Hooke's Law and Laminate Theory for Anisotropic Materials

Structural Analysis
6. Structural Analysis
The Hooke’s Law for Anisotropic Bodies
Be Ω a body acted upon by body forces f and by surface tractions t on its

frontier ∂Ω whose outward unit normal is n. We consider a small arbitrary variation
δu of the displacement field on Ω, compatible with the given boundary conditions
and satisfying the kinematical conditions. The total mechanical work dW done by
the applied forces can be transformed as follows
represents the variation of the internal energy of the body per unit of volume produced
by a small variation of the strain state.
We define as elastic a body for which the total variation V of the internal energy due to
a finite transformation from a state A to a state B is independent from the integration
path. In particular, V must then be null for any transformation where A=B:
Hence, for an elastic body δV must be the exact differential dV of a scalar function
V(ε), the strain energy density or elastic potential
so that we get the Green’s formula

We now postulate that in the initial state, i.e. when the body is not acted upon by
forces, ε = O and σ = O, i.e. the body is unstrained and unstressed in its initial state.
Then, developing V(ε) in a Taylor series about ε = O we get:
Choosing arbitrarily V(ε = O) = 0, always possible for a potential, and limiting

the development to the first non null term, which is correct for small strains, gives
the second derivatives in the above

equation are linear operators
depending upon four indexes; they
are the components of a fourth-rank
tensor E,
Collecting all the parameters describing the elastic response of the material, E is the
operator that describes the elastic response of the continuum. It has 81 Cartesian
components, the elastic moduli Eijkl .Nevertheless, the number of independent elastic
moduli is far less than 81. In fact, first of all, by the Schwarz theorem we get
the above 15 relations are known as major symmetries and reduce the number of
independent Cartesian components of E from 81 to 66. Now, if we apply the
Green’s formula
This is the Hooke’s law (1660), establishing a linear relation between stress and
strain. This linearity is a direct consequence of the quadratic structure of V and of the
Green’s formula; though initially formulated for isotropic bodies, it is the basic law of
elasticity also for the more general case of anisotropic continua.
Using now the Hooke’s law, we obtain another reduction of the number of independent
elastic moduli due to the symmetry of σ and ε
σij = σji and εij = εji ⇒ Eijkl = Ejikl = Eijlk = Ejilk ∀i, j, k, l ∈ {1, 2, 3}.
The above 45 relations among the components of E are called the minor symmetries
and reduce the number of independent elastic moduli to only 21. This is the highest
number of independent moduli that an elastic material can have. In such a case, the
material is completely anisotropic or triclinic.
The Voigt’s Notation
The general, tensorial, expression of the Hooke’s law needs the use of quantities with
four indexes, σij = Eijkl εkl
which can be somewhat cumbersome and heavy. That is why some simplified
notations have been proposed. In particular, they allow for a matrix representation;
these formalisms switch the algebra from that of a fourth-rank tensor to that of a
6×6 square symmetric matrix.
The most well known of the matrix formalisms for anisotropic elasticity is that of
Voigt: the stress and strain tensors are written as follows:
11 → 1, 22 → 2, 33 → 3, 23 → 4, 31 → 5, 12 → 6
The name [C] is usually preferred to E to make a clear distinction between the tensor
and matrix representation (for the same reason, we will name differently the
compliance tensor and matrix).
Moreover, there is a perfect coincidence between the Eijkl and the Cpq ; it is sufficient
to remind rule from Voigt notation to make correspond to each pair of indexes ij and kl
in Eijkl the correct p and q in Cpq ; for instance, E2312 = C46, E1322 = C52 and so
on.
Let us now consider the inverse of the Hooke’s law, that we will write in the Voigt’s
notation as
LAMINATE THEORY
Classical laminate theory defines the response of a laminate with the following
assumptions:
• For two-dimensional plane stress analysis, the strain is constant through the
thickness.
• For bending, the strain varies linearly through the thickness.
• The laminate is thin compared with its in-plane dimensions.
• Each layer is quasi-homogeneous and orthotropic.
• Displacements are small compared with the thickness.
• The behavior remains linear.
With these assumptions satisfied, the laminate theory allows the response of a
laminate to be calculated, engineering constants to be determined to substitute into
standard formulas for stresses and deflections, and material properties of the laminate
to be defined for substitution into finite element analysis.
LAMINATE THEORY
Stress-Strain Law for a Single Ply in the Material Axes:
Unidirectional Laminates
Consider a rectangular element of a single ply with the sides of the element parallel
and perpendicular to the fiber direction. Clearly, the direction of the fibers defines a
preferred direction in the material; it is thus natural to introduce a cartesian set of
material axes 0-1, 2, 3 with the 1-axis in the fiber direction, the 2-axis perpendicular
to the fibers of the ply plane, and the 3-axis perpendicular to the plane of the ply.
Here, interest is in the behavior of the ply when subjected to stresses acting in its
plane, in other words, under plane stress conditions. These stresses (also referred
to the material axes) will be denoted by σl, σ2, τ12 and the associated strains by ε1,
ε2 and γ12.
LAMINATE THEORY
Stress-Strain Law for a Single Ply in the Material Axes:
Unidirectional Laminates
The stress-strain law for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions, referred
to the material axes, necessarily has the following form:
where: El, E2 = Young's moduli in the 1 and 2 directions, respectively; ν12 = Poisson's
ratio governing the contraction in the 2 direction for a tension in the 1 direction; ν21 =
Poisson's ratio governing the contraction in the 1 direction for a tension in the 2
direction; G12 = (in-plane) shear modulus.
There are five material constants, but only four of

