MOTHER’S PUBLIC SCHOOL

GORUAL, PURI - 752002

HAND BOOK OF
TERM–II CHEMISTRY
FOR

CBSE EXAM 2022

(WHOLE SYLLABUS)

PREPARED BY:
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
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CBSE AISSC EXAMINATION 2022

HAND BOOK OF CHEMISTRY
(TERM – II WHOLE SYLLABUS)
Information served in this booklet is just an attempt to indicate the area in the subject that CBSE finds utmost relevance and select questions for Term –
II Examination: 2022. Students are strictly advised to only emphasize the area indicated by the booklet while preparing for the subject for 7th May 2022.
It should not be construed under any circumstance that their preparation should only confine to the area indicated herein. Information served are only
inclusive, not exclusive – Dr S K Sahu, Department of Chemistry, MPS, Puri

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

1. Application of Nerst Equation to calculate e.m.f of a given cell

from a cell notation using data provided.

eg. Calculate e.m.f of the cell Mg(s) | Mg+2 (0.13 M) || Ag+ (0.001
M) | Ag(s). if E0cell = 1.02 volts (Calculate E0cell = E0R – E0L if E0cell
is not provided)
Here, the cell notation is given. We can write the cell reaction from
the cell notation as below;
Anode: Mg(s) → Mg+2 + 2e- (Oxidation)
Cathode: 2 Ag + 2e- → 2 Ag(s) (Reduction)
+

Thus, the cell reaction is; Mg(s) + 2 Ag+ → Mg+2 + 2 Ag(s)

Now, we can write Nerst Equation as below;

e.m.f = E0cell – (0.0591/n) log {[Reductant] / [Oxidant]2}
Or, e.m.f = E0cell – (0.0591/n) log {[Mg+2] / [Ag+]2}
{Note: 2.303RT/F = [(2.303 x 8.314 x 298)/96500] = 0.0591}
E0cell will be given in the question and n = 2
Also, [Mg+2] = 0.13 and [Ag+]2 = (0.001)2
We calculate e.m.f solving the above equation.

2. Calculation of e.m.f using E0cell of both the electrodes.

eg. Calculate E0cell of Mg(s)|Mg+2 || Ag+|Ag(s) given that, E0(Mg+2|Mg)

= - x volt and E0(Ag+Ag) = + y volt

Here, we apply the formula E0cell = E cathode – E anode or E Right – E Left

In cell notation, the left half-cell is always anode and the right half-
cell is always cathode.

3. Calculation of e.m.f of a cell when the SHE is in contact with a

solution of pH = 10 (for example)

pH = 10 means [H+] = 10-10

Here E0SHE = 0 and cell reaction is 2H+ + 1e- → H2 where n = 2
Now using Nerst Equation we get;
e.m.f = 0 - (0.0591/n) log {1/[H+]2} = - (0.0591/2) log [H+]-2
= - (0.0591 /2) log (10-10)-2 = - (0.0591 /2) (20) log 10 = (- 0.0591)
(-10) = - 0.591 ~ - 0.6 v

4. Reactivity order from SRP values

a. SRP value  1/ Reducing power

SRP of H = 0 and SRP of Cu = + 0.34, so H has more reducing
power than Cu

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b. Give SRP order of K, Mg, Ca and Ba. K < Ba < Ca < Mg

5. Formulae and Units:

a. I = V/R, Here I = amp, V = volt and R = ohm

b. Conductance G = 1/R = ohm-1 or moh or siemen (S)
c. Resistance R =  (l/a), so specific resistance  = R (a/l) = ohm cm
d. Cell constant = (l/a) = cm-1
e. Also, G = 1/R = (1/) (a/l)
f. Specific conductance = k = 1/ = ohm-1 cm-1 or S cm-1 or moh cm-1
g. k = 1/ = (1/R) (l/a) = G (l/a) = Conductance x Cell constant
h.  = (k x V)/1000 = k/M or k/nN, here M = molarity, N = normality
and n = n factor

6. State and explain Kohlrausch Law

a. 0m = 0c+ + 0a-

b. Calculation of 0 HAc (refer NCERT Example 3.8 –
Electrochemistry)
c. Degree of dissociation () = m/0m

7. Faraday’s 1st Law

a. w = Z I t, hence Z = w/I t
b. Z = ECE = Eq. Wt/96500 = At Wt/(valency x 96500)
c. Z corresponds to 1 coulomb
d. Eq Wt corresponds to 96500 coulombs or 1 Farad

