Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs • Volume 5 • Number 1 • 2005
doi: 10.1111/J.1471-3802.2005.00035.x
Supporting the inclusion of pupils with social,
xxx
Blackwell Publishing, Ltd.
emotional and behavioural difficulties in the primary
school: the role of teaching assistants
Barry Groom and Richard Rose
University College Northampton
Key words: social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD), inclusion, teaching assistants, primary schools.
Abstract
During the past ten years in the UK there has been
a considerable increase in the number of teaching
assistants (TAs) appointed to work alongside
teachers in schools. A significant number of these
colleagues are appointed to support pupils with
special educational needs (SEN), including those with
social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD).
This paper reports on the ways in which the role of
the teaching assistant in supporting pupils with SEBD
has been developed in schools for pupils aged 7–11
years in one English Local Education Authority (LEA).
It suggests that there are several models of support
emerging and that the role of the teaching assistant
is perceived as crucial to the effective inclusion of
pupils with SEBD in mainstream classrooms.
Research from both the UK and the USA into those
conditions which are seen as essential for the promotion of
inclusive schooling, almost invariably identifies the role
of the teaching assistant (often referred to previously as
learning support assistants in the UK) as critical (Florian &
Rouse, 2001; Fox, 2001; Giangreco, 1997; Rose, 2000; 2001;
Thomas, Walker & Webb, 1998). Indeed, studies conducted
over the past ten years (Farrell, Balshaw & Polat, 1999;
Lacey, 2001; Lorenz, 1998) suggest that many pupils who
are currently educated in mainstream schools would not be
effectively managed in those schools without the support
provided by these essential professionals. The increase in
numbers of these colleagues in recent years, coupled with
the focus upon the provision of greater training
opportunities, is an indication of the priority that has been
given to the development of this role at both Local
Education Authority (LEA) and national levels. Between
1992 and 1996 there was a 56% increase in the number of
support staff working in primary schools in England (DfEE,
1997a). Clarke, Dyson, Millward & Robson (1999)
suggested that the use of in-class support was probably the
single most important factor in enabling pupils with special
educational needs (SEN) to be maintained in mainstream
classrooms. However, they also acknowledged the
complexities of managing these additional classroom
colleagues, recognising that many teachers had received
20
20–30
little training in managing classroom teams and that poor
use of TAs could lead to increased dependency on the part
of the learner. It is evident from much of the research that
the fast developing role of TAs brings with it complexities
and challenges which remain to be addressed.
The role of the TA has undergone something of a
transformation from the time when classroom assistants
were seen as ‘an extra pair of hands’ in the classroom to
the present day where they are perceived to have a more
professional role. This has been recognised through the
provision of a range of new accredited training initiatives
and qualifications such as the Professional Standards for
Higher Level Teaching Assistants (Teacher Training Agency,
2003). A growing number of TAs are deployed to work
specifically with pupils with social, emotional and behavioural
problems and to play a major role in supporting the teacher
in the management of behaviour in the classroom. This has
developed at a pace since the green paper ‘Excellence for
All Children’ (DfEE, 1997b) introduced a range of policy
interventions to support the process of inclusion for pupils
with SEN, with particular emphasis in the paper given to
the further inclusion of pupils with social, emotional and
behavioural difficulties (SEBD). More recently the Special
Educational Needs and Disability Act (DfES, 2001a)
amended the Education Act of 1996 and further strengthened
the right to a mainstream education for children with
SEN and transformed the statutory framework for a
positive endorsement for inclusion. Since 1998 LEAs have
outlined in Behaviour Support Plans their strategies for
supporting schools in their management of pupil behaviour
and detailing the provision in respect of behaviour and
inclusion services, pupil referral units, special schools and
units. Since this time most LEAs have been in the process
of restructuring and refocusing their services toward a more
inclusive approach – supporting mainstream schools to
sustain and foster inclusive practices, developing further
systems to prevent exclusion and providing specialist
support personnel to advise on behaviour management.
The statutory guidance for schools ‘Inclusive Schooling:
Children with Special Educational Needs’ (DfES, 2001b),
further defines the framework for inclusion and gives advice
© NASEN 2005

and examples of a range of interventions including classroom
organisation, curriculum delivery and deployment of support
staff.
Research does certainly suggest that those pupils who have
behaviour difficulties are likely to require more learning
support than others. However, O’Brien (1998) expresses
some concerns for the ways in which TAs are used in the
management of such pupils. He proposes that teachers, who
have received specific professional development in
classroom management, are better placed to manage pupils
with challenging behaviours than TAs who have often
received little training. In many situations, he suggests, a
teacher is better equipped to manage the behaviour of
pupils whilst the learning support assistant deals with a less
challenging group within the class. O’Brien does
acknowledge that in some instances a TA will have a good
relationship with a pupil and possibly understand his or her
needs as well as the teacher. In such cases it may be
appropriate for the TA to take responsibility for the
management of an individual, but the overall responsibility
for this must remain with the teacher. Roaf (2003) has
collected evidence from TAs about how they perceive their
role. Several of her respondents refer to their role in
mediation, having a good relationship with a ‘difficult’
pupil with whom the teacher may have difficulties. It may
be assumed that in some cases the authoritative figure of
the teacher could be perceived in negative terms by some
pupils with behavioural difficulties, and in such instances,
the mediator role of a TA could be critical.