these are independent because of the following
symmetry relation
LAMINATE THEORY
Stress-Strain Law for a Single Ply in the Material Axes: Unidirectional Laminates
For much of the following analysis, it is more convenient to deal with the inverse form
of equation, namely
where the Qij(0), commonly termed the reduced stiffness coefficients, are given by
LAMINATE THEORY
Stress-Strain Law for Single Ply in Laminate Axes: Off-Axis Laminates
As already noted, when a ply is incorporated
in a laminate, its fibers will make some
prescribed angle 0 with a reference axis fixed
in the laminate. Let this be the x-axis, and
note that the angle 0 is measured from the x-
axis to the/-axis and is positive in the
counterclockwise direction; the y-axis is
perpendicular to the x-axis and in the plane
of the ply.
All subsequent calculations are made using
the x-y, or "laminate" axes, therefore it is
necessary to transform the stress-strain law
from the material axes to the laminate axes.
If the stresses in the laminate axes are
denoted by σx, σy, and τxy, then these are
related to the stresses referred to the
material axes by the usual transformation
equations
LAMINATE THEORY
where c denotes cosθ and s

denotes sinθ. Also, the strains in
the material axes are related to
those in the laminate axes,
namely, εx, εy, and γxy, by what
is essentially the strain
transformation:
LAMINATE THEORY
Stress-Strain Law for Single Ply in Laminate Axes:
Off-Axis Laminates
Now, substitute for σ1, σ2, and τ12 their values as given. Then, in the resultant
equations, substitute for ε1, ε2, and γ12 their values as given. After some routine
manipulations, it is found that the stress-strain law in the laminate axes has the form
where the Qij(θ) with i, j = x,y,s

are related to the Qij(θ) with i, j =
1, 2, 6 by the following equations
LAMINATE THEORY
result for the Young's modulus in the x direction,
Ex. material constants of the single ply

were taken to be
E1 = 137.44GPa
E2 = 11.71GPa
Gl2 = 5.51GPa
ν12 = 0.25
ν21 = 0.0213
LAMINATE THEORY
Plane Stress Problems for Symmetric Laminates
Laminate Stiffness Matrix.
Consider now a laminate comprising n plies and denote the angle between the fiber
direction in the kth ply and the x laminate axis by θk. Subject only to the symmetry
requirement, the ply orientation is arbitrary. It is assumed that, when the plies are
molded into the laminate, a rigid bond (of infinitesimal thickness) is formed
between adjacent plies. As a consequence of this assumption, it follows that under
plane stress conditions the strains are the same at all points on a line through the
thickness (i.e., they are independent of z). Denoting these strains by εx, εy, and γxy, it
then follows that the stresses in the kth ply will be given by:
LAMINATE THEORY
The laminate thickness is denoted by t and the
thickness of the kth ply is hk - hk-1. Assuming all
plies are of the same thickness (which is the
usual situation), then the thickness of an
individual ply is simply t/n.
Now consider an element of the laminate with

sides of unit length parallel to the x- and y-axes.
The forces on this element will be denoted by
Nx, Ny, and Ns; the N are generally termed
stress resultants and have the dimension "force
per unit length." Elementary equilibrium
considerations give
LAMINATE THEORY
With some substitutions, and remembering that
the strains are the same in all plies, the following
result is readily obtained
generally taken as the starting point for

any laminate structural analysis.
The quantities Aij are the terms of the laminate