CHEMICAL KINETICS

1. What is order of a reaction?

Prediction of order reaction from a table of data:

a. If change in conc. of a reactant does not change initial rate
 zero order
b. If rate of change of initial rate is same as rate of change of conc.
 1st order
c. If rate of change in initial rate is 22 time the rate of change of conc.
 2nd order
d. If rate of change in initial rate is 23 time the rate of change of conc.
 3rd order

2. Difference between order and molecularity of a reaction

a. Order may be zero, fractional, positive or negative but

molecularity is always whole number.
b. Molecularity > 3 doesn’t exist but order > 3 exists
c. Molecularity of the RDS is the order but not vice-versa
d. Order of reaction is experimental but molecularity is theoretical

3. Units of zero, 1st and 2nd order rate constants

a. General formula for unit of rate constant = mol 1-n litn-1 s-1 where
n = 0, 1, 2 ….etc
b. Rate Determining Step RDS = slowest step
c. Molecularity of RDS is the order of the reaction

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4. Expression for rate constant

a. Derive expression for zero order rate constant

k = {[R0] – [R]}/ t
b. Derive half-life of zero order reaction; t1/2 = [R0]/2k
c. Derive expression for 1st order rate constant
k = {2.303/t} log{[R0]/[R]}
a. Derive half-life for 1st order reaction; t1/2 = 0.693/k
= (2.303 x 0.3)/k = (2.303 x log 2)/k
= ln2/k, thus t1/2 = ln2/k
b. t1/2 of zero order is dependent upon [R0] but t1/2 of 1st order is
independent of [R0]

5. Graphs:

Zero order: (four graphs)

a. [A] vs time
b. Rate vs time
c. Rate vs [A]
d. k vs [A]

First Order: (four graphs)

a. ln[A] vs time
b. [A] vs time
c. k vs time or rate vs time
d. log{[A0]/[A]} vs time

6. Some examples of zero and first order reaction

Decomposition if HI on gold  zero order

Decomposition of NH3 platinum  zero order
Enzyme catalyzed reactions  zero order
Reactions catalyzed by metal surface  zero order
All radioactive decays  first order
Hydrolysis of ester  pseudo – first order
Inversion of cane sugar  pseudo – first order
Decomposition of N2O5 →2 NO2 +1/2 O2  first order

7. Rate expression

a. How to write rate expression for a given reaction?

5 Br-1 + BrO3-1 + 6 H+1 → 3 Br2 + 3 H2O
Rate (r) = (-1/5)d[Br-]/dt = - d[Br-]/dt = (-1/6)d[H+]/dt
= (+1/3) d[Br2]/dt = (+1/3)d[H2O]/dt

SURFACE CHEMISTRY

1. Example of adsorption
Important Adsorbent Important Adsorbate
Charcoal O2, H2, CO, Cl2, SO2
Animal charcoal Organic dyes, methylene blue, raw sugar
Silica gel Moisture

2. Difference between physisorption and chemisorption with

example

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Physical Adsorption Chemical Adsorption

Binding force is vanderwaal Well defined chemical bond
Hads is 20 – 40 kJ mol-1 Hads is high
Reversible Irreversible
Multilayer Unilayer
Random occurrence Selective occurrence
Occurs a low temp At high temperature

3. Example of catalysis;

a. Hydrogenation of vegetable oil – Nickel catalyst

b. Haber’s process – Fe catalyst (with Mo promoter)
c. Ostwald’s process – Platinum catalyst
a. Contact process – V2O5 catalyst

4. Why the rate of hydrolysis of ester increases with time?

Hydrolysis of ester is catalyzed by a mineral acid and forms

carboxylic acid and alcohol as products. The carboxylic acid
increases [H+] further and thus rate of hydrolysis increases.

5. Type of colloidal systems

(Refer Table 5.4 only NCERT Book)

6. Difference between lyophilic and lyophobic sols

Lyophillic Lyophobic
Strong DP-DM interaction Weak DP – DM
More stable Less stable
Reversible Irreversible
Higher Brownian Motion Lower
Cannot be coagulated Very easily coagulated
Neutral Charged
Lower Tyndal Effect Higher

7. CMC and Kraft temperature

a. Minimum concentration required to make micelle formation

possible if critical micelle concentration (CMC). For example;
10-4 to 10-3 mol of soap per liter of water is CMC of soap micelle.
b. Temperature just above which micelle formation is possible is
kraft temperature. Micelles are colloids.

