstrated by an example, below which shows a Root Locus plot of a function
G(s)H(s) that has one zero at s = -1, and three poles at s = -2, and s = -1 ± j. :
To find the angle of departure from the pole at s = -1 + j (which we will call p2), we choose a
point on the locus very near p2 and then find the angles from the zero and the other poles.
21
s  z j   180 0    p2  zi     p2  pi 
1 3
i 1 i 1
i2
 p 2   depart  180 0   z1   p1   p 3
 180 0  90 0  450  90 0
 2250
The angle of departure is shown in grey on the diagram.
Key Concept: Rule 7 – Angle of Departure from Complex Poles

The angle of departure from a complex pole, pj, is 180 degrees + (sum of angles between
pj and all zeros) - (sum of angles between pj and all other poles).
s  p j   1800    p j  zi     p j  pi 
m n
i 1 i 1
j 1
Note: Many times, especially for simple root loci, there are no complex poles in loop gain. In
these cases, this step is not necessary.
Rule 8: Angle of Arrival at Complex Zero

This follows closely the derivation for the previous rule ("Angle of Departure") and will be brief.
If the loop gain, G(s)H(s), has a simple zero on the real axis, we know that the locus will arrive
at the zero, as K → ∞, along the axis. However, if the zero is complex it can arrive at any
angle. To find the angle at which the locus arrives at a complex zero, we start from the re-
stated angle criterion (from the "Locus on Real Axis" rule):
m n
 s  zi    s  pi    r 1800 , r  1, 3, 5, 

i 1 i 1
j 1
To find the angle at which the locus arrives from the pole zj, we can rewrite the angle criterion
as
 s  z   s  z    s  p    r 180 ,

m n
i j i
0
r  1, 3, 5, 
i 1 i 1
j 1
or
s  z j   180 0   s  zi    s  pi 

m n
i 1 i 1
j 1
In this equation we have taken r = 1 since the solutions are the same for all values of r. Now
if we consider a point "s" on the locus that is very close to z j, then all the terms on the right
hand side can be approximated by the angle between the pole or zero and z j. In other words,
if "s" is very close to zj, then we can approximate the angle criterion as:
 arrive, z  180 0   z j  zi    z j  pi 

m n
j
i 1 i 1
j 1
Key Concept: Rule 8 – Angle of Arrival at Complex Zeros
22
The angle of arrival at a complex pole, zj, is 180 degrees + (sum of angles between zj and all
other zeros) - (sum of angles between zj and all poles).
 arrive, z  180 0   z j  zi    z j  pi 

m n
j
i 1 i 1
j 1
Note: Many times, especially for simple root loci, there are no complex zeros in loop gain. In
these cases, this step is not necessary.
Rule 9: Locus Crosses Imaginary Axis

If it becomes apparent that the root locus crosses the imaginary axis (i.e., it is unstable for
some values of K), use a technique such as Routh-Horwitz to find where the locus crosses the
imaginary axis (i.e., the frequency of oscillation when it becomes unstable).
Key Concept: Rule 9 – Find Where Locus Crosses Imaginary Axis

Use Routh-Horwitz to determine where the locus crosses the imaginary axis.
Note: Many times, especially for simple root loci, the root locus does not cross the imaginary
axis, or does so along the real axis. In these cases, this step is not necessary.
Given Gain "K," Determine Location of Poles

Recall that the characteristic equation can be written in the form:
N s 
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
Ds 
Or
Ds   KN s   0

a0 s n  a1 s n1    an1s  an  K b0 s m  b1 s m1    bm1s  bm  0
The values a0...an and b0 ... bm are all known. So given a value of K we can determine the
resulting polynomial and factor it to find the roots of the characteristic equation (this may
require a computer).
Key Concept: Find Location of Closed Loop Poles from Value of "K"
Rewrite characteristic equation as D(s) + KN(s) = 0. Put value of K into equation, and find roots
of characteristic equation.
Note: Many times this step is not necessary.
Given Pole Location, Determine Value of "K"

Recall that the characteristic equation can be written in the form:
N s 
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
Ds 
or
D s 
K 
N s 
a0 s n  a1 s n1    an1 s  an
K 
b0 s m  b1 s m1    bm1 s  bm
23
So, given a value of "s" that is on the locus, it is possible to solve for the corresponding value
of K.
Note that if the value of "s" is obtained by inspection of a root locus plot, it is only
approximate. If the chosen value does not actually lie on the locus, the resulting value of K
may be complex. If this happens, the imaginary part will be small, so just take the imaginary
part of K. You should then use this value of K (see above) to find the exact value of the root
location.
Key Concept: Find Value of "K" from Location of Closed Loop Pole
Ds 
Rewrite characteristic equation as K   , replace s by the desired pole location and
N s 
solve for K.
Note: Many times this step is not necessary, especially when the task is simply to draw the
root locus.
General Characteristics of Root Locus

Location of poles and zeros
Root locus with respect to other terms.
Weaknesses of the Root Locus

