Durability

of
Steel
Structures

Presentation Layout
 Corrosion in Steel Structures
- Corrosion process
- Types of corrosion
- Corrosion protection

 Fire Performance of Steel Structures

- Fire properties of steel
- Protection
P t ti methods
th d

1
Corrosion
Corrosion is called the cancer of metals. It is the
destructive attack, or deterioration, of a metal by
chemical or electromechanical reactions with its
environment. Steel constructions loose their thickness
by 1.1-1.5 mm per year (5-35% in life) due to corrosion,
if proper maintenance is not provided.

Cracks and pits in a metal surface due to corrosion [Ref. 5]

Corrosion Mechanism
The corrosion mechanism is basically the same as in a
simple battery - two metals, called the anode and the
cathode, when immersed in a conductive solution (the
electrolyte) will react so that the anode is dissolved and
an electric current is generated.
Corrosion of steel occurs in a similar way when moisture
acts as the electrolyte. Pure water is a poor conductor of
electricity, but when its conductivity is increased by salt or
acid contamination, the reaction is accelerated.
The corrosion rates are relatively slow in clean rural
environment but are much higher in industrial atmosphere
polluted with acidic sulfur dioxide, or in marine
environment where chloride ions are present.

2
Corrosion

Effect of environment on corrosion rate [Ref. 5]

Corrosion Mechanism
Anodes and cathodes are formed on a steel surface by
slight changes in steel composition or variations in
temperature or in the environment. For example, areas
covered by dirt particles would be anodic while areas
more freely exposed to oxygen would be cathodic. These
positive and negative areas shift and change as the
corrosion reactions proceed.
The reactions that occur are:
At the
th anode:
d F
Fe = Fe++
F + 2
2e
(steel) (ferrous ions) (electrons)

At the cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e = 4(OH)-

(oxygen) (moisture) (electrons) (hydroxyl ions)

3
Corrosion Mechanism

Schematic representation of the corrosion process [Ref. 2]

Corrosion Mechanism
The ferrous ions react with hydroxyl ions:
2Fe++ + 4(OH)- = 2Fe(OH)2
(ferrous ions) (hydroxyl ions) (ferrous hydroxide)

The ferrous hydroxide then oxidizes to hydrated ferrous

oxide (Fe2O3.H2O), which is known as rust.
It is clear that corrosion reactions can take place only
when both oxygen and water are present. In the absence
of either,, corrosion will not occur,, e.g.
g corrosion is
normally insignificant on steel piling driven into
undisturbed ground because of the low oxygen content.
The corrosion rate also depends on the availability of
moisture and oxygen, e.g. a steel surface which is wet for
2 hrs will corrode twice as compared to 1 hr wet surface.

4
Forms of Corrosion
1. General Corrosion
General corrosion or rusting is the most familiar form of
steel corrosion.
corrosion It can be considered as a uniform
corrosion process in which numerous microcorrosion
cells are activated at the corroded area. These cells are
fed by the atmosphere, i.e. oxygen is supplied from the
air and water is readily available in the form of rain,
condensation (dew), or humidity (water vapor in the air).

In rusting of ordinary steel, the corrosion products (rust)

do not form an effective barrier to further corrosion, but
permits reactants to penetrate to the steel surface
beneath and continue the rusting cycle.

Forms of Corrosion
2. Pitting Corrosion
This is a non-uniform, highly localized form of corrosion
that occurs at distinct spots where deep pits form (A pit is
a small electro-chemical-corrosion cell, with the bottom of
the pit acting as anode). Chloride-induced corrosion is of
this type and can be seen frequently in structures
exposed in coastal areas.
3. Stress Corrosion
Under stress, corrosion processes proceed much faster
and can lead to brittle failure as corrosion tends to be
localized. Corrosion of this kind can occur in prestressing
tendons in concrete.

5
Forms of Corrosion
4. Galvanic or Bimetallic Corrosion
When two metals of different electrochemical potential
are joined or coupled electrically in the presence of
moisture or an aqueous solution, one will act as the
anode and corrode. The corrosion of steel when it is in
contact with copper is a familiar example.