8. Properties of Colloids

a. Colligative properties: Colloids have lesser colligative properties

than particle of true solutions because colloids are larger in size
than crystalloids. Crystalloids associate to form colloids. So
number of particle in colloids remains less and hence they show
lesser colligative properties.

b. Mechanical properties: Brownian motion of colloids is due to

collision of crystalloid of dispersion medium upon colloids.

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Colloids do not have their own motion. They are made mobile by
such collisions. Larger colloids have lesser Brownian motion than
smaller colloids. Higher Brownian motion makes colloids more
stable.
c. Optical properties: Since colloids are larger in size so they absorb
incident light and then scatter them by changing their original
wavelength. This is called Tyndall effect.

9. Charge on colloids:

a. Positively colloids: metal oxides, organic dyes, haemoglobin

b. Negatively colloids: metal sols, metal sulphides, starch, gelatin,
gum
c. Slight AgNO3 added to KI gives negative colloids [AgI]I-
Slight KI added to AgNO3 gives positively colloids og [AgI] Ag+
d. FeCl3 added to hot water gives positively colloid [Fe2O3.x H2O]
Fe+3
e. FeCl3added to NaOH gives negatively colloid [Fe2O3.x H2O] OH-1

10. Coagulation: Destruction of phase – medium interaction

a. Electrophoresis: subjecting colloids to strong external electric field

b. Mixing oppositely charged colloids
c. Constant boiling
d. Addition of electrolyte
e. Hardy Schulz rule: The higher the valency of ion higher is its
coagulating power
eg. Al+3 > Ca+2 > Na+2 and [Fe (CN)6]-4 > PO4-3 > SO4-2 > NO3-1

d - & f – BLOCK ELEMENTS

1. General Information

a. Silver is a transition metal because it can exist in +3 state eg.

Ag2O3. Hence it can have partially filled d – orbital.
b. General electronic configuration: (n – 2) f 0 (n – 1) d 1 – 10 ns1–2
(4 ≤ n ≤ 7)
c. Factors influencing atomic size: nuclear charge and shielding (both
are opposing): Result: First ↓ then → and finally ↑.
d. Factors influencing ionic radii: only nuclear charge: Result: only ↓
e. d – Block metals form vanderwaal, metallic and covalent bonds, all
at a time, so they possess high heat of atomization and high m.pt
and b.pt
f. Zn, Cd and Hg only form vanderwaal and metallic, so they are
most volatile in d – block.
g. No of unpaired e  m. pt and b.pt eg. Chromium.
h. Mn with fully half filled state does not form covalent bond, so it
has unusually low m.pt

2. Oxidation state

a. No of unpaired e- possible  Oxidation state possible.

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Element Max no of unpaired e Max ox. state

Cr 4s1 3d5 (ground state) =6 +6
Mn 4s2 3d5 or 4s1 3d5 4p1 =7 +7
Fe 4s2 3d6 or 4s2 3d5 4p1 =6 +6 (rare)

b. Higher oxidation state of metal is stable with stronger oxidizing

anion and lower oxidation state is stable with stronger reducing
anion.
Yes No Yes No
AuF3 AuF CuI Cu2I2
AuI AuI3 Fe2O3 FeO (unstable)

c. Fe+2 = 4s0 3d6 and Cr+2 = 4s03d4, Fe+2 loses an electron more
readily to get d5 state while Cr+2 readily gains an electron to get d5.
So, Fe+2 is a stronger reductant than Cr +3.

d. Cu2+ exists in water medium but not Cu+ because in water [Cu
(H2O)4]+2 complex ion forms. Enthalpy of complex formation is
higher than the second IE of Cu.

3. Magnetic property

a. Spin only magnetic moment = s = [n (n+2)]; if n = 1 then s =

1.73, n = 2, 3, 4, 5 … then s = 2.9, 3.9, 4.9, 5.9 …. So on.
b. Sc+3 to Mn+2: calculated value = experimental value (due to large
size only electronic factor works)
c. Fe+2 to Zn+2: calculated value < experimental value (due to small
size and overcrowding electronic factor operates along with inter-
electronic repulsion. This is why the experimental values become
more.)

4. Colour

Colour of important ions in aqueous medium:

Cu+2: Blue, Fe+2: Green, Fe+3: Yellow, Co+2: Pink, Zn+2: Colourless
These colors are due to: d – d* transition. Colour of MnO4-1, CrO4-2
, Cr2O7-2 etc are due to charge transfer.