The root locus is obviously a very powerful technique for design and analysis of control
systems, but it must be used with some care, and results obtained with it should always be
checked. To show potential pitfalls of this method, consider the two systems G1(s) and G2(s).
G1(s) G2(s)
0.075s 2  s  1
G1s  
1
Gss  
s  6s 2  45s
3
s 3  3s 2  5s
If we control these systems with a simple proportional controller, as shown,
we can examine the root locus of each of them.
Root Locus with G1(s) Root Locus with G2(s)
24
The two root loci are clearly very different, but it turns out (because of the way that I chose the
systems) that if we choose K = 40, we get two closed loop systems with identical characteristic
equations.
Closed loop system with G1(s) Closed loop system with G2(s)
K  G1s  K  G 2s 
T 1s   T 1s  
1  K  G1s  1  K  G 2s 
1 0.075s 2  2  1
40 3 40 3
 s  6s 2  45s  s  3s 2  5s
1 0.075s 2  2  1
1  40 3 1  40 3
s  6s 2  45s s  3s 2  5s
 3
40 3s 2  40s  40
 3
s  6s  45s  40
2
s  6s 2  45s  40
The roots of the characteristic equations are at s = -1 and s = -2.5 ± j5.8 (i.e., the roots of the
characteristic equation s3 + 6s2 + 45s + 40), so we might expect the behavior of the systems to
be similar. Since the pole at s = -1 is closer to the origin, we would expect it to dominate
somewhat, giving the system behavior similar to a first order system with a time constant of 1
second, and a settling time of 4 seconds. However, if we plot the two responses, we get
something quite different.
25
T1(s) resembles (somewhat) a first order system, and has no overshoot, and its settling time is
almost exactly 4 seconds, as predicted. However, T2(s) behaves very differently, it is much
faster and more oscillatory than expected. How can we explain this?
If we look more closely at T1(s) and T2(s), we can understand what happened. In particular,
let’s look at pole-zero plots of both closed loop transfer functions.
Pole-Zero Plot of T1(s) Pole-Zero Plot of T2(s)
26
T1(s) has poles at s = -1 and s = -2.5 ± j5.8, and no zeros. T2(s) has poles at s = -1 and s = -2.5
± j5.8 and zeros at -12.2 and -1.1. The zero at s = -1.1 is almost directly on top of the pole at s
= -1, and so largely negates its effect. The closed loop system, T2(s), therefore behaves very
much like a second order system with s = -2.5 ± j5.8 (ωn = 6.3 rad/sec, and ζ = 0.4).
The lesson here is that while the poles of a system (the roots of the denominator polynomial)
are very important in determining the behavior of a system, the zeros of the system (the roots
of the numerator polynomial) can also be important. After performing a root-locus design, it
is critical to go back and test the closed loop system to ensure that it behaves as expected.
RULES FOR MAKING ROOT LOCUS PLOTS
The closed loop transfers function of the system shown is

K  Gs 
T s  
1  K  Gs H s 
So the characteristic equation is

N s 
1  KGs H s   1  K 0
Ds 
As K changes, so do locations of closed loop poles (i.e., zeros of characteristic equation). The
table below gives rules for sketching the location of these poles as K varies from 0 to infinity
(K > 0).
Rule Name Description

 The loop gain is KG(s)H(s) which can be rewritten as KN(s)/D(s).
 N(s), the numerator, is an mth order polynomial; D(s) is nth order.
Definitions
 N(s) has zeros at zi (i = 1…m); D(s) has them at pi (i = 1...n).
 The difference between n and m is q, so q=n-m.
The locus is symmetric about real axis (i.e., complex poles appear as
Symmetry
conjugate pairs).
Number of Branches There are n branches of the locus, one for each pole of the loop gain.
Starting and Ending The locus starts (when K=0) at poles of the loop gain, and ends (when
Points K→∞) at the zeros. Note: there are q zeros of the loop gain as |s|→∞.
The locus exists on real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and
Locus on Real Axis
zeros.
27
If q > 0 there are asymptotes of the root locus that intersect the real axis
n m
Asymptotes as |s|→∞
 pi   z i 1800
at   i 1 i 1
, and radiate out with angles    r , where r =
q q
1, 3, 5
Break-Away and -In There are break-away or in points of the locus on the axis
Points on Real Axis wherever N(s)D'(s) – N(s)D(s) = 0.
Angle of departure from pole
 p j  zi    p j  pi 
 
Angle of Departure m n
from Complex Pole pj is  depart, p j  180  

0
i 1 i 1
j 1
Angle of arrival at zero zj is  arrive, z j  180 0   z j  zi    z j  pi 

m n
Angle of Arrival at
Complex Zero i 1
j 1
i 1
Locus Crosses Use Routh-Horwitz to determine where the locus crosses the imaginary
Imaginary Axis axis.
Rewrite characteristic equation as D(s) + KN(s) = 0. Put value of K into
Determine Location of
equation, and find roots of characteristic equation. (This may require a
Poles, Given Gain "K"
computer)
Ds 
Rewrite characteristic equation as K   , replace s by the desired
Determine Value of N s 
"K", Given Pole pole location and solve for K. Note: if s is not exactly on locus, K may be
Locations complex, but the imaginary part should be small. Take the real part of K
for your answer.
EXAMPLES OF ROOT LOCUS

Root Locus: Example 1
TRANSFER FUNCTION
1
Gs Hs  
ss  3
TRANSFER FUNCTION INFO

 For the open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s):
n =2 poles at s = 0, -3.
m = 0 finite zeros.
28
 So there exists q = 2 zeros as s goes to infinity (q = n - m = 2 - 0 = 2)
We can rewrite the open loop transfer function as G(s)H(s)=N(s)/D(s) where N(s) is the
numerator polynomial, and D(s) is the denominator polynomial.
N(s) = 1, and D(s)= s2 + 3 s.
 Characteristic Equation is 1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0 or 1 + KN(s)/D(s) = 0,