5. Crevice Corrosion
Crevices can be formed byy design-detailing,
g g, welding,
g,
surface debris, etc. Available oxygen in the crevice is
quickly used by the corrosion process and, because of
limited space, cannot be replaced. Thus the tip of the
crevice becomes a localized anode and high corrosion
rates occur at this point.

Forms of Corrosion
6. Bacterial Corrosion
This can occur in soils and water as a result of
microbiological activity.
activity Such activity is usually started in
the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria. They reduces
sulfates in the soil to sulfides and cause corrosion under
anaerobic conditions (i.e. in the absence of oxygen).
It is characterized by black corrosion products having the
distinctive ‘rotton-egg’ smell of sulfides.
Bacterial corrosion is most commonly encountered in
pipelines and other buried structures and is rarely, if ever,
found in driven steel piles.

6
Corrosion Protection
1. Protective Coatings
Protective coating act as a barrier between the steel and
the atmosphere,
p , therebyy p
prevent attack as long
g as the
coating is intact. The different forms of protective
coatings are:
a. Paint Coating
Paint coating has three main components:
Pigment: these are fine solid particles which give the paint
film color and hardness, and which may inhibit corrosion by
impeding the chemical or electrical processes.
Binder: it is a resin or oil which binds the pigment particles
together and provides a tough, flexible adhesive film.
Solvent: it reduces the viscosity of the binder.

Corrosion Protection
Method of Application of Paints
The paint is applied in three layers. Before the application,
g y cleaned to remove any
the surface is thoroughly y existing
g rust.
This can be done manually by using sand papers or
mechanically by rotary wire brushing or flame cleaning.
The largest element in the
cost of painting is labor.
Other costs are lowest and
the quality is highest.
Painting is most suitable
for prefabricated products
where automated painting
machines can be used.

7
Corrosion Protection
b. Metal Spray Coating
It is done by spraying either zinc or aluminum on the steel
surface. The metal,, in p
powdered or wire form,, is fed through
g a
special spray gun containing a heat source to melt the metal.
The adhesion of sprayed metal coatings to steel surfaces is
considered to be essentially mechanical in nature. Coating
thickness varies from 100-250 microns for aluminum and 75-
400 microns for zinc.
Metal spray coatings can be applied in the shops or at site
and there is no limitation of the size of the workpiece. Since
the steel surface remains cool, there are no distortion
problems.
However, metal spraying is considerably more expensive
than painting.

Corrosion Protection
c. Galvanic Coating
The most common method of applying metal coating to
structural steel is byy g
galvanizing.
g This p
process involves the
following stages.
• The steel is cleaned of all rust and scaled by acid pickling.
It is preceded by blast cleaning to remove scale and
roughen the surface.
• The cleaned and fluxed steel is dipped into a bath of
molten zinc at a temperature of about 4500C,
C at which the
steel reacts with the molten zinc to form a series of
zinc/iron alloys on its surface.
• As the steel workpiece is removed from the bath, a layer of
relatively pure zinc is deposited on the top of the alloy
layers, which acts as a barrier against corrosion.

8
Corrosion Protection
2. Cathodic Protection
This method is used for structures located below ground or
immersed in water, usually in conjunction with a protective
coating.
Since, corrosion results from a flow of electrical current
between anodic and cathodic surfaces, it is possible to reduce
or remove it by controlling the direction and magnitude of
current flow. By reversing the current to the original anodic
steel surface, the steel becomes a cathode and does not
corrode.
corrode
A reverse-current flow is obtained either by electrically
connecting the steel structure to a metal of higher
electromotive energy (zinc or magnesium) or by artificially
impressing a direct current from an outside source (for
example, a power line and a rectifier).

Corrosion Protection
2. Cathodic Protection
This method provides an effective protection as long as the
proper reverse-current flow is maintained. A protective coating,
such as asphalt or an epoxy is commonly applied to the
structure to reduce power consumption.