5. Lanthanoids

a. Lanthanoids are LCP-NPS-EGT-DHE-TYL

b. Exceptional e – configuration: La, Ce and Ga
c. Most common oxidation state is +3. Ce, Pr, Tb, Tm.
d. Yb show +4 states.

6. Lanthanoid contraction

Entry of differentiating e into anti-penultimate 4f orbital of

extremely poor shielding supplemented by high nuclear charge, the
size of lanthanones (atoms/ions) gradually decreases from La – 57
to Lu – 71. This is called lanthanide contraction. It is more evident
in +3 ions rather than in neutral atoms.

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7. Consequences of lanthanide contraction

a. Very close atomic/ionic radii of these elements make them

chemically so much similar that they all find their origin in nature
at a single source rather than different sources.
b. Their isolation from one another is a challenging task.
c. Instead of being larger, atomic radii of 5d – series elements are
found to be same as that of 4d – series elements.
d. Prevalence of inert pair effect in the elements belong to 6th period
of p – block

8. Properties & uses of lanthanoids

a. Chemical properties of lanthanides are very similar to alkaline

earth metals (Group – 2)
b. Mischmetall is an alloy of 95% lanthanoid + 5% iron + trace
elements
9. Actinoids

a. Actinoids are ATP-UNP-ACB-CEF-MNL

b. Exceptional e – configuration: Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np and Cm

Expected Actual
Ac – 89: [Rn] 7s2 5f1 [Rn] 7s2 6d1
Th – 90: [Rn] 7s2 5f2 [Rn] 7s2 6d2
Pa – 91: [Rn] 7s2 5f3 [Rn] 7s2 5f2 6d1
U – 92: [Rn] 7s2 5f4 [Rn] 7s2 5f3 6d1
Np – 93: [Rn] 7s2 5f5 [Rn] 7s2 5f4 6d1
Cm – 96: [Rn] 7s2 5f8 [Rn] 7s2 5f7 6d1

10. Actinide contraction

Actinide contraction is more acute than lanthanide contraction

because these elements have still higher nuclear charge than
lanthanoids and the differentiating e enters into 5f orbital whose
shielding quality is poorer than that of 4f – orbital

11. Differences b/w Lanthanides & Actinides

Lanthanones Actinones
a. Contraction factor is less Contraction factor is more
b. These exist in nature Most of them are synthetic ones
c. They exhibit chemistry They disintegrate due to low t1/2
d. They are stable They are radioactive

COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

1. Four Postulates of Werner’s Theory

Refer 9.1, (1), (2), (3) and (4) – NCERT Book

2. Determination of primary (PV) & secondary valence (SV)

Inside [ ] Valence Outside [ ] Valence
Neutral Only SV Neutral Cannot stay
Negative PV & SV Negative PV
Positive PV & SV Positive PV

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eg. CoCl3.5NH3; In this case Co is in +3 state, so its C.N will be 6.

since C.N = 2 x O.S. Since NH3 is a stronger ligand than Cl-, so
formula would be [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2. Hence, 5 NH3 satisfy SV and
1 Cl- satisfies both PV and SV while 2 Cl- satisfy only PV

3. Important ligands

a. C2O4-2: bidentet (ox-2)

b. H2NCH2CH2NH2: bidentet (en)
c. (OOCCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2COO)2: EDTA-4 hexadentet
b. All ligands with denticity > 1 are chelating ligands
c. NO2- : ambidentet (Nitro-O or Nitro-N)
d. CN- : ambidentet

4. Nomenclature

[Pt (NH3)2 Cl (NO2)]

First find out OS of Pt = x + 2(0) + 1(-1) + 1(-1) = x – 2 = 0
 x = +2
Name: Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)
Hg [Co (SCN)4]: Hg has 2 O.S of +1 and +2.
So, if Hg is in +1 state  1(+1) + x + 4(-1) = x – 3 = 0  x = +3

If Hg is in +2 state  1(+2) + x + 4 (-1) = x – 2 = 0  x = +2

Both are correct. Hence, the formula may have two names
possible.
Name – 1: Mercury(I)tetrathiocyanatocobaltate(III)
Name – 2: Mercury(II)tetrathiocyanatocobaltate(II)

