CHAPTER 7

Stereoscopic Viewing

7-1 Depth Perception

In our daily activities we unconsciously measure depth or judge distances to a vast number of objects
about us through our normal process of vision. Methods of judging depth may be classified as either
stereoscopic or monoscopic. Persons with normal vision (those capable of viewing with both eyes
simultaneously) are said to have binocular vision, and perception of depth through binocular vision is
called stereoscopic viewing. Monocular vision is the term applied to viewing with only one eye, and
methods of judging distances with one eye are termed monoscopic. A person having normal binocular
vision can, of course, view monocularly by covering one eye.
Distances to objects, or depths, can be perceived monoscopically on the basis of (1) relative sizes
of objects, (2) hidden objects, (3) shadows, and (4) differences in focusing of the eye required for
viewing objects at varying distances. Examples of the first two of these are shown in Fig. 7-1. Depth
to the far end of the football field may be perceived, for example, on the basis of the relative sizes of
the goalposts. The goalposts are actually the same size, of course, but one appears smaller because it
is farther away. Also, the stands at the far end of the stadium are quickly judged to be a considerable
distance away from the goalposts in the foreground because they are partially obstructed by the
goalposts.

FIGURE 7-1 Depth perception by relative sizes and hidden objects.

Monoscopic methods of depth perception enable only rough impressions to be gained of

distances to objects. With stereoscopic viewing, however, a much greater degree of accuracy in depth
perception can be attained. Stereoscopic depth perception is of fundamental importance in
photogrammetry, for it enables the formation of a three-dimensional stereomodel by viewing a pair of
overlapping photographs. The stereomodel can then be studied, measured, and mapped. An
explanation of how this phenomenon is achieved is the subject of this chapter, and explanations of its
use in measuring and mapping are given in the chapters that follow.

7-2 The Human Eye

The phenomenon of stereoscopic depth perception can be more clearly understood with the help of a
brief description of the anatomy and physiology of the human eye. The human eye functions in much
the same manner as a camera. As shown in Fig. 7-2, the eye is essentially a spherical organ having a
circular opening called the pupil. The pupil is protected by a transparent coating called the cornea.
Incident light rays pass through the cornea, enter the eye through the pupil, and strike the lens, which
is directly behind the pupil. The cornea and lens refract the light rays according to Snell’s law (see
Sec. 2-2).

FIGURE 7-2 Cross section of the human eye.

The lens of the eye is biconvex and is composed of a refractive transparent medium. It is
suspended by many muscles, which enable the lens to be moved so that the optical axis of the eye can
be aimed directly at an object to be viewed. As with a camera, the eye must satisfy the lens formula,
Eq. (2-4), for each different object distance. The eye’s image distance is constant, however; therefore,
to satisfy the lens formula for varying object distances, the focal length of the lens changes. When a
distant object is viewed, the lens muscles relax, causing the spherical surfaces of the lens to become
flatter. This increases the focal length to satisfy the lens formula and accommodate the long object
distance. When close objects are viewed, a reverse procedure occurs. The eye’s ability to focus for
varying object distances is called accommodation.
As with a camera, the eye has a diaphragm called the iris. The iris (colored part of the eye)
automatically contracts or expands to regulate the amount of light entering the eye. When the eye is
subjected to intense light, the iris contracts, reducing the pupil aperture. When the intensity of light
lessens, the iris dilates to admit more light.
The cornea partially refracts incident light rays before they encounter the lens. The lens refracts
them further and brings them to focus on the retina, thereby forming an image of the viewed object.
The retina is composed of very delicate tissue. The most important region of the retina is the central
fovea, a small pit near the intersection of the optical axis with the retina. The central fovea is the area
of sharpest vision. The retina performs a function similar to that performed by the emulsion of
photographic film. When it is stimulated by light, the sense of vision is caused, which is transmitted
to the brain via the optic nerve.

7-3 Stereoscopic Depth Perception

With binocular vision, when the eyes fixate on a certain point, the optical axes of the two eyes
converge on that point, intersecting at an angle called the parallactic angle. The nearer the object, the
greater the parallactic angle, and vice versa. In Fig. 7-3, the optical axes of the two eyes L and R are
separated by a distance be, called the eye base. For the average adult, this distance is between 63 and
69 mm, or approximately 2.6 in. When the eyes fixate on point A, the optical axes converge, forming
parallactic angle ϕa. Similarly, when sighting an object at B, the optical axes converge, forming
parallactic angle ϕb. The brain automatically and unconsciously associates distances DA and DB with
corresponding parallactic angles ϕa and ϕb. The depth between objects A and B is DB – DA and is
perceived from the difference in these parallactic angles.