A recurring theme throughout the literature on learning
support is that of promoting effective teamwork. Cremin,
Thomas & Vincett (2003) have recently identified three
specific models for improving teamwork between teachers
and TAs in classrooms. The first of these they refer to as a
‘room management’ model. In this approach each member
of the team plays a distinct role during the lesson. Typically
these may include an ‘individual helper’ who concentrates
on working with an individual or group for periods of 5 to
15 minutes. When they have finished with this group they
are moved on to another. A second role is that of the
‘activity manager’ who manages the rest of the class, which
is organised in small groups. In this way she or he can
move between groups as demand dictates. The further
model they describe as ‘zoning’. In this approach each
adult is allocated an area of the classroom and manages
everything that happens within this zone. A model, defined
as ‘reflective teamwork’, requires greater planning and is
more closely related to traditional team teaching models. In
this approach the teacher and TA take it in turns to play the
lead role. When not taking a lead the adult assumes a
general supportive role and may even take time to make
observations of specific individuals or groups. This
approach is likely to work effectively during whole class
teaching sessions and is dependent upon a team where each
individual has complete confidence in her or his partner.
This study by Cremin and her colleagues is important in
indicating that there are several approaches to using
learning support which may well be complementary but
© NASEN 2005
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
which need careful planning and management if they are to
be effective. These researchers suggest that schools need to
support staff in developing a range of models and also need
to analyse when each is most efficacious to learning.
The research
The aim of the research was to identify factors contributing
to effective practice by TAs in supporting the inclusion of
pupils with SEBD aged 7–11 years (Key Stage 2). The
2-year study was commissioned by one LEA, which
comprised both rural areas and large centres of urban
development in the UK, and undertaken by researchers who
were familiar with working in the area of SEBD. This
involved the collation of both quantitative and qualitative
data from a range of key stakeholders in schools using
questionnaires and semi-structured face-to-face interviews.
The initial research involved a survey that was sent to 247
schools of which 94 responded representing a return of
38.5%, followed by a more in-depth study of 20 schools
and a third phase involving interviews with governors,
teachers, TAs, pupils and parents at five schools. The
schools responding reflected the range and diversity of
provision generally across the LEA for Key Stage 2 pupils
and of those identified with SEBD. The study identified
areas of perspective, role, management, training and
classroom practice that may contribute to the successful
inclusion of pupils with SEBD in mainstream schools.
The rationale for the research project was to
• identify the range of deployment of TAs for SEBD pupil
support at Key Stage2
• identify the range of strategies and interventions being
employed in schools
• identify specific aspects of perceived effective practice
to support inclusion
• identify the perceptions of line managers, classroom
teachers, pupils, parents and governors as to the success
of policy, practice and approaches
For the purposes of the research project a pupil with SEBD
was defined as:
A child who is in receipt of an individual plan
recognising a target to support progress in the
development of either behaviour, social or emotional
skills.
This definition was provided by the LEA as one which had
been standardised across its schools.
The research was undertaken in three stages:
1. Initial questionnaire survey to Head teachers of all
schools with Key Stage 2 pupils
2. Follow-up questionnaire survey to line managers of TAs
as identified by the schools
3. Semi-structured interviews with line managers,
classroom teachers, TAs, governors, parents and pupils
in schools that had identified interesting practice.
21
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30

Initial survey to Head teachers their schools and that pupils were making progress towards
Questionnaires were sent to Head teachers of all 247 personal learning and teaching targets which had been
schools in the LEA with Key Stage 2 pupils on their rolls. established for them. Tables 1–6 demonstrate the range and
There were 94 responses from this initial questionnaire, this diversity of the use of TAs across the schools reflecting the
representing a 38.5% return and a good cross-section of
schools in the county as regards locality, roll, number and Table 1: Range and size of schools (roll) of 94
range of pupils with SEN and SEBD and number and range respondent schools
of deployment of TAs. Number of pupils on roll Number of schools
350+ 20
This initial stage of the research was constructed to 251–350 11
151–250 31
(a) collate some quantitative data and background
information to the area of TA support for pupils with 51–150 26
SEBD. The key questions were related to the Less than 50 6
• number of SEN pupils in relation to the overall
general school population Range of school roll from respondents 27–768.
• number and gender of SEN pupils whose primary
special educational needs are SEBD Table 2: Number and range of pupils with SEN across
the sample schools
• number of TAs
• number of TAs who have a brief to work Number of pupils with SEN Number of schools
predominantly with pupils with SEBD 71+ 7
• identification of line management responsibility for 41–70 22
TAs 11–40 40
0 –10 19
and to
No response given 6
(b) identify trends and themes which could be further
The number of pupils with SEN in schools ranged from 0–115.
explored through the follow-up questionnaire and semi-
structured interviews. These key questions were
Table 3: Range of pupils identified with social,
essentially open-ended and related to emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD)
• perceptions of the main ways in which TAs had
A = 0% −21% B = 0% − 62%
been deployed in supporting and including pupils
with SEBD A) One school had no pupils identified as having SEBD. One school
• perceptions as to the extent the school felt it was identified 21% of its pupils on the school roll as having SEBD
successful in meeting the needs of pupils with B) One school identified 62% of its pupils with SEN on the school roll
SEBD as having SEBD

Key emerging themes: A = the range of pupils identified with SEBD expressed as a percentage
of school roll
B = the range of pupils identified with SEBD expressed as a percentage
A number of emerging themes were identified from this of all pupils with SEN A = 0%–21% B = 0%–62%
initial survey.