5. Valence Bond Theory

a. CN-: strong, F-: weak and C2O4-2: strong, all chelating ligands are
strong ligands.
b. Strong ligands pair up and form inner octahedral, weak ligands
never pair up
c. [Mn (CN)6]-3: Mn+3 3d4 with 4 unpaired → after pair up 2
unpaired.
Hence, hybridization is d2sp3 with s = 2.9 BM
d. [MnCl6]-3: Mn+3 3d4 with 4 unpaired → No pair up as Cl- is weak
Hence, hybridization is sp3d2 with s = 4.9 BM
e. [Ni(CO)4]: Ni 3d8 4s2, CO is a strong ligand
2 e from 4s get promoted to 3d → after pair up 3d10 4s0
Hence, hybridisation is sp3 with s = 0.0 BM
f. [Ni(CN)4]-2: Ni+2 3d8 4s0, CN- is a strong ligand → After pair up
hybridization is dsp2
with s = 0.0 BM.
g. [NiCl4]-2: Ni+2 3d8 4s0, Cl- is a weak ligand → No pair up, so
hybridization is sp3 with
s = 2.9 BM.
h. Colour, stability, magnetic moment, ligand exchange, ligand
strength are all unexplained. These are major drawbacks.

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6. Crystal Field Theory

a. Ligands surround central metal ion (CMI) through electrostatic

interaction similar to that present around cations in an ionic crystal.
So it is called crystal field theory.
b. Central metal ion is a Lewis acid and ligands are Lewis bases
which interact together electrostatically and form a complex.

c. Strength of the electrostatic field depends upon the number of

ligands like 6 in octahedral complex and 4 in tetrahedral of square
planar complexes.

CFT of OHC

a. In OHC, 6 ligands interact with CMI axially. This destroys

degeneracy of 5 d – orbitals because energy of dx2-y2 and dz2 are
raised and that of dxy, dyz and dzx are lowered.
b. Net energy lowered equals to the net energy raised. If the energy
difference be o then energy raised = + (3/5) o and energy
lowered =  (2/5) o
f. Two d – orbitals whose energy is raised is called eg and the three d
– orbitals with energy lowered are called t2g.
g. If eg and t2g difference is large then they will treated as two
different orbitals and the ligand in such case will be strong. In such
case,
o > P. The complex would be low spin with minimum value of s.
h. If eg and t2g difference is small then they will treated as part of the
same orbital and the ligand in such case will be weak. In such case,
o < P. The complex would be high spin with maximum value of
s.

CFT of THC

a. In THC, 4 ligands interact with CMI non-axially because the

angular distance is 109.50 and no axis is available at this angle.
This also destroys degeneracy of 5 d – orbitals as energy of dx2-y2
and dz2 are lowered and that of dxy, dyz and dzx are raised.
b. The splitting is exactly reverse of the kind of splitting in OHC.
c. If the energy difference be t then energy raised = + (2/5) t and
energy lowered =  (3/5) t
d. Two d – orbitals whose energy is lowered is called e and the three
d – orbitals with energy lowered are called t2.
e. t is always less than P, hence all weak ligands usually form THC
and are usually high spin complexes with maximum values of s.

7. Relation b/w  t and o

a. 9 x t = 4 x o
b. For d6 high spin (weak ligand) OHC configuration is t2g4 eg2 
sp3d2 and s = 4.9 BM
For low spin (strong ligand) OHC, configuration is t 2g6 eg0  d2sp3
and s = 0.0 BM
c. For d8 THC, if the ligand is weak, configuration is e4 t24  sp3 and
s = 2.9 BM

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ALDEHYDES, KETONES & CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

1. Chemical reactions of aldehydes and ketones are nucleophilic

addition, explain.

> C = O is a polar bond with + on C – atom and – on O – atom.

An electrophile gets attached to O – atom almost instantly (fast
step) and facilitates gradual breaking of C = O. Thus a nucleophile
attacks C – atom slowly in a concerted manner.

2. Chemical reactions of carboxylic acids are nucleophilic

substitution, explain.

> C = O is though a polar bond it is connected to a group that

always carries lone pair which opposes nucleophilic addition.
Here, G = – OH, – OR, – NH2, – Cl, Br, – OCOR. G works like a
leaving group. After the nucleophile attacks to > C = O slowly G
leaves fast causing nucleophilic substitution.

3. Ozonolysis

a. Reductive ozonolysis (i. O3 ii. Zn/H2O,) of alkenes give

aldehydes and ketones
b. Oxidative ozonolysis (i. O3 ii. H2O2,) of alkenes give carboxylic
acids.
c. Ozonolysis of alkynes always gives carboxylic acids.