3. Weathering Steel
Structural steel can be chemically modified so that it forms a
protective surface layer which not only eliminates the need for
applying coating but is also self
self-sealing
sealing if it is damaged.
damaged Such
a steel is called weathering steel.
On exposure to the atmosphere, these steels gradually
develop a tightly adhering oxygen coating that acts as a
barrier to moisture and oxygen and eventually prevents further
corrosion. It this coating is damaged, it will heal by itself.

9
Corrosion Protection

Comparison of mild steel and weathering steel [Ref. 5]

Tips to Avoid or Reduce Corrosion

1. Avoid Entrapment of Moisture and Dirt
• Avoid sharp edges, sharp corners, cavities, crevices.
• Welded joints are preferable to bolted joints.
joints
• Provide drainage holes for water, where necessary.
• Seal box sections.
• Provide free circulation of air around the structure.

10
Tips to Avoid or Reduce Corrosion
2. Avoid Contact with Other Metals
• Avoid bimetallic connections or insulate the contact
surfaces.
• Provide adequate depth of cover and good quality concrete.
• Separate steel and timber by the use of coatings or sheet
plastics.

3. Miscellaneous
• Large flat surfaces are easier to protect than more
complicated shapes.
• Locate load bearing members in the least corrosive
locations.
• Provide access for subsequent maintenance.
• Provide lifting lugs to reduce damage during erection.

Fire
Fi
Performance
of
Steel
Structures

11
Introduction
The strength of all materials reduces as their temperature
increases. It is essential that the structure should not
weaken in fire to the extent that collapse occurs
prematurely, while the occupants are seeking to make
their way to safety.
There are two basic ways to provide fire resistance. First,
to design the structure using the ordinary temperature
properties of the material and then to insulate the
members so that the temperature p of the structure
remains sufficiently low, or, secondly to take into account
the high temperature properties of the material, in which
case no insulation may be necessary.
The first method is more common as it is economical and
ensures more safety.

An overview of steel
structure after fire [Ref.5]

Buckling and deformation of

steel joint due to fire [Ref.5]

12
Temperature Development during Fire

No
damage

Severe
damage

Temperature development of an uncontrolled fire [Ref. 6]

Fire Precaution Measures

No
damage

Fire precaution measures, conditions for effective control [Ref. 6]

13
Strength of Steel at Elevated Temperatures
Steel begins to lose strength at about 2000C and
continues to lose at an increasing rate up to a
temperature of about 7500C when the rate of strength
loss flattens off.

A high temperature produces permanent deformation and

buckling in the steel sections. Although a great portion of
strength is recovered after fire but the members become
unusable due to excessive deflections.

An important parameter to assess strength reduction of

steel at elevated temperature is the strain level. It is
reasonable to take higher strain limit than in normal
design because much higher deflections are produced
during fire.

Strength of Steel at Elevated Temperatures

Strength reduction factor for mild steel at elevated temperature [Ref. 6]

14
Strength of Steel at Elevated Temperatures

Strain increment for mild steel at elevated temperature [Ref. 6]

Performance of Steel Columns

Steel columns fail at a cross-sectional strain of less than
1%, and the 0.5% strain limit is taken to determine the
limiting temperature of the members.

The fire resistance of columns can be increased by

partial protection in the form of concrete blocks or bricks,
either by building into a wall or by fitting blocks between
the flanges. A minimum fire resistance of 30 minutes can
be achieved in this way.

Concrete filled circular steel columns can be used to

provide 60 minutes fire resistance without additional fire
protection. The fire resistance can further be enhanced
by providing reinforcement in concrete which is encased
in steel.

15
Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

1. Insulation of Steel Structures

When structural steel members are required to have
certain fire resistance and bare steel is not able to meet
it, they can be protected by applying an insulating
material which slows down the heating of the members
such as plaster.

temp. of the protection

room in fire
steel

Temperature
distribution in
insulation Steel temp.
materials and
steel [Ref. 6]

Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

2. Spray Protection
This system, which may also be called ‘wet protection’,
consists of projecting a material in the wet state,
state usually
in several layers (according to the thickness required) on
the members to be protected. The spraying material can
be vermiculite particles or slag fibers added with a binder.