Table 4: Number of teaching assistants (TAs) employed
• 74% of respondent schools felt they were successfully
Number of teaching assistants (TAs) Number of schools
meeting the needs of pupils with SEBD
• 71% of respondent schools felt that pupils with SEBD 0–5 44
were making progress towards personal learning and 6–10 34
behaviour targets 11–20 9
• 72% of respondent schools felt that pupils with SEBD 21+ 1
were successfully included
No response 6
• Transitions: schools overwhelmingly felt that (a) there
was continuity of support as pupils moved between
Table 5: Number of full time equivalent teaching
classes and (b) there was continuity of support as pupils assistants (TAs) across the school
moved between key stages
Number of teaching assistants (TAs) Number of schools
• Different and varied models of deployment and use of
TAs across the schools were identified 0 –5 59
6 –10 14
Responses indicated that a high proportion of schools felt 11–20 5
that they were responding successfully to the inclusion of 21+ 0
pupils with SEBD. Most schools also indicated that they
No response 16
felt pupils with SEBD were successfully included within

22 © NASEN 2005
 Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30

Table 6: This table expresses the percentage of all Table 8: This table identifies in percentage terms the
teaching assistants employed whose work is members of staff who have line management
predominantly with pupils with SEBD responsibility for teaching assistants
Teaching assistants for pupils with SEBD (%) Number of schools Member of staff Number of schools (%)
0 39 Head teacher 64
1–10 2 Special educational needs 24
11–25 20 co-ordinator (SENCO)
26–50 22 Deputy head teacher 6
51–75 4 Key stage co-ordinator 2
76 + 2 Specific role TA co-ordinator 2
No response 5 Senior TA 1
No response 1
Thirty-nine schools did not employ teaching assistants to work
specifically with pupils with SEBD but to work with a range of pupils.
2 schools employed all of their teaching assistants to work with pupils
with SEBD. Table 9: The following, in highest rated by respondents,
denotes some of the prior skills looked for in the
recruitment of teaching assistants to work with pupils
with SEBD
Table 7: This table expresses in percentage terms: Essential – Important –
Male (%) Female (%) Skills Not important
A 75 25 Previous experience of working as a TA Essential – Important
B 73 27 Previous experience of working with Important
pupils with SEBD
A = The gender balance of pupils with SEBD generally supported by
teaching assistants Formal training in behaviour management Important – Not important
B = The gender balance of named pupils with SEBD supported by A counselling qualification Important – Not important
teaching assistants
Specific academic qualifications Not important

roll of the school, number of pupils with SEN and number
of pupils identified by the schools as having SEBD. The
gender ratio of pupils identified with SEBD by respondents
(Table 7) reflects the national picture of far more boys than
girls described as having SEBD. A number of pupils
identified by schools as having SEBD have also have been
assessed with other SEN including learning difficulties,
autism, Asperger’s Syndrome, attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia. This highlights the diversity
and complexity of pupils with SEN in inclusive classrooms.
The different and varied models of deployment of TAs also
reflect the ways in which schools respond to the individual
needs of pupils and the different focus placed on the
support role of the TA (see Tables 1–5).
Some schools employ TAs to work predominantly with
pupils with SEBD (two schools employed all of their TAs
for this purpose) whilst other schools have a more generic
classroom role for their TAs that may include support for
pupils with SEBD (see Table 6). The line-management of
TAs (Table 8) was in the majority of schools undertaken by
the Head teacher, whilst in others the responsibility was
undertaken by the deputy Head teacher, SEN Co-ordinator
(SENCO), Key Stage co-ordinator, TA co-ordinator and
senior TA. Again this reflected the diversity of provision
and the number of TAs employed in a school. In larger
schools, with more TAs employed, the line-management
responsibility was usually undertaken by a senior member
of staff other than the Head teacher.
Table 10: The following, in highest order rated by
respondents, denotes some of the personal qualities
looked for in the recruitment of teaching assistants to
work with pupils with SEBD
Ability to work as a member of a team – willingness to learn
Adaptability
Patience and sense of fairness
Nurturing skills
Listening skills
Ability to work under pressure/work on own
Understanding and awareness of pupil needs
When recruiting TAs schools place personal qualities and
attributes above those of academic qualifications and formal
training. Although schools seek candidates with previous
experience of the role and skills in working with pupils
with SEBD (Table 9) recruitment can often be difficult. In
line with the national picture, schools often encourage
people whom they believe will bring essential qualities to
the role to apply. The personal qualities and attributes that
schools seek (Table 10) are essentially ones of tolerance,
fairness and patience. Nurturing skills and the ability to
listen are highly rated. Adaptability, the ability to work as
a member of a team, willingness to learn and develop new
job-related skills, were all key qualities sought by schools.