where: "in-plane stiffness matrix."
Given the single-ply moduli and the laminate
lay-up details, they can be calculated routinely
using previous equations.
LAMINATE THEORY
Laminate Stress--Strain Law.
As was just implied, it seems to be the current fashion in laminate mechanics to work
in terms of the stress resultants, rather than the stresses. However, for some
purposes, the latter are more convenient. From the stress resultants, the average
stresses (averaged through the thickness of the laminate) are easily obtained; writing
these stresses simply as σx, σy, and τxy then:
in terms of these average stresses, the stress-strain law for the laminate becomes
where:
LAMINATE THEORY
0rthotropic Laminates
An orthotropic laminate, having the laminate axes as the axes of orthotropy, is one for
which Axs = Ays = 0; clearly, this implies that:
Thus, the stress-strain law for an orthotropic laminate reduces to:
The coupling between the direct stresses and the shear strains and between the
shear stresses and the direct strains, which is present for a general laminate,
disappears for an orthotropic laminate. Most laminates currently in use are
orthotropic.
LAMINATE THEORY
Orthotropic Laminates
It can be readily seen that the following laminates will be orthotropic:
1. Those consisting only of plies for which 0 = 0 ° or 90°; here it follows that in
either case Qxs(0) = Qys(0) = 0.
2. Those constructed such that for each ply oriented at an angle θ, there is another
ply oriented at an angle - θ; because, as already noted from the odd powers,
Qxs(- θ)=-Qxs(θ), Qys(-θ)=-Qys(θ). There is then a cancellation of all paired terms
in the summation of equation.
3. Those consisting only of 0 °, 90 °, and matched pairs of + 0 plies are also, of

course, orthotropic.
example
0°/+30°/-30°/-30°/+30°/0 ° 0°/+30°/90°/90°/+30°/0°
orthotropic laminate Symmetric but not orthotropic
LAMINATE THEORY
Modufi of Orthotropic Laminates.
Expressions for the moduli of orthotropic laminates can easily be obtained for simple
loadings. For example, on setting σy = τxy = 0, Young's modulus in the x direction,
Ex, and Poisson's ratio νxy governing the contraction in the y direction for a stress in
the x direction are then given by:
Proceeding in this way, it is found that:

LAMINATE THEORY
As illustrative examples of the above theory, consider a family of 24-ply laminates,

symmetrical and orthotropic, and all made of the same material but with varying
numbers of 0 ° and _ 45 ° plies. (For the present purposes, the precise ordering of
the plies is immaterial as long as the symmetry requirement is maintained; however,
to ensure orthotropy, there must be the same number of + 45 ° as -45 ° plies.) The
single-ply modulus data (representative of a carbon/ epoxy) are:
➢ El = 137.44 GPa
➢ E2 = 11.71 GPa
➢ G12 = 5.51 GPa
➢ ν12 = 0.2500
➢ ν21 = 0.0213
LAMINATE THEORY
The steps in the calculation areas follows:
(1) Calculate the Qij(θ)
(2) For each of the ply orientations involved here 0 = 0 °, +45 °, and -45 °,
calculate the Qij(θ). [Of course, here the Qij(θ) have already been obtained in step 1.]
(3) Calculate the Aij*; in the present case, equation becomes:
where n1 is the number of 0 °plies, n2 of +45 °plies and n3 of -45 °plies.
(4) Calculate the moduli

LAMINATE THEORY
LAMINATE THEORY
Ply orientations for example problems: a) fiber orientations for a shear panel:
b) 0 ° +- 45 ° laminate under uniaxial tension.
LAMINATE THEORY
Quasi-lsotropic Laminates
It is possible to construct laminates that are isotropic with regard to their in-plane
elastic properties---in other words, they have the same Young's modulus E and
same Poisson's ratio v in all in-plane directions and for which the shear modulus is
given by G = E/2(l+v). One way of achieving this is to adopt a lay-up having an
equal number of plies oriented parallel to the sides of an equilateral triangle. For
example, a quasi-isotropic 24-ply laminate could be made with 8 plies oriented at
each of 0 °, + 60 °, and - 60 °.
Using the same materials data (and theory) as were used in deriving previous table,
it will be found that such a laminate has the following moduli:
E = 54.2 Gpa, G=20.8 Gpa, v=0.305