D(s) + KN(s) = s2 + 3 s+ K(1) = 0
COMPLETED ROOT LOCUS
ROOT LOCUS SYMMETRY

 The locus is symmetric about the real axis
NUMBER OF BRANCHES
 The open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s), has 2 poles, therefore the locus has 2 branches.
Each branch is displayed in a different color.
START/END POINTS
 Root locus starts (K = 0) at poles of open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s). These are shown
by an "x" on the diagram above
 As K → ∞ the location of closed loop poles move to the zeros of the open loop transfer
function, G(s)H(s). Don't forget we have we also have q = n – m = 2 zeros at infinity. (We
have n = 2 finite poles, and m=0 finite zeros).
LOCUS ON REAL AXIS
29
 The root locus exists on real axis to left of an odd number of poles and zeros of open loop
transfer function, G(s)H(s), that are on the real axis. These real pole and zero locations
are highlighted on diagram, along with the portion of the locus that exists on the real axis.
 Root locus exists on real axis between: 0 and -3
because on the real axis, we have 2 poles at s = -3, 0, and we have no zeros.
ASYMPTOTES AS |S| GOES TO INFINITY
 In the open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s), we have n = 2 finite poles, and m = 0 finite
zeros, therefore we have q = n – m = 2 zeros at infinity.
 Angle of asymptotes at odd multiples of ±180°/q, (i.e., ±90°)
 There exist 2 poles at s = 0, -3; so sum of poles = -3
 There exist 0 zeros; so sum of zeros = 0.
 (Any imaginary components of poles and zeros cancel when summed because they appear
as complex conjugate pairs.)
 Intersect of asymptotes is at ((sum of poles)  (sum of zeros))/q = -1.5.
 Intersect is at ((-3)  (0))/2 = -3/2 = -1.5 (highlighted by five pointed star).
30
BREAK-OUT AND IN POINTS ON REAL AXIS
 Break Out (or Break In) points occur where N(s)D'(s)-N'(s)D(s) = 0, or 2 s + 3 = 0.

(Details below*) This polynomial has 1 root at s = -1.5.
 From these 1 root, there exists 1 real root at s = -1.5. These are highlighted on the diagram
above (with squares or diamonds.)
 These roots are all on the locus (i.e., K > 0), and are highlighted with squares.
 N(s) and D(s) are numerator and denominator polynomials of G(s)H(s), and the tick
mark, ', denotes differentiation.
N(s) = 1
N'(s) = 0
D(s) = s2 + 3 s
D'(s) = 2 s + 3
N(s)D'(s) = 2 s + 3
N'(s)D(s) = 0
N(s)D'(s)  N'(s)D(s) = 2 s + 3
 Here we used N(s)D'(s)  N'(s)D(s) = 0, but we could multiply by -1 and use N'(s)D(s) 
N(s)D'(s)=0.
ANGLE OF DEPARTUR
 No complex poles in loop gain, so no angles of departure.
ANGLE OF ARRIVAL
 No complex zeros in loop gain, so no angles of arrival.
CROSS IMAGINARY AXIS
31
 Locus crosses imaginary axis at 1 value of K. These values are normally determined by
using Routh's method. This program does it numerically, and so is only an estimate.
Locus crosses where K = 0, corresponding to crossing imaginary axis at s=0. These
crossings are shown on plot.
CHANGING K CHANGES CLOSED LOOP POLES
 Characteristic Equation is 1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0, or 1 + KN(s)/D(s) = 0,

or D(s) + KN(s) = s2 + 3 s+ K(1) = 0
 So, by choosing K we determine the characteristic equation whose roots are the closed loop
poles. For example, with K = 2.25225, then the characteristic equation is
D(s) + KN(s) = s2 + 3 s + 2.2522(1) = 0, or
s2 + 3 s + 2.2522 = 0
 This equation has 2 roots at s = -1.5 ±0.047j. These are shown by the large dots on the root
locus plot
CHOOSE POLE LOCATION AND FIND K
32
 Characteristic Equation is 1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0, or 1 + KN(s)/D(s) = 0, or

K = -D(s)/N(s) = -( s2 + 3 s)/(1)
 We can pick a value of s on the locus, and find K = -D(s)/N(s).

For example, if we choose s = -1.6 + 1.6j (marked by asterisk),
Then D(s) = -4.87 + -0.243j, N(s) = 1 + 0j, and K = -D(s)/N(s) = 4.87 + 0.243j.
This s value is not exactly on the locus, so K is complex, (see note below), pick real part of K
(4.87)
For this K there exist 2 closed loop poles at s = -1.5 ± 1.6j. These poles are highlighted on
the diagram with dots, the value of "s" that was originally specified is shown by an asterisk.
Note: it is often difficult to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but we can pick a point
that is close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the calculated value of K will be complex
instead of real. Just ignore the imaginary part of K (which will be small).
Note also that only one pole location was chosen and this determines the value of K. If the system
has more than one closed loop pole, the location of the other poles is determining solely by K, and
may be in undesirable locations.
TRANSFER FUNCTION
1
ss  5s  6
2