4. Hydrolysis of alkynes

Only HC CH gives aldehyde all other alkynes give ketones

A molecule of water is added to first get an enol which
tautomerizes to give aldehyde or ketones

5. What is DIBAL – H? Explain its uses.

It is di – isobutyl aluminium hydride [H – Al (i–Bu)2]. It’s a

reducing agent with selective action. It reduces both R – CN and R
– COOR’ to aldehydes conveniently as;

a. R – CN + DIBAL – H → RCH = NH (intermediate)

RCH = NH + 2 H2O → RCHO + NH4OH
b. RCOOR’ + DIBAL – H & H3O+ → RCHO + R’OH
c. DIBAL – H has selective reducing action. Reducing action of
SnCl2/HCl is extensive. The former is better.

6. Convert Toluene to Benzaldehyde

a. Ph – CH3 + CrO2Cl2 & then with H3O+→ Ph – CHO,

This is called Etard reaction
b. Ph – CH3 + CrO3 + Ac2O & H3O+→ Ph – CHO
c. Ph – CH3 + Cl2/h and then with H2O → Ph - CHO

9. What are the reagents used to convert R – CN to RCHO?

a. SnCl2/HCl followed by H2O (Stephen’s reaction) or

b. DIBAL – H followed by H2O
c. RCN with RMgX followed by H3O+ gives RCOR

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10. Benzene to corresponding Aldehyde/Ketone

a. + CO + HCl in presence of AlCl3 →

This s is Gatterman Koch reaction

b. + Ph – CO – Cl/AlCl3 →

11. Rate of Nucleophilic addition

a. Bulkiness of R – group  1/Rate

b. Amount of +ve charge on C – atom of >C = O  Rate
c. Presence of I (-) – group  Rate
d. Presence of I (+) – group  1/Rate
e. Presence of Ph – group with >C = O  1/Rate

12. Tests for > C = O compounds

a. Use of NaHSO3 gives white crystalline precipitate with rotten egg

smell (both aldehyde & ketones give)
b. 2, 4 – DNP test gives yellow precipitate (both aldehyde & ketones
give)

13. Exclusive Tests for R – COH (not given by ketones)

a. Schiff’s Test (colourless) gives magenta colour

b. Fehling’s Test (blue) gives red (magenta) precipitate
c. Silver mirror Test gives black precipitate of Ag
d. Fehling’s Test and Silver mirror Test is also given by HCOOH due
to presence of – COH group
d. Chromic acid (yellow) test gives green coloration
e. Above tests not responded by a compound that responds 2,4 –
DNP test is definitely a ketone.

14. Acetals & Ketals

a. R–COH when treated with 1 mole ROH/H+ gives hemi-acetal, with

2 moles of ROH/H+ gives acetal.
b. R–CO–R when treated with ROH/H+ gives hemi-ketal, with 2
moles of ROH/H+ gives ketal.
c. R–COH/ R–CO–R when treated with 1 mole di-ol give cyclic
acetal/ketal.
d. All forms of acetal/ketal are back to original > C = O when treated
with H2O/H+.
e. Cyclic acetal/ketal are used to protect > C = O during reactions
f. Carboxylic acids and their derivatives never form acetal/ketal

15. Reduction of > C = O group

a. Clemmensen’s reduction
> C = O + 4 [H] by Zn – Hg/HCl → > CH2 + H2O
b. Woff – Kishner reduction
> C = O + H2N – NH2 →> C = N – NH2 + KOH/ → > CH2 + N2

16. Distinction b/w HCHO and CH3CHO [ ]

a. CH3COH gives Iodoform Test but not HCHO

b. CH3COCH3 responds this test like CH3CHO

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c. Presence of CH3CO – group helps Iodoform test but CH3COOH

and their derivatives do not respond Iodoform test either due to
their acidic nature or due to presence of group G with lone pair.

17. Aldol Condensation (condensation by diluted base)

a. NaOH/KOH in diluted state behaves like base and thus looks for
acidic hydrogen ( - H) in RCHO or RCOR.
b. Two molecules of RCHO or RCOR condense form aldol/ketol
c. One molecule with  - H condense with another not having  - H,
it is crossed aldol condensation.
d. Aldol/ketol spontaneously loose a molecule of H2O to form , -
unsaturation

18. Cannizzaro Reaction (disproportionation by strong base)

a. NaOH/KOH in conc. state (at least 40%) behaves like nucleophile

and thus looks for > C = O for addition without any need of  - H.
b. Two molecules of RCHO or RCOR not having  - H undergo
simultaneous oxidation – reduction to form an acid salt and alcohol
c. If two molecules are different, the one where > C = O is less
crowded gives acid salt by H- (hydride) transfer to another
molecule where > C = O is more crowded.