LAMINATE THEORY
Quasi-lsotropic Laminates
Another way of achieving a quasi-isotropic laminate is to use equal numbers of plies

oriented at 0 °, +45 °, -45 °, and 90 °. A quasi-isotropic 24-ply laminate (with,
incidentally, the same values for the elastic constants as were just cited) could be
made with 6 plies at each of 0 °, +45 °, -45 °, and 90 °.
The term quasi-isotropic is used because, of course, such laminates have different
properties in the out-of-plane direction.
LAMINATE THEORY
General Laminates Subjected to Plane Stress and Bending Loads
General Theory
In contrast to the situation for symmetric laminates, the position of each ply in the
laminate is now important. Thus, consider an n-ply laminate with z the coordinate in
the thickness direction, measured from the mid-thickness plane. The kth ply lies
between hk-1 and hk. As before, the total thickness of the laminate will be denoted
by t.
It is assumed that when a laminate is subjected to in-plane and/or bending loads,
the strain varies linearly through the thickness and can therefore be writtenin the
form:
LAMINATE THEORY
General Theory
where the superscript o quantities are the mid-plane strains and the K are the
midplane curvatures (as in the bending of isotropic plates). Both these sets of
quantities are independent of z.
With some substitions, it follows that the stresses in the kth ply will now be given by:
LAMINATE THEORY
General Theory
Now introduce the stress resultants (in the form of forces per unit length and moments
per unit length) defined by:
where all of the integrals are over the thickness of the laminate (i.e., from z = - t/2 to z
= t/2); Because each of the integrals can be written in forms such as:
LAMINATE THEORY
General Theory
performing some elementary integrations, leads to the result

LAMINATE THEORY
General Theory
The elements in the above combined "extensional-bending stiffness matrix" are given
by:
LAMINATE THEORY
Uncoupling of the Stiffness Matrix.
It can be seen from that the plane stress

and bending problems are coupled
unless all the Bij, are zero.
It follows that the Bij are indeed zero for

a symmetric lay-up. [For a symmetric
pair of plies, if that ply below the mid- =0
plane has coordinates hk-1 = - a and hk
= -b, then its mate above the mid-plane
will have hk-1 = b and hk = a. Because
each ply has the same Qij, there is a
cancellation in the summation of Bij
LAMINATE THEORY
Bending of Symmetric Laminate
the moment-curvature relation governing

the bending of symmetric laminates out
of their plane
Analogously to the definition of orthotropy in plane stress, a laminate is said to be

orthotropic in bending if Dxs = Dys = 0. However, it is important to note that a
laminate that is orthotropic in plane stress is not necessarily orthotropic in bending.
LAMINATE THEORY
Bending of Symmetric Laminate
For example, consider the four-ply laminate [±45]. Here the coordinates for the
+45 ° plies may be written as (- t/2, - t/4) and (t/4, t/2), whereas those of the - 45 °
plies are (- t/4, 0) and (0, t/4); t, of course, is the laminate thickness. It is easy to
establish that, while Axs and Ays are zero, Dxs and Dys are not.
On the other hand, a laminate, containing only 0 °and 90°plies will be orthotropic
in both plane stress and bending. These laminates are called specially orthotropic.
(It is also worth noting that for multi-ply laminates made of groups of plies, if the
group is orthotropic in plane stress, then the laminate will at least be approximately
orthotropic in both plane stress and bending.)
Questions ?

Hooke's Law and Laminate Theory for Anisotropic Materials

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Structural Analysis

The Hooke’s Law for Anisotropic Bodies

Be Ω a body acted upon by body forces f and by surface tractions t on its

The Hooke’s Law for Anisotropic Bodies

The Hooke’s Law for Anisotropic Bodies

so that we get the Green’s formula

The Hooke’s Law for Anisotropic Bodies

Choosing arbitrarily V(ε = O) = 0, always possible for a potential, and limiting

the second derivatives in the above

The Hooke’s Law for Anisotropic Bodies

The Hooke’s Law for Anisotropic Bodies

The Voigt’s Notation

The Voigt’s Notation

The Voigt’s Notation

There are five material constants, but only four of

where c denotes cosθ and s

where the Qij(θ) with i, j = x,y,s

result for the Young's modulus in the x direction,

Ex. material constants of the single ply

Now consider an element of the laminate with

generally taken as the starting point for

The quantities Aij are the terms of the laminate

Thus, the stress-strain law for an orthotropic laminate reduces to:

3. Those consisting only of 0 °, 90 °, and matched pairs of + 0 plies are also, of

Proceeding in this way, it is found that:

As illustrative examples of the above theory, consider a family of 24-ply laminates,

(1) Calculate the Qij(θ)

(3) Calculate the Aij*; in the present case, equation becomes:

where n1 is the number of 0 °plies, n2 of +45 °plies and n3 of -45 °plies.

(4) Calculate the moduli

E = 54.2 Gpa, G=20.8 Gpa, v=0.305

Another way of achieving a quasi-isotropic laminate is to use equal numbers of plies

performing some elementary integrations, leads to the result

It can be seen from that the plane stress

It follows that the Bij are indeed zero for

the moment-curvature relation governing

Analogously to the definition of orthotropy in plane stress, a laminate is said to be

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