 For the open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s):
 We have n = 3 poles at s = 0, -3, -2. We have m=0 finite zeros. So there exists q=3 zeros as
s goes to infinity (q = n-m = 3 – 0 = 3).
We can rewrite the open loop transfer function as G(s)H(s) = N(s)/D(s) where N(s) is the
N(s) = 1, and D(s) = s3 + 5 s2 + 6 s.
33

or D(s) + KN(s) = s3 + 5 s2 + 6 s+ K( 1 ) = 0
ROOT LOCUS SYMMETRY

 As you can see, the locus is symmetric about the real axis.
NUMBER OF BRANCHES
 The open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s), has 3 poles, therefore the locus has 3 branches.
Each branch is displayed in a different color.
START/END POINTS
 Root locus starts (K = 0) at poles of open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s). These are shown
by an "x" on the diagram above
 As K → ∞ the location of closed loop poles move to the zeros of the open loop transfer
function, G(s)H(s). Don't forget we have we also have q = n – m = 3 zeros at infinity. (We
have n = 3 finite poles, and m=0 finite zeros).
LOCUS ON REAL AXIS
34
 The root locus exists on real axis to left of an odd number of poles and zeros of open loop
transfer function, G(s)H(s), that are on the real axis. These real pole and zero locations are
highlighted on diagram, along with the portion of the locus that exists on the real axis.
Root locus exists on real axis between:

0 and -2; -3 and negative infinity
 Because on the real axis, we have 3 poles at s = -2, -3, 0, and we have no zeros.
 In the open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s), we have n = 3 finite poles, and m = 0 finite
zeros, therefore we have q = n – m = 3 zeros at infinity.
Angle of asymptotes at odd multiples of ±180°/q, (i.e., ±60°, ±180°)
There exists 3 poles at s = 0, -3, -2, ...so sum of poles = -5.

There exists 0 zeros; so sum of zeros = 0.
(Any imaginary components of poles and zeros cancel when summed because they appear
as complex conjugate pairs.)
35
Intersect of asymptotes is at ((sum of poles)-(sum of zeros))/q = -1.67.

Intersect is at ((-5) - (0))/3 = -5/3 = -1.67 (highlighted by five-pointed star).
 Break Out (or Break In) points occur where N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s) = 0, or
3 s2 + 10 s + 6 = 0. (details below*) This polynomial has 2 roots at s = -2.5, -0.78.
From these 2 roots, there exists 2 real roots at s = -2.5, -0.78. These are highlighted on the
diagram above (with squares or diamonds.)
Not all of these roots are on the locus. Of these 2 real roots, there exists 1 root at s = -0.78
on the locus (i.e., K>0). Break-away (or break-in) points on the locus are shown by squares.
(Real break-away (or break-in) with K less than 0 are shown with diamonds).
 N(s) and D(s) are numerator and denominator polynomials of G(s)H(s), and the tick mark,
', denotes differentiation.
N(s) = 1
N'(s) = 0
D(s)= s3 + 5 s2 + 6 s
D'(s)= 3 s2 + 10 s + 6
N(s)D'(s)= 3 s2 + 10 s + 6
N'(s)D(s)= 0
N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s)= 3 s2 + 10 s + 6
Here we used N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s)=0, but we could multiply by -1 and use N'(s)D(s) –
N(s)D'(s)=0.
ANGLE OF DEPARTURE
ANGLE OF ARRIVAL
36
 Locus crosses imaginary axis at 2 values of K. These values are normally determined by
using Routh's method. This program does it numerically, and so is only an estimate.

 Locus crosses where K = 0, 30.2, corresponding to crossing imaginary axis at s = 0, ±2.45j,
respectively. These crossings are shown on plot.

or D(s) + KN(s) = s3 + 5 s2 + 6 s+ K( 1 ) = 0
 So, by choosing K we determine the characteristic equation whose roots are the closed loop
poles.
 For example with K = 4.00188, then the characteristic equation is
D(s) + KN(s) = s3 + 5 s2 + 6 s + 4.0019( 1 ) = 0, or
s3 + 5 s2 + 6 s + 4.0019= 0
 This equation has 3 roots at s = -3.7, -0.67 ± 0.8j. These are shown by the large dots on
the root locus plot
37

K = -D(s)/N(s) = -( s3 + 5 s2 + 6 s) / (1)
We can pick a value of s on the locus, and find K = -D(s)/N(s).

For example, if we choose s = -0.7 + 0.84j (marked by asterisk),
then D(s) = -4.15 + -0.222j, N(s) = 1 + 0j,
and K = -D(s)/N(s) = 4.15 + 0.222j. This s value is not exactly on the locus.
So K is complex, (see note below), pick real part of K(4.15)

For this K there exist 3 closed loop poles at s = -3.7, -0.66 ±0.83j.
 Note: it is often difficult to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but we can pick
a point that is close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the calculated value of K
will be complex instead of real. Just ignore the imaginary part. These poles are highlighted
on the diagram with dots, the value of "s" that was originally specified is shown by an
asterisk.
 Note: it is often difficult to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but we can pick
a point that is close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the calculated value of K
will be complex instead of real. Just ignore the imaginary part of K (which will be small).
 Note also that only one pole location was chosen and this determines the value of K. If the
system has more than one closed loop pole, the location of the other poles are determine
solely by K, and may be in undesirable locations.
TRANSFER FUNCTION
s3
Gs Hs  
s s  2
2