19. Reactivity of Carboxylic Acids & their Derivatives

a. G = – OH, – OR, –NH2, –X and –OCOR

b. Hydrolysis of derivatives under acidic condition always gives

RCOOH and under basic conditions always gives RCOO-Na+
(salts)

20. Proof of acidic nature of RCOOH / PhCOOH and factors

a. Effervescence with Na metal due to formation of H2

b. Effervescence with NaHCO3 du to formation of CO2
c. RCOOH/PhCOOH is titrable against NaOH using indicator
d. I (+) – effect of R  1/acidic nature of RCOOH
e. I (–) – effect of R  acidic nature of RCOOH
f. CH3COOH (4.7) < PhCOOH (4.2) < HCOOH (3.7)
g. In PhCOOH, EWG in Ph ↑ acidic nature and EDG ↓ acidic nature
h. PhCOOH (4.2) > CH3COOH (4.7) > Ph OH (9.9) > ROH (15.5)

21. Structure of RCOOH

a. Soluble in water due to H – bonding. RCOOH/PhCOOH is a

monomer in water but in non-aqueous solvent and in vapor phase
it’s a dimer due to inter – molecular H – bonding.
b. Solubility  1/ size of R – group. PhCOOH is insoluble due to
large size of Ph – group.

22. Esterification by nucleophilic acyl substitution

a. RCO–OH + H+ + R’–OH (Nu)  RCOOR’ + H3O+

b. Size of R – group of RCOOH  1/ rate
c. Size of R’ – group of R’OH  1/rate

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23. Derivatives of RCOOH/PhCOOH

a. Reactivity order RCOX > RCOOCOR > RCOOR > RCONH2 >
RCOOH
b. RCOOH + PCl5 → RCOCl + POCl3 + HCl
3 RCOOH + PCl3 → 3 RCOCl + H3PO3
RCOOH + SOCl2 → RCOCl + SO2 + HCl

c.

d. RCOOH/PhCH2COOH having -H + Cl2 or Br2/P4 + H2O give

R – CH (Cl) – COOH. This is HVZ reaction.

24. Amines: IUPAC names & Isomers

a. (C2H5)2N CH2CH2CH2CH3: N, N–Diethylbutanamine

b. (C6H5) NH– CH2CH2CH3: N–Phenylpropanamine
c. (C6H5) (CH3) NH– CH2CH2CH3:
N–Methyl, N–Phenylpropanamine
d. Write isomers of amines possible for C4H11N:
CH3CH2CH2CH2NH2, CH3CH2CH2NHCH3, CH3CH2NHCH2CH3,
(CH3)2CHCH2NH2, CH3CH2CH (CH3) NH2, (CH3)3CNH2,
CH3CH2N(CH3)2.

25. Making of Amines

a. Fe/HCl is better reagent than Sn/HCl to reduce –NO2 group to

–NH2 group, why?
Both reduce –NO2 group to –NH2 group by [H] as;
Sn + 2HCl→SnCl2 + 2 [H], Fe + 2 HCl → FeCl2 + 2[H]
However, FeCl2 hydrolyses as FeCl2 + H2O → Fe (OH) Cl + HCl
to regenerate HCl. This is not possible by SnCl2. Hence, a small
amount of HCl is enough when Fe/HCl is used to reduce –NO2
group.
b. Large excess of NH3 is necessary to make 1o amine from R – X,
why?
If NH3 is not taken in excess then a mixture of 1o, 2o, 3o amines
along with 4o salt are formed. Their isolation is difficult. However,
if large excess of NH3 is taken then by the time 1o amine is formed
R – X stock is exhausted and the formation of other things is ruled
out on quantity ground.
c. Aromatic 1o amine is not prepared by Gabriel phthalimide
synthesis, why?
Phthalimide salt when treated with R – X, the later undergoes
normal nucleophilic substitution to give N – alkyl phthalimide.
This is not possible when phthalimide salt is treated with Ph – X
because the later does not favor normal nucleophilic substitution
like R – X.
d. Hoffman degradation
Amides (RCONH2) change to 1o amine (RNH2) when the former is
treated with Br 2/KOH. CO portion is lost as CO3-2. The
intermediate involved is R – N = C = O after R – group migrates
from C – atom to N – atom. Ph – group can migrate like R – group,
so Ph – NH2 can also be prepared.