Schools involve TAs in a range of training opportunities
(Table 11) from school-based training days and in-house

© NASEN 2005 23
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
Table 11: The training opportunities available to
teaching assistants over the past two years (in order of
highest rated)
Involvement in school-based training
Specific course provided by LEA or by local college
Mentoring support from other staff
Modelling by class teacher or other teaching assistants or support
services personnel
Table 12: The following methods of teaching assistant
support were identified as particularly successful (in
order of highest rated)
One-to one-support
Small group work
Curriculum support
Reward system
Time out/withdrawal
Pastoral care
Circle time
The following methods of teaching assistant support were also
identified as successful:
Home school liaison
Mentoring
Lunch time support
Nurture groups
Peer support
Playground support
Self esteem programmes
training initiatives on specific topics to attendance on day
and longer term LEA and Higher Education courses. Some
schools indicated that they often find it difficult to arrange
twilight training for TAs because of their terms of
employment and the hourly paid basis of their contracts.
However, in many cases TAs are released for day
attendance at courses related to a wide range of relevant
areas of their work in order to develop their knowledge and
skills. Many of these training courses relate directly to their
role as TAs, their work with pupils with SEN and the support
and management of behaviour. In some instances there is
an expectation that TAs attending the courses will feed back
what they have learnt to other TAs in their own schools.
Schools also highlighted developing new skills and
knowledge through observation of teachers, other TAs and
of behaviour support personnel as an important training
opportunity. It is apparent from the responses that schools
consider professional development and training for TAs as
a high priority and use a range of training formats.
Schools involve the TA in a range of interventions to
support pupils with SEBD (Table 12). Schools identified
one-to-one support as the most effective and successful
intervention undertaken by the TA. This was followed
24
Table 13: Do schools withdraw pupils from lessons?
(%)
Yes 60
No 30
Occasionally 3
No response 7
closely by small group work and curriculum support. From
Table 12 the range and diversity of interventions involving
the TA can be seen across a variety of situations. In addition
to those set out in Table 12 respondents also specifically
identified counselling support, anger management
programmes and brain gym.
Respondents also indicated that they aimed to involve the
TA in setting and monitoring targets. In 41% of schools the
TA was always involved and in 43% of schools the TA was
sometimes involved. It was only in 9% of cases that schools
did not involve the TA in setting and monitoring targets.
The majority of schools reported that they withdrew pupils
with SEBD from individual lessons for additional
individual or group support (Table 13). This included
support for specific programmes of intervention, additional
curriculum support, counselling and ‘time-out’. Thirty per
cent of schools indicated that they did not withdraw pupils
with SEBD and specifically aimed to provide support at all
times within the mainstream classroom.
Follow up survey to line managers of teaching
assistants
Follow-up questionnaires were sent to the line managers of
TAs. A total of 30 questionnaires were distributed yielding
20 responses, again reflecting the range and diversity of
provision for Key Stage 2 pupils in this LEA. This second
stage of the research was constructed to collate further
perceptions of the role and deployment of TAs based on
key responses from the Initial Survey to Head teachers.
In addition to a number of set questions, some of a more
open-ended nature were posed for respondents to detail
more specific aspects of their teacher assistants’ role
including
(a) the contexts in which TAs are deployed
(b) perceptions of the most successful deployment
(c) use of rewards and sanctions by TAs
(d) specific aspects of the TAs’ role in planning and
monitoring
(e) the main indicators (success criteria) of effective
support
Key emerging themes:
• There are different models of the use of TAs across the
schools but an overwhelming perception that the work
of TAs directly supports the process of inclusion for
pupils with SEBD
© NASEN 2005

Table 14: Key areas of successful deployment of
teaching assistants (in order of the number rated)
Supervising individuals or small groups in class
Offering pastoral support to individual pupils
Teaching individuals in a withdrawal situation
Planning activities for small groups
Providing structures aspects of programmes such as Circle Time or
Emotional Literacy
Other areas mentioned:
Running lunchtime groups aimed specifically at raising self-esteem,
emotional development
Improving behaviour or enhancing social skills
Liaising with parents
Liasing with other professional agencies
Table 15: Key aspects of the teaching assistants’ role in
the whole class situation
Keeping pupils on task
Observing and recording behaviour
Listening to pupils
Mentoring
Helping pupils with their work
Helping pupils to resolve conflicts and disputes
• The TA role is seen as a challenging job. It is not always
easy to recruit the right candidate and this has
implications for training
• Teaching assistants are involved in a wide range of
interventions to support (a) the pupil, (b) the teacher and
(c) the school
• Pupils’ perceptions of the role of the TA, both from
those pupils being supported and the rest of the class,
were identified as important considerations when
planning the deployment of TAs.
From the follow-up survey there was an overwhelming
perception that the work of the TA contributed significantly
to the successful inclusion of pupils with SEBD. Line
managers of TAs were asked to identify the areas of the TA
role they considered to be most successful in supporting
pupils with SEBD. The following (Table 14) lists the key
areas identified by the respondents.
It is evident that in many schools TAs are deployed in a
range of contexts and undertake a variety of duties both
directly and indirectly in supporting pupils with SEBD.
Respondents further identified (Table 15) the key successful
aspects of the TA role within the whole class situation.
Line managers identified that TAs played a key role in
supporting behaviour management plans for individual and
groups of pupils within the context of the whole class.
Additionally many TAs were involved in the assessment
process, often observing and recording pupil behaviour to
support the identification of interventions and targets by the
teacher.