We have n = 2 poles at s = 2, -1. We have m = 1 finite zero at s = -3. So there exists
q = 1 zero as s goes to infinity (q = n-m = 2-1 = 1).
38
We can rewrite the open loop transfer function as G(s)H(s)=N(s)/D(s) where N(s) is the
N(s)= s + 3, and D(s)= s2 - 1 s - 2.
Characteristic Equation is 1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0, or 1 + KN(s)/D(s) = 0,

or D(s) + KN(s) = s2 - 1 s - 2+ K( s + 3 ) = 0
ROOT LOCUS SYMMETRY

 As you can see, the locus is symmetric about the real axis
NUMBER OF BRANCHES
 The open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s), has 2 poles, therefore the locus has 2
branches. Each branch is displayed in a different color.
START/END POINTS
 Root locus starts (K = 0) at poles of open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s). These
are shown by an "x" on the diagram above
As K → ∞ the location of closed loop poles move to the zeros of the open loop transfer
function, G(s)H(s). Finite zeros are shown by a "o" on the diagram above. Don't forget
we have we also have q=n-m=1 zero at infinity. (We have n = 2 finite poles, and m=1
finite zero).
LOCUS ON REAL AXIS
39
 The root locus exists on real axis to left of an odd number of poles and zeros of open
loop transfer function, G(s)H(s), that are on the real axis. These real pole and zero
locations are highlighted on diagram, along with the portion of the locus that exists
on the real axis.
 Root locus exists on real axis between:
2 and -1
-3 and negative infinity
because on the real axis, we have 2 poles at s = -1, 2, and we have 1 zero at s = -3.
 In the open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s), we have n = 2 finite poles, and m = 1
finite zero, therefore we have q=n-m=1 zero at infinity.
Angle of asymptotes at odd multiples of ±180°/q, (i.e., ±180°)
There exists 2 poles at s = 2, -1, ...so sum of poles=1.

There exists 1 zero at s = -3, ...so sum of zeros=-3.
(Any imaginary components of poles and zeros cancel when summed because they
40
appear as complex conjugate pairs.)
Intersect of asymptotes is at ((sum of poles)-(sum of zeros))/q = 4.

Intersect is at ((1)-(-3))/1 = 4/1 = 4 (highlighted by five pointed star).
Since q=1, there is a single asymptote at ±180°
(on negative real axis), so intersect of this asymptote

on the axis s not important (but it is shown anyway).
s2 + 6 s - 1 = 0. (details below*)
This polynomial has 2 roots at s = -6.2, 0.16.
From these 2 roots, there exists 2 real roots at s = -6.2, 0.16. These are highlighted
on the diagram above (with squares or diamonds.)
These roots are all on the locus (i.e., K > 0), and are highlighted with squares.
* N(s) and D(s) are numerator and denominator polynomials of G(s)H(s), and the
tick mark, ', denotes differentiation.
N(s) = s + 3
N'(s) = 1
D(s)= s2 - 1 s - 2
D'(s)= 2 s - 1
N(s)D'(s)= 2 s2 + 5 s - 3
N'(s)D(s) = s2 - 1 s - 2
N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s) = s2 + 6 s – 1
Here we used N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s) = 0, but we could multiply by -1 and use

N'(s)D(s) – N(s)D'(s) = 0.
ANGLE OF DEPARTURE
41
ANGLE OF ARRIVAL
 Locus crosses imaginary axis at 2 values of K. These values are normally

determined by using Routh's method. This program does it numerically, and so is
only an estimate.
 Locus crosses where K = 0.646, 1, corresponding to crossing imaginary axis at s=0,
±0.994j, respectively. These crossings are shown on plot.

or D(s) + KN(s) = s2 - 1 s - 2+ K( s + 3 ) = 0
So, by choosing K we determine the characteristic equation whose roots are the closed loop
poles.
42
For example with K = 7.15931, then the characteristic equation is

D(s)+KN(s) = s2 - 1 s - 2 + 7.1593( s + 3 ) = 0, or
s2 + 6.1593 s + 19.4779= 0
This equation has 2 roots at s = -3.1 ± 3.2j. These are shown by the large dots on the root
locus plot
 Characteristic Equation is 1+KG(s)H(s)=0, or 1+KN(s)/D(s)=0, or

K = -D(s)/N(s) = -( s2 - 1 s - 2 ) / ( s + 3 )
 We can pick a value of s on the locus, and find K=-D(s)/N(s).
For example if we choose s = -3.2 + 3.3j (marked by asterisk),

then D(s) = 0.672 + -24.8j, N(s) = -0.234 + 3.32j, and K = -D(s)/N(s) = 7.44 + -
0.322j.
This s value is not exactly on the locus, so K is complex,
(see note below), pick real part of K ( 7.44)
 For this K there exist 2 closed loop poles at s = -3.2 ± 3.2j.

Note: it is often difficult to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but
we can pick a point that is close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the
calculated value of K will be complex instead of real. Just ignore the imaginary
part. These poles are highlighted on the diagram with dots, the value of "s" that
was originally specified is shown by an asterisk.
Note: it is often difficult to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but
we can pick a point that is close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the
calculated value of K will be complex instead of real. Just ignore the imaginary
part of K (which will be small).
Note also that only one pole location was chosen and this determines the value of
K. If the system has more than one closed loop pole, the location of the other poles
are determine solely by K, and may be in undesirable locations.
43
TRANSFER FUNCTION
s 1
Gs Hs  
s  4s 2  6s  4
3