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26. Basic nature and other properties of amines

a. Boiling points of amines:

Boiling point order of amines is 1o > 2o > 3o because as degree of
amines increase number of N – H bond disappears. The H – atom
of N – H bond is capable of forming hydrogen, so the less their
number is the lesser is boiling point of amine. However, with
increase in no of carbon atoms boiling point increases due to
increase in vanderwaal.
b. Basic nature in gaseous/non – aqueous phase
In gaseous phase or in non – aqueous medium basic nature of
amines is decided by I (+) – effect of R – groups, the greater the
more basic. Basic order is 1o < 2o < 3o always. (In these phases
amines behave as Lewis bases.)
c. Basic nature in aqueous phase
In aqueous phase, basic nature is due to composite effect of I (+) –
effect and H – bonding ability of ammonium ion (solvation effect).
As per I (+) – effect the order is 1o < 2o < 3o. But, as per solvation
effect the order is 1o > 2o > 3o. Therefore, basic nature in aqueous
phase is not generalized. For example;
If R = C2H5; the order is 2o > 3o > 1o but if R = CH3; the order is
2o > 3o > 1o.
d. Basic nature of aromatic amines are less than those of aliphatic
amines as the lone pair of N – atom remains involved in ring
delocalization.

27. EAS in Aniline

a. Aniline is ortho – and para – director of electrophiles during EAS.

So with bromine water (Br2/H2O) it gives 2,4,6 – tribromoaniline.
b. How to make para – bromo aniline?
Aniline is first treated with CH3CO)2O in pyridine to form N –
Phenylethanamide (Ph – NHCOCH3) which when treated with
Br2/H2O gives para – bromo aniline as major product. Presence of
CH3CO – group with N – atom crowds ortho – position and hence
Br+ fails to attack ortho – position. Later, Ph – NHCOCH3 is
treated with hydrolyzed to get para – bromoaniline.
c. Aniline upon nitration gives good amount of meta – nitroaniline
even though – NH2 is ortho – and para – director, why?
Since nitration is carried out in acidic condition, NH2 – group of
aniline changes to – NH3+. This group behaves like meta – director.
So, a good amount of meta – product is obtained.
d. Aniline upon nitration gives a small amount of ortho – product
even though – NH2 is an ortho – and para director, why?
N – atom of – NO2 group maintains its sp2 hybridization with ring.
So, it can experience steric repulsion from – NH3+ at ortho –
position. Hence, ortho – substitution is not favored.
e. Aniline upon sulphonation only gives para – substituted product
even under acidic condition, why?
Under acidic condition since NH2 – group of aniline changes to –
NH3+ so there should form appreciable quantity of meta – product
like that happens during nitration. This does not happen here
because –SO3H group at para position forms symmetric zwitter ion
that fits into crystal lattice much better. – SO3H at meta position
forms unsymmetric zwitter ion which hardly fits into crystal
lattice. Therefore, meta product is not formed.

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28. Important conversions

a. Ethanal to Butan – 1,3 – diol

b. Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde
c. Ethanol to 3 – Hydroxybutanal
d. Benzene to m – Nitroacetophenone
e. Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone
f. Bromobenzene to 1 – Phenylethanol
g. Benzaldehyde to  - Hydroxyphenylaceticacid
h. Benzoic acid to m – Nitrobenzyl alcohol
i. 3 – Methylaniline to 3 – Nitrotoluene
j. Aniline to 1,3,5 – tribromobenzene
k. Nitrobenzene to Benzoic acid
l. Benzyl chloride to 2 – Phenylethanamine
m. Benzamide to Toluene
n. Aniline to Benzyl alcohol
o. Ethanioc acid to Methanamine
p. Hexannitrile to 1 – Aminopentane
q. Methanol to Ethanioc acid
r. Ethanamine to methanamine
s. Ethanoic acid to Propanoic acid
t. Methanamine to Ethanamine
u. Nitromethane to dimethylamine
v. Propanoic acid to ethanoic acid
w. Benzene to N, N – Dimethylaniline
x. 1,4 – Dichlorobutane to 1, 6 – Diamine
y. Benzyl chloride to 2 – Phenyl ethanamine
z. Benzene to Methyl benzoate

29. Important road mapping

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

30. Predict the missing compounds

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

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g.

h.

i.

j.

k.

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