© NASEN 2005
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
A key aspect of the role of the TA in many schools is to
directly support the progress of a pupil’s IEP (Individual
Education Plan), to support the pupil to achieve targets and
to record and monitor progress. A vital factor in this
process is the relationship-building and nurturing role that
the TA undertakes to reinforce positive behaviour and
support the pupil in individual learning. This role includes
direct involvement in developing pupils’ self-esteem and
social skills and supporting them in building peer
friendships and dealing with conflict. Teaching assistants
were seen as providing essential pastoral and mentoring
support for pupils – modeling ‘significant adult’ attributes
in the classroom – and as people with whom pupils could
make positive relationships, discuss issues and talk to about
their progress. Respondents indicated that TAs were
generally authorized to issue rewards to individual pupils,
particularly for success in meeting planned targets, in line
with agreed policies and individual plans.
As well as working directly with pupils with SEBD, TAs
undertake a wider role within the classroom to support the
overall management of behaviour. A key aspect of the TA
role is to have a generic supporting role to classroom
management – supporting the teacher and the development
of the lesson. Implicit in this role is the support for
promoting classroom rules, reminding pupils of expectations,
dealing with conflict and keeping individual pupils on task.
In some schools respondents indicated that the TA had
responsibility for developing elements of the PSHE
(Personal, Social and Health Education) curriculum with
small groups of identified pupils. This input included work
in circle-time, nurture groups, ‘buddy’ schemes, friendship
skills, anger management programmes and emotional
literacy activities. This often included supportive work at
lunchtimes and in two schools TAs was involved in after-
school groups.
Teaching assistants deployed in approximately half of the
schools were reported to be involved in liaising with
parents and only in a small minority of schools involved
with other professional agencies. In schools where TAs
were involved in parent liaison this ranged from formal
involvement in review and planning meetings to a more
informal role in relaying updates of progress.
Professional development, induction and training for TAs
were significant priorities for line managers and echoed the
responses from the initial survey. In general line managers
felt that the role of TAs in supporting pupils with SEBD
was a particularly challenging one and recruitment was
not always easy. Line-managers, when involved in the
recruitment process, particularly look for candidates who
would be willing to be involved in learning and developing
(a) an understanding of SEBD
(b) a range of strategies to employ with pupils with SEBD
(c) an awareness of school policies and procedures
(d) an understanding of issues related to SEN
(e) counselling and listening skills
25
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
Responses indicated that further opportunities for training,
aimed specifically at work with pupils with SEBD in the
mainstream classroom, should be made available to TAs by
the LEA and Higher Education institutions.
Line-managers were cognizant of the impact of having TAs
assigned to individual pupils, both to the individual pupil
being supported and to the rest of the class. Respondents
considered that support should appear ‘seamless’ in terms
of pupils’ perceptions:
(a) in order that there was not an overdependence on TA
support by individual pupils; rather that support was
seen as progress towards more independent working
(b) so that individual pupils did not feel that they were
being pressurized or stigmatized, continually under
close supervision; and
(c) that support was seen to be available to all pupils in the
class not just to particular pupils
In addition many respondents highlighted the importance
of TAs being aware of, and involved in, whole school
approaches to the management of behaviour, including the
development of a positive school ethos and environment
and how a school’s responses to behaviour were multi-
faceted and interlinked.
In detailing the range of challenges, in terms of planning
and delivering effective school support for pupils with
SEBD, line managers indicated the following:
(a) time for meetings /discussions
(b) organizing TA time effectively
(c) communications – working together as a team, and
(d) balancing success in league tables with inclusive practices
In this follow-up survey the line managers of TAs also
indicated the success criteria they used in determining the
effective and successful deployment of TAs in their schools
in relation to the inclusion of pupils with SEBD. The
responses included:
(a) pupils included in the majority of lessons
(b) pupils meeting targets
(c) reduced periods of exclusion
(d) reduced amount of one-to-one support
(e) pupil feeling part of the school community
It is evident from the follow-up survey that considerable
planning is undertaken by many schools in securing and
developing the effective deployment of TAs in supporting
pupils with SEBD. Clear objectives and established criteria
for success often underpin effective practice. Teaching
assistants are involved in a wide variety of tasks in their
role of supporting pupils with SEBD and line managers
have identified the qualities and skills required for their
successful deployment. Line managers require a range of
appropriate managerial and leadership skills in managing
their effective deployment and supporting their professional
development.
26
Table 16: Semi-structured interviews undertaken
Line Classroom Teaching School
managers teachers assistants Pupils Parents governors
5 5 8 10 6 5
Semi-structured interviews
Semi-structured interviews were conducted in five of
the LEA schools with Key Stage 2 pupils on their rolls. The
schools were chosen after discussion with officers of the
LEA to reflect the diversity of provision, locale and intake
across the county. In total 39 interviews were conducted
with line managers of TAs, classroom teachers, TAs, pupils,
parents and governors. The breakdown is illustrated in
Table 16.
Perceptions of the role of the teaching assistant:
Although across the schools there were different models
of the deployment of TAs the role was generally clearly
defined and perceived by those interviewed:
‘They work very closely with the teachers, the ones that
are supporting with the lower ability classes and they
may work with a small group. They meet on a day-to-
day basis with the class teacher and feed back what has
happened. They will meet with the SENCO in terms of
drawing up an IEP and so on and so forth, they do quite
complicated work.’ (LINE MANAGER)
Teaching staff identified the importance of the TAs
understanding strategies that were being used and having
the ability to use their own personal qualities and interests
to engage the pupil:
‘I think really trying to understand the child and any
problems. Also be very aware of the strategies that you
are trying to work with but to be aware of their
problems and try and always be the same, be constant,
‘cos often it is part of the problem as they don’t have
any continuity, and they need to realise that when they
go to the TA they know that she will be ready for them
and always treat them the same way whatever they do’.