We have n=3 poles at s = -2, -1 ± 1j. We have m=1 finite zero at s = -1. So there
exists q=2 zeros as s goes to infinity (q = n-m = 3-1 = 2).
We can rewrite the open loop transfer function as G(s)H(s)=N(s)/D(s) where N(s)
is the numerator polynomial, and D(s) is the denominator polynomial.
N(s)= s + 1, and D(s) = s3 + 4 s2 + 6 s + 4.

or D(s) + KN(s) = s3 + 4 s2 + 6 s + 4+ K( s + 1 ) = 0
ROOT LOCUS SYMMETRY

NUMBER OF BRANCHES
START/END POINTS
 Root locus starts (K=0) at poles of open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s). These
As K → ∞ the location of closed loop poles move to the zeros of the open loop
transfer function, G(s)H(s). Finite zeros are shown by a "o" on the diagram above.
Don't forget we have we also have q=n-m=2 zeros at infinity. (We have n=3 finite
poles, and m=1 finite zero).
44
LOCUS ON REAL AXIS
on the real axis.

-1 and -2
... because on the real axis, we have 1 pole at s = -2, and we have 1 zero at s = -1.
finite zero, therefore we have q = n – m = 2 zeros at infinity.
Angle of asymptotes at odd multiples of ±180°/q, (i.e., ±90°)
There exists 3 poles at s = -2, -1 ± 1j, ...so sum of poles=-4.

45
There exists 1 zero at s = -1, ...so sum of zeros=-1.


Intersect is at ((-4) – (-1))/2 = -3/2 = -1.5 (highlighted by five pointed star).
 Break Out (or Break In) points occur where N(s)D'(s)-N'(s)D(s)=0, or

2 s3 + 7 s2 + 8 s + 2 = 0. (details below*)
This polynomial has 3 roots at s = -1.6 ±0.65j, -0.34.
From these 3 roots, there exists 1 real root at s = -0.34. These are highlighted on
the diagram above (with squares or diamonds.)
None of the roots are on the locus.
N(s) = s + 1
N'(s) = 1
D(s)= s3 + 4 s2 + 6 s + 4
D'(s)= 3 s2 + 8 s + 6
N(s)D'(s)= 3 s3 + 11 s2 + 14 s + 6
N'(s)D(s)= s3 + 4 s2 + 6 s + 4
N(s)D'(s)-N'(s)D(s)= 2 s3 + 7 s2 + 8 s + 2
Here we used N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s)=0, but we could multiply by -1 and use

N'(s)D(s)-N(s)D'(s)=0.
ANGLE OF DEPARTURE
46
 Find angle of departure from pole at -1+1j
θz1 =angle((Departing pole)  (zero at -1) ).

θz1 =angle((-1+1j)  (-1)) = angle(0+1j) = 90°
θp1 =angle((Departing pole)- (pole at -2) ).

θp1 =angle((-1+1j)  (-2)) = angle(1+1j) = 45°
θp3 =angle((-1+1j)  (-1-1j)) = angle(0+2j) = 90°
Angle of Departure is equal to:

θdepart = 180° + sum(angle to zeros) - sum(angle to poles).
θdepart = 180° + 90 - 135.
θdepart = 135°
This angle is shown in gray.

It may be hard to see if it is near 0°.
ANGLE OF ARRIVAL

 Locus does not cross imaginary axis.
47

or D(s) + KN(s) = s3 + 4 s2 + 6 s + 4+ K( s + 1 ) = 0
So, by choosing K we determine the characteristic equation whose roots are the
closed loop poles.

D(s) + KN(s) = s3 + 4 s2 + 6 s + 4 + 2.6026( s + 1 ) = 0, or
s3 + 4 s2 + 8.6026 s + 6.6026= 0
This equation has 3 roots at s = -1.4 ± 1.8j, -1.3. These are shown by the large dots
on the root locus plot

K = -D(s)/N(s) = -( s3 + 4 s2 + 6 s + 4 ) / ( s + 1 )
48
 We can pick a value of s on the locus, and find K=-D(s)/N(s).
then D(s) = 0.285 + -1.17j, N(s) = -0.225 + 1.27j,
and K = -D(s)/N(s) = 0.929 + 0.0603j.
This s value is not exactly on the locus, so K is complex,

(see note below), pick real part of K (0.929)
For this K there exist 3 closed loop poles at s = -1.2 ± 1.3j, -1.6Note: it is often difficult
to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but we can pick a point that is
close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the calculated value of K will be
complex instead of real. Just ignore the imaginary part. These poles are highlighted
on the diagram with dots, the value of "s" that was originally specified is shown by
an asterisk.
Note: it is often difficult to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but we
can pick a point that is close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the
calculated value of K will be complex instead of real. Just ignore the the imaginary
part of K (which will be small).
Note also that only one pole location was chosen and this determines the value of K.
If the system has more than one closed loop pole, the location of the other poles are
determine solely by K, and may be in undesirable locations.
TRANSFER FUNCTION
s 2  2s  2
Gs Hs   4
ss  9s 3  33s 2  51s  26

We have n=5 poles at s = 0, -3 ± 2j, -2, -1. We have m = 2 finite zeros at s = -1 ±
1j. So there exists q=3 zeros as s goes to infinity (q = n - m = 5 – 2 = 3).
We can rewrite the open loop transfer function as G(s)H(s) = N(s)/D(s) where N(s)
is the numerator polynomial, and D(s) is the denominator polynomial.
N(s) = s2 + 2 s + 2, and
D(s) = s5 + 9 s4 + 33 s3 + 51 s2 + 26 s.

or D(s) + KN(s) = s5 + 9 s4 + 33 s3 + 51 s2 + 26 s+ K( s2 + 2 s + 2 ) = 0
49
ROOT LOCUS SYMMETRY

NUMBER OF BRANCHES
START/END POINTS
 Root locus starts (K = 0) at poles of open loop transfer function, G(s)H(s). These
As K → ∞ the location of closed loop poles move to the zeros of the open loop
transfer function, G(s)H(s). Finite zeros are shown by a "o" on the diagram
above. Don't forget we have we also have q=n-m=3 zeros at infinity. (We have n=5
finite poles, and m=2 finite zeros).
LOCUS ON REAL AXIS
50
on the real axis.