This is the cheapest and fastest method and very

suitable for complex shapes or connections. However,
due to its wet nature, it can create appearance problems
in winter conditions. For this reason, it is generally used
in hidden areas such as on beams above suspended
ceilings, or in plant rooms.

16
Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

3. Boarded Encasements
Board systems form a box around the section and
therefore have a reduced heated perimeter in
comparison to the sprayed systems. The boards can be
fixed either directly to the steel surface or in the form of
box encasements. The fixing can be done by gluing,
stapling or screwing. They are particularly suitable for
members with complicated external surfaces such as
profiles with stiffeners.

Boarded encasement [Ref. 6]

Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

4. Intumescent Coatings
Intumescent coatings achieve insulation in a totally
different way; the insulating layer is formed only by the
action of heat when the fire breaks out.

The coating is applied as a thin layer (1 mm) which

releases a gas when heat is applied. This gas inflates the
coating into a thick carbonaceous foam, which provides
heat insulation to the steel underneath.

The are usually applied in situations where the shape of

the steel structure remains visible. These coatings are
available in a range of colors and can provide a fire
resistance up to 2 hours.

17
Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

5. Concrete Encasement/Filling
Concrete can be either used as an encasement to
insulate structural steel members or as a filler in hollow
steel sections to strengthen them.

In the first case, concrete acts as an insulator to protect

the steel from high temperature. The fire resistance
depends on the thickness of the concrete encasement.

IIn the
th second d case, theth concrete
t contributes
t ib t t the
to th
strength and stability of the member. During the fire, the
mechanical properties of the steel element decrease and
the concrete core, still retained by the steel envelope,
gradually takes over the load bearing function.

Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

Channel and circular steel sections encased in concrete [Ref. 6]

Hollow steel sections filled with concrete concrete [Ref. 6]

18
Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

6. Protection by Screens
This kind of protection consists either of suspended
ceiling or of partition wall panels and offers the
advantage of cost reduction by combining the function of
fire protection with other functions such as partition,
thermal and sound insulation and aesthetics.

Protection by screens
Suspended ceiling Partition wall panel
[Ref. 6]

Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

7. Waterfilled Hollow Sections

Fire resistance of a structure may be attained by
waterfilling of hollow section columns and also of other
bearing members. In this system steel members do not
need external protection, so that they may remain visible.

The functioning principal is simple: when the water filled

columns are exposed to fire, warm water rises and is
replaced by cold water from below (principal of
thermosiphon) which cools the heated parts of the
column. The water evaporation is compensated by
supply of fresh water from a header tank. Tests have
proved that this system keeps the temperature of the
column walls below 2500C.

19
Fire Resistance Enhancement Methods

1. Water temperature 1700C

2: Steel temperature at interior face 1900C
3: Steel temperature at exposed face 2250C
4: Fire area 10900C
5: Column wall thickness 254 mm

An example of temperature distributions in waterfilled column [Ref. 6]

Questions/Queries ???

20
References of Figures

1. G.W. Owens; P.R. Knowles; and P.J. Dowling. 1992. “Steel Designers Manual
(5th Edition)”. Blackwell Scientific Publications, London.

2 J
2. J.F.
F Young; S.
S Mindless; R R.J.
J Gray; and A
A. Bentur
Bentur. 1998
1998. “The
The Science and
Technology of Civil Engineering Materials”. Prentice-Hall International Inc., New
York.

3. W.J. Patton. 1976. Construction Materials. Prentice-Hall International, New

York.

4. C.G. Salmon and J.E. Johnson. 1980. “Steel Structures (2nd Edition)”. Harper &
Row, Publishers, New York.

5. P. J. Dowling. 1995. “Structural Steel Design”. Butterworth Publishers, London.

6. Steel and Fire Safety: A global Approach. Steel Promotion Committee of

Eurofer, Belgium.

21