(SENCO)
Pupils themselves also identified the essential aspect of the
TA role and the positive relationships they can make:
‘They are there for you. They back you up. You feel like
if you’ve got a problem they will help you get through
it …’ (PUPIL)
‘They’re like teachers, they tell you what you have to do
and they will help you.’ (PUPIL)
‘Well, they help the people who are like dyslexic, we
have got some people like that and they help us with
work we don’t understand, the hard work, and they
help.’ (PUPIL)
© NASEN 2005

A positive approach to behaviour management:
In general interviewees expressed their awareness of the
context of the TA work within the framework of a whole
school approach:
‘… it is all done through positive discipline, a positive
approach, which professionally thinking is far more
effective. One boy in Year 2 he is more disruptive than
the others. Rather than him have a book, what his Mum
called the naughty book, which is what he had at the
previous school, whereby it logs behaviour every day
and then it is sent home for parents to read, and sign,
and say how he behaves at home, this particular child
actually has a smiley chart. Where if he is on the carpet
working well, responding to what the teacher is asking
him to do, first time, and not disrupting the other
children he is awarded so many smiles. Five smiles in
one lesson, and he puts them on his chart, and then at
the end of the day when he is rewarded his stickers or
given his reward, he takes the smiley chart off the wall
and goes and shows it to his Mum at the door, and takes
the stickers off and it is all set for the next day. But I
really do like this positive approach.’ (PARENT AND
TEACHING ASSISTANT)
In particular reference was made to the importance of an
inclusive approach and extending curriculum opportunities
to all pupils, including those with SEBD:
‘… but that child should also have the same access to
the Art, the Dance and the Sculpture, as everybody else.
I think that is what we try and do here. So it is give all
children a wide a range of experience as possible,
whether they have special needs or whether they don’t.’
(GOVERNOR)
Recruitment of teaching assistants
Interviewees expressed the challenges that the TA faced
in the role in supporting pupils with SEBD and the
importance of schools appointing people with the
appropriate skills. Although recruitment was no easy task,
schools had developed ways of encouraging applications
from local people who would have the qualities to develop
appropriate skills through training:
‘… they may start off as Mum helpers or various other
things and then move on to do courses, but the majority
of people we have got here now have started in that
way, but then have been trained on the job, and from
there they tend to develop certain skills, after they have
had training. So that tends to be more of the way we
work.’ (LINE MANAGER)
Skills in listening were identified by a range of interviewees
as an essential prerequisite for the role. Teaching assistants
themselves also identified listening skills as the key
component of their role:
‘… helping the children to achieve what they can
achieve, we know they have got the potential and help
© NASEN 2005
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
them achieve that … to achieve their potential.
Listening to them’. (TEACHING ASSISTANT)
‘Listen to both sides of the story and genuinely show an
interest, make them feel, oh yes, you are listening to me,
then.’ (TEACHING ASSISTANT)
What key approaches do teaching assistants take with
pupils with SEBD?
Interviewees generally identified that developing a positive
relationship with the pupil was a starting point for building
self-esteem and confidence:
‘… so you have to build up his confidence and reassure
him, try to do it that way, as he doesn’t smile a lot and
he looks down in the dumps, and doesn’t mix very well,
and you think, well you have got to try and lift him, you
can’t keep knocking him back even though he might be
doing things he shouldn’t be, keep him on task.’
(TEACHING ASSISTANT)
Understanding why a pupil is behaving in a certain way and
the antecedents to the behaviour were identified by TAs as
an important aspect of assessing the pupils’ needs and
identifying appropriate strategies:
‘Get to know the child and what is bothering them and
what the problem is and get to know why they are doing
what they are doing. Understanding them, understand
them and find out why they are like that, what is
happening inside and learn about the child.’
(TEACHING ASSISTANT)
Deploying teaching assistants to develop inclusive
approaches
Some schools were developing specific policies not to
withdraw pupils from lessons for support, but rather to
deploy TAs to support pupils to take a full part in lessons:
‘We also try not to withdraw pupils, so we work very
hard to support literacy and numeracy and try to give
the support within literacy and numeracy hours. So that
they are, all pupils are within their classroom working
maybe within a group, with support with the TA or
individually but within the literacy and numeracy hours,
not withdrawn.’ (CLASS TEACHER)
Challenges
The challenges of working with pupils with SEBD were
well recognized by professionals and non-professionals
alike. As well as dealing with the challenges of off-target
behaviour, attention seeking and emotional disturbance of
the pupil, frustration was felt by the TA when it appeared
that strategies did not always have the desired outcome.
The tension of including pupils with SEBD in the
mainstream classroom, whilst maintaining high academic
achievement, was expressed as follows;
‘… a lot of apprehension whilst you have got the
demands of league tables placed upon you, then feelings
27
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
about inclusion are always going to be more negative as
you have got to try and get that balance and you are
under a lot of pressure to meet high expectations.’