0 and -1
-2 and negative infinity
... because on the real axis, we have 3 poles at s = -1, -2, 0, and we have no zeros.
finite zeros, therefore we have q = n – m = 3 zeros at infinity.
Angle of asymptotes at odd multiples of ±180°/q, (i.e., ±60°, ±180°)
There exists 5 poles at s = 0, -3 ± 2j, -2, -1, ...so sum of poles=-9.

There exists 2 zeros at s = -1 ± 1j, ...so sum of zeros=-2.

Intersect is at ((-9)-(-2))/3 = -7/3 = -2.33 (highlighted by five pointed star).
51
33 s6 + 26 s5 + 97 s4 + 204 s3 + 274 s2 + 204 s + 52 = 0. (details below*)
This polynomial has 6 roots at s = -2.7 ± 1.1j, -0.65 ± 1.6j, -1.4, -0.46.
From these 6 roots, there exists 2 real roots at s = -1.4, -0.46. These are highlighted
on the diagram above (with squares or diamonds.)
Not all of these roots are on the locus. Of these 2 real roots, there exists 1 root at s =
-0.46 on the locus (i.e., K > 0). Break-away (or break-in) points on the locus are
shown by squares.
(Real break-away (or break-in) with K less than 0 are shown with diamonds).
N(s) = s2 + 2 s + 2
N'(s) = 2 s + 2
D(s)= s5 + 9 s4 + 33 s3 + 51 s2 + 26 s
D'(s)= 5 s4 + 36 s3 + 99 s2 + 102 s + 26
N(s)D'(s)= 5 s6 + 46 s5 + 181 s4 + 372 s3 + 428 s2 + 256 s + 52
N'(s)D(s)= 2 s6 + 20 s5 + 84 s4 + 168 s3 + 154 s2 + 52 s
N(s)D'(s) – N'(s)D(s)= 3 s6 + 26 s5 + 97 s4 + 204 s3 + 274 s2 + 204 s + 52
Here we used N(s)D'(s)-N'(s)D(s)=0, but we could multiply by -1 and use

N'(s)D(s)-N(s)D'(s)=0.
ANGLE OF DEPARTURE
52
 Find angle of departure from pole at -3+2j

θz1 =angle((Departing pole)- (zero at -1+1j) ).
θz1 =angle((-3+2j) - (-1+1j)) = angle(-2+1j) = 153.4349°
θz2 =angle((-3+2j) - (-1-1j)) = angle(-2+3j) = 123.6901°
θp1 =angle((Departing pole)- (pole at 0) ).

θp1 =angle((-3+2j) - (0)) = angle(-3+2j) = 146.3099°
θp3 =angle((-3+2j) - (-3-2j)) = angle(0+4j) = 90°
θp4 =angle((-3+2j) - (-2)) = angle(-1+2j) = 116.5651°
θp5 =angle((-3+2j) - (-1)) = angle(-2+2j) = 135°
Angle of Departure is equal to:

θdepart = 180° + sum(angle to zeros) - sum(angle to poles).
θdepart = 180° + 277.125-487.875.
θdepart = -30.7°.

This angle is shown in gray. It may be hard to see if it is near 0°.
ANGLE OF ARRIVAL
53
 Find angle of arrival to pole at -1+1j

θz2 =angle( (Arriving zero) - (zero at -3+2j) ).
θz2 =angle((-1+1j) - (-1-1j)) = angle(0+2j) = 90°
θp1 =angle( (Arriving zero) - (pole at 0) ).

θp1 =angle((-1+1j) - (0)) = angle(-1+1j) = 135°
θp2 =angle((-1+1j) - (-3+2j)) = angle(2-1j) = -26.5651°
θp3 =angle((-1+1j) - (-3-2j)) = angle(2+3j) = 56.3099°
θp4 =angle((-1+1j) - (-2)) = angle(1+1j) = 45°
θp5 =angle((-1+1j) - (-1)) = angle(0+1j) = 90°
Angle of arrival is equal to:

θarrive = 180° - sum(angle to zeros) + sum(angle to poles).
θarrive = 180° - 90 + 299.7449.
θarrive = 390°
This is equivalent to 30°.

This angle is shown in gray. It may be hard to see if it is near 0°.
 Locus crosses imaginary axis at 2 values of K. These values are normally

determined by using Routh's method. This program does it numerically, and so is
only an estimate.
Locus crosses where K = 0, 123, corresponding to crossing imaginary axis at s=0,

±4.21j, respectively.
These crossings are shown on plot.
54

or D(s) + KN(s) = s5 + 9 s4 + 33 s3 + 51 s2 + 26 s+ K( s2 + 2 s + 2 ) = 0
So, by choosing K we determine the characteristic equation whose roots are the
closed loop poles.