(SENCO)
Recognizing the professional input of teaching assistants
The importance of recognizing the professional input of
TAs was underlined by many interviewees. Developing a
specific and recognized role for the TA was expressed in a
planned approach to their deployment in the classroom and
around school.
Involving teaching assistants in planning and
monitoring
Teaching assistants were reported to be involved in
planning, monitoring and review at different levels across
the schools:
‘We always include support assistants within review
meetings. They are always invited to review meetings.
Before I meet the parents when they are assessed, we
look through targets that have been met, then I always
talk to TAs as well as the class teacher and say, how do
you think it has gone, and we always talk the targets
through and they are always invited to review meetings
with parents and with staff.’ (SENCO)
‘… all children in the school have targets, set with
them, and if you went round the school you would see
photographs of individual children with their individual
targets. Generally the child, the teacher and the TA will
talk about that and it might be that the parents are
involved depending on the particular child.’
(CLASS TEACHER)
Although there may be serious time constraints on both the
teacher and teacher assistant, interviewees felt that it was
important to have opportunities to discuss pupil progress
and exchange views:
‘It is just a matter of trying to make sure they are
involved in planning, they know on a day-to-day basis,
and you listen to them at the end of the lesson.’
(SENCO)
Conclusions
Schools were generally positive about their commitment to
include pupils with SEBD in mainstream classrooms and
were aware of the challenges faced. Teaching assistants
were widely perceived as effectively contributing to the
inclusion of pupils with SEBD in the range of tasks and
roles they undertake. Governors and parents recognised and
appreciated the importance of this support. Pupils were
aware of the impact of TA support on their own learning
and personal development. The role of the TA in supporting
pupils with SEBD is seen as a challenging one in which
TAs require appropriate support and training. This involves
a range of supportive tasks both inside and outside the
classroom based upon the TA establishing a positive and
trusting relation with the pupil. Effective practice is
28
underpinned by schools valuing the work of the TAs,
recognising the contribution they make and involving them
as much as possible in planning and review. The need to
establish effective channels of communication through
regular meetings, professional development opportunities
and sharing of good practice was underlined throughout
the research. The following general elements appear as
essential components within an overall framework for the
success of the inclusion of pupils with SEBD:
• a positive school ethos for inclusion
• an enriched curriculum
• involving parents/carers at many different levels
• developing good relationships between the TA and
pupils
• an understanding of the needs of the child
• engendering a belief that children have the capacity to
change
• setting realistic targets for achievement
• celebrating success
This is in line with previous research (Daniels & Williams,
2000) related to identifying effective practice with pupils
with SEBD that spanned the four strands of
• whole school ethos, policies and approaches
• curriculum development
• classroom management, and
• individual and group interventions
The following key factors were identified through the
research project as contributing to effective practice by TAs
in supporting the inclusion of primary pupils with SEBD:
• including the TA as a full member of staff
• involving the TA in target setting, monitoring and in
rewards and sanctions
• involving the TA, when possible, in planning and
reviewing
• creating opportunities for TA training
• involving the TA in a range of classroom activities
involving developing pupil self-esteem and social skills
Many of these factors will be regarded as the kind of good
practice, which is generally apparent in many schools
(Everard & Morris, 1996, Lumby, 1997). However, it has
been suggested (Thomas, 1992) that lack of certainty about
role expectation can be a significant factor in undermining
classroom effectiveness. Roaf (2003), in discussing the
role of TAs, found that where they did feel fully engaged
with classroom planning procedures, and where a closer
partnership with teachers had been established, this led to
more effective practices for the promotion of inclusion. The
evidence from this project suggests that there may have
been considerable progress in this area during the past ten
years, and that teachers are involving TAs much more fully
in all aspects of planning and assessment. Similarly, the
opportunities afforded to TAs for training have clearly been
considerable in the schools studied. This in part addresses
some of the concerns expressed by Farrell & Balshaw (2003)
© NASEN 2005

regarding the inadequacy of professional development
opportunities provided to these critical colleagues.
However, it remains true to say that the concern expressed
by some TAs in Farrell and Balshaw’s study, that there were
few chances of accreditation, remains as an issue.
The following were identified as aspects of the TA role that
contributed to successful practice:
• time for establishing individual positive relationships
with pupils
• good listening skills
• working with pupil in class, on a one-to-one and across
contexts including lunchtimes/playgrounds
• qualities of fairness, patience and tolerance
• understanding of pupils’ difficulties
• have a range of strategies to deploy
The research identifies that there is no single successful
‘model’ employed across the schools; rather, that effective
practice to include pupils has been developed within an
overall framework of inclusive whole school policies and
practices, the leadership of the Head teacher and senior
staff, the positive ethos of the school and the skills and
expertise of staff. This is in line with previous research
findings (Cole, 2003; Daniels & Williams, 2000; Visser, 2000),
which have identified the need for flexible approaches:
Successful practice is to be found in a variety of
secondary and primary schools, with differing policies,
practices and provision. There is not a dominant
approach, which if transplanted to all schools would
meet all the needs of every pupil with SEBD. There is
not a single, one size fits all approach to the different
needs of pupils with SEBD (Visser, 2000, p. 2).
Teaching assistants can be seen to be establishing an
essential role in providing a focus on developing intra-
personal and inter-personal skills with those pupils who
feel marginalised and find many aspects of the education
process impersonal and detached from their social and
References
Clarke, C., Dyson, A., Millward, A. & Robson, C. (1999)
‘Theories of inclusion. Theories of schools:
deconstructing and reconstructing the inclusive school.’
British Educational Research Journal, 25 (2), pp. 157–
77.
Cole, T. (2003) ‘Policies for positive behaviour
management.’ In Tilstone, C. & Rose, R. (eds)
Strategies to Promote Inclusive Practice, pp. 67–83.
London: Routledge Falmer.
Cremin, H., Thomas, G. & Vincett, K. (2003) ‘Learning
zones: an evaluation of three models for improving
learning through teacher/teaching assistant
teamwork.’Support for Learning, 18 (4), pp. 154–
61.
© NASEN 2005
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
emotional growth. It is evident from the research that TAs
are undertaking a significant role in the process of
supporting many pupils who would otherwise have been
excluded or placed in the segregated sector. It is also
apparent that TAs working with pupils with SEBD are
increasingly becoming accepted by their teaching colleagues
as having a distinct professional role to undertake in schools.
Many issues surrounding the successful inclusion of pupils
with SEBD remain as challenges for schools to address.
Whether pupils are best supported by in-class or withdrawal
support continues to be a strong issue of debate in schools,
although many respondents highlighted their work in
developing support interventions within the class setting.
The need for classroom teachers to have additional training
on the deployment and management of support staff is of
high priority. Similarly, the need to provide focused
training for TAs, many of whom entered the profession
without formal training or qualifications, is self-evident.
Indeed the provision of such training will be critical if the
use of classroom support is to have the desired impact of
providing additional support to further enable the inclusion
of pupils with SEBD in mainstream schools.
Views expressed by the contributors to this journal are their
own and do not necessarily reflect the policies and opinions
either of the authorities by whom they are employed or of
NASEN.
Address for correspondence
Barry Groom,
Centre for Special Needs Education and Research,
University College Northampton,
Boughton Green Road,
Northampton NN2 7AL, UK.
Email: Barry.Groom@northampton.ac.uk
Daniels, A. & Williams, H. (2000) ‘Reducing the need for
exclusions and statements for behaviour.’ Educational
Psychology in Practice, 15 (4), pp. 220–7.
DfEE (1997a) Statistics in Education: Schools in England.
London: Department for Education and Employment.
DfEE (1997b) Excellence for All Children. London:
Department for Education and Employment.
DfES (2001a) Special Educational Needs and Disability
Act. London: Department for Education and Skills.
DfES (2001b) Inclusive Schooling: Children with Special
Educational Needs. London: Department for Education
and Skills.
Everard, K. & Morris, G. (1996) Effective School
Management. London: Paul Chapman.
29
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 5 20–30
Farrell, P. & Balshaw, M. (2003) ‘Can teaching assistants
make special education inclusive?’ In Farrell, P. &
Ainscow, M. (eds) Making Special Education Inclusive,
pp. 39–50. London: David Fulton.
Farrell, P., Balshaw, M. & Polat, F. (1999) The
Management, Role and Training of Learning Support
Assistants. London: DfEE.
Florian L. & Rouse, M. (2001) ‘Inclusive practice in
English secondary schools: lessons learned.’
Cambridge Journal of Education, 31 (3), pp. 399–
412.
Fox, G. (2001) Supporting Children with Behaviour
Difficulties London: David Fulton.
Giangreco, M. F. (1997) ‘Key lessons learned about
inclusive education, summary of the 1996 Schonell
memorial lecture.’ International Journal of disability,
44 (3), pp. 193–206.
Lacey, P. (2001) ‘The role of learning support assistants in
the inclusive learning of pupils with severe and
profound learning difficulties.’ Educational Review, 53
(2), pp. 157–67.
Lorenz, S. (1998) Effective In-class Support: The
Management of Support Staff in Mainstream and
Special Schools. London: David Fulton.
Lumby, J. (1997) ‘The learning organisation.’ In Bush, T.
30
& Middlewood, D. (eds) Managing People in
Education, pp. 31–42. London: Paul Chapman.
O’Brien, T. (1998) Promoting Positive Behaviour. London:
David Fulton.
Roaf, C. (2003) ‘Learning support assistants talk about
inclusion.’ In Nind, M., Rix, J., Sheehy, K. &
Simmons, K. (eds) Inclusive Education: Diverse
Perspectives, pp. 221–40. London: David Fulton.
Rose, R. (2000) ‘Using classroom support in a primary
school.’ British Journal of Special Education, 27 (4),
pp. 191–6.
Rose, R. (2001) ‘Primary school teacher perceptions of the
conditions required to include pupils with special
educational needs.’ Educational Review, 53 (2),
pp. 147–56.
Teacher Training Agency (2003) Professional Standards for
Higher Level Teaching Assistants. London: Teacher
Training Agency Publication.
Thomas, G. (1992) Effective Classroom Teamwork:
Support or Intrusion? London: Routledge.
Thomas, G., Walker, D. & Webb, J. (1998) The Making of
the Inclusive School. London: Routledge.
Visser, J. (2000) What Schools Need For EBD Pupils To Be
Included. International Special Education Congress
(ISEC) 24th−28th July, University of Manchester.
© NASEN 2005