D(s) + KN(s) = s5 + 9 s4 + 33 s3 + 51 s2 + 26 s + 20.3683( s2 + 2 s + 2 ) = 0, or
s5 + 9 s4 + 33 s3 + 71.3683 s2 + 66.7365 s + 40.7365= 0
This equation has 5 roots at s = -4.6, -1.6 ± 2.3j, -0.56 ±0.89j. These are shown
by the large dots on the root locus plot.
 Characteristic Equation is
1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0
1 + KN(s)/D(s) = 0
55
K = -D(s)/N(s) = -(s5 + 9 s4 + 33 s3 + 51 s2 + 26 s)/(s2+2 s+2)
 We can pick a value of s on the locus, and find K = -D(s)/N(s).

then D(s) = 16.2 + 59.5j, N(s) = -2.46 + -4.91j,
and K = -D(s)/N(s) = 11 + 2.21j.
 This s value is not exactly on the locus, so K is complex, (see note below), pick real
part of K (11)
 For this K there exist 5 closed loop poles at s = -3.9, -2.1 ±2j, -0.48 ±0.66j. These
poles are highlighted on the diagram with dots, the value of "s" that was originally
specified is shown by an asterisk.
 Note: it is often difficult to choose a value of s that is precisely on the locus, but we
can pick a point that is close. If the value is not exactly on the locus, then the
calculated value of K will be complex instead of real. Just ignore the imaginary part
of K (which will be small).
 Note also that only one pole location was chosen, and this determines the value of
K. If the system has more than one closed loop pole, the location of the other poles
are determine solely by K, and may be in undesirable locations.
PROBLEM SET:
Sketch the root loci for the following equations:
K
1. 1 0
(s 1)(2s  1)
K
2. 1 0
s(s 1)(2s  1)
K(4s  1)
3. 1 0
s(s 1)(2s  1)
K(1.5s 1)
4. 1 0
s(s 1)(2s  1)
K(0.5s 1)
5. 1 0
s(s 1)(2s  1)
On your sketch you should locate quantitatively all poles, zeros, and asymptotes. In addition, show
the parameter that is being varied along the locus and the direction in which the loci travel as this
parameter is increased.
56

PDC Lecture Notes 7 - Stability of Closed-Loop Systems 2018

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDC Lecture Notes 7 - Stability of Closed-Loop Systems 2018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Stability of Closed-Loop System

Engr. Caesar P. Llapitan

I. GENERAL STABILITY CRITERION

This is defined as be the highest order of D on the LHS as a equation of order 2.

II. ROUTH STABILITY CRITERIA

an s n + an-1 s n-1 +....a1 s + a0 = 0...

The Routh Array is constructed as follows

c1= ( b1 .an-3- an-1. b n-2 )/ b1 c 2= ( b1 .an-5- an-1. b 3 )/ b1

Routh Stability Criteria

The Routh Array is constructed as follows.

Special cases for resolving Routh Stability Array

The Routh Array is constructed as follows

2) If a all of the elements in a row is zero (two rows are proportional)

The closed loop characteristic equation =

The Routh Array is constructed as follows=

By dividing F(s) by (2 s2 + 1) the equation is obtained:

The array is completed when K = 3/4 by differentiating N(s) with respect to s.

<TD&NBSP;> Col 1 Col 2 Col 3

To locate these roots set s in N(s) to jω

Therefore, ω = 1/√2 rads/unit time

The system characteristic equation = F(s) = s 3 + 3 s 2 + 3s + K = 0

<TD&NBSP;> Col 1 Col 2 Col 3

The objectives of stability analysis are the determination of the following

III. ROOT-LOCUS CRITERIA

A Simple Example to Motivate Root Loci

The loop gain is K·G(s), so the closed loop gain is given by

Trial and Error Solution

K Transfer Function Step Response

A More Sophisticated Method

Another Way of Looking at the Problem

Consider the simple example from above,

for many values of K by using the quadratic equation.

>> G=tf(1,[1 3 0]) %Define gain of system in the

is given by the denominator,

We can use this information to calculate the desired value of K:

Key concept: The Root Locus Plot

DERIVATION OF ROOT LOCUS RULES

Get Background Information from Transfer Function

The closed loop transfer function of the system shown is

So the characteristic equation is

or we can write the loop gain in its factored form:

As K changes, so do locations of closed loop poles (i.e., zeros of characteristic equation).

The magnitude condition is expressed as

Since K ≥ 0, we can rewrite this as

The phase angle is expressed as

Key Concept: The Magnitude and Angle Conditions

 K > 0, a0 > 0, b0 > 0.

 The difference between n and m is q, so q = n - m.

Key Concept: Rule 1 – Symmetry of Root Locus

Rule 2: Number of Branches

Key Concept: Rule 2 – Number of Branches of Root Locus

Rule 3: Starting and Ending Points

Key Concept: Rule 3 – Starting and Ending Points of Root Locus

Rule 4: Locus on Real Axis

Write out the ratio of polynomials:

We will take a0 > 0, b0 > 0 (generally a0 = 1), so:

s  z1   s  z 2     s  z m 

So the angle criterion can be restated as:

 s  zi    s  pi   r 1800 , r  1, 3, 5, 

Now reconsider our statement of the angle criterion:

 s  zi    s  pi   r 1800 , r  1, 3, 5, 

Key Concept: Rule 4 – Root Locus on Real Axis

A simple approximation to get angle of asymptotes