FIGURE 7-3 Stereoscopic depth perception as a function of parallactic angle.

The ability of human beings to detect changes in parallactic angles, and thus judge differences in
depth, is quite remarkable. Although it varies somewhat among individuals, the average person is
capable of discerning parallactic angle changes of about 3 seconds of arc, but some are able to
perceive changes as small as 1 second of arc. This means that photogrammetric procedures for
determining heights of objects and terrain variations based on depth perception by comparisons of
parallactic angles can be highly precise.
7-4 Viewing Photographs Stereoscopically
Suppose that while a person is gazing at object A of Fig. 7-4, a transparent medium containing image
marks a1 and a2 is placed in front of the eyes as shown. Assume further that the image marks are
identical in shape to object A, and that they are placed on the optical axes so that the eyes are unable to
detect whether they are viewing the object or the two marks. Object A could therefore be removed
without any noticeable changes in the images received on the retinas of the eyes. As shown in Fig. 7-4,
if the image marks are moved closer together to, say, a1′, and a2′, the parallactic angle increases and
the object is perceived to be nearer the eyes at A′. If the marks are moved farther apart to a1″ and a2″,
the parallactic angle decreases and the brain receives an impression that the object is farther away, at
A″.

FIGURE 7-4 The apparent depth to the object A can be changed by changing the spacing of the
images.

The phenomenon of creating the three-dimensional or stereoscopic impression of objects by

viewing identical images of the objects can be achieved photographically. Suppose that a pair of aerial
photographs is taken from exposure stations L1 and L2 so that the building appears on both photos, as
shown in Fig. 7-5. Flying height above ground is H′, and the distance between the two exposures is B,
the air base. Object points A and B at the top and bottom of the building are imaged at a1 and b1 on the
left photo and at a2 and b2 on the right photo. Now, if the two photos are laid on a table and viewed so
that the left eye sees only the left photo and the right eye sees only the right photo, as shown in Fig. 7-
6, a three-dimensional impression of the building is obtained. The three-dimensional impression
appears to lie below the tabletop at a distance h from the eyes. The brain judges the height of the
building by associating depths to points A and B with the parallactic angles ϕa and ϕb, respectively.
When the eyes gaze over the entire overlap area, the brain receives a continuous three-dimensional
impression of the terrain. This is achieved by the continuous perception of changing parallactic angles
of the infinite number of image points which make up the terrain. The three-dimensional model thus
formed is called a stereoscopic model or simply a stereomodel, and the overlapping pair of
photographs is called a stereopair.

FIGURE 7-5 Photographs from two exposure stations with building in common overlap area.
FIGURE 7-6 Viewing the building stereoscopically.

7-5 Stereoscopes
It is quite difficult to view photographs stereoscopically without the aid of optical devices, although
some individuals can do it. Besides being an unnatural operation, one of the major problems
associated with stereoviewing without optical aids is that the eyes are focused on the photos, while at
the same time the brain perceives parallactic angles which tend to form the stereomodel at some depth
beyond the photos—a confusing situation, to say the least. These difficulties in stereoscopic viewing
may be overcome through the use of instruments called stereoscopes.
There is a wide selection of stereoscopes serving a variety of special purposes. All operate in
essentially the same manner. The lens or pocket stereoscope, shown in Fig. 7-7, is the least expensive
and most commonly used stereoscope. It consists of two simple convex lenses mounted on a frame.
The spacing between the lenses can be varied to accommodate various eye bases. The legs fold or can
be removed so that the instrument is easily stored or carried—a feature which renders the pocket
stereoscope ideal for fieldwork. A schematic diagram of the pocket stereoscope is given in Fig. 7-8.
The legs of the pocket stereoscope are slightly shorter than the focal length f of the lenses. When the
stereoscope is placed over the photos, light rays emanating from points such as a1 and a2 on the photos
are refracted slightly as they pass through each lens. (Recall from Chap. 2 that a bundle of light rays
from a point exactly at a distance f from a lens will be refracted and emerge through the lens parallel.)
The eyes receive the refracted rays (shown dashed in Fig. 7-8), and on the basis of the eye focusing
associated with these incoming rays, the brain receives the impression that the rays actually originate
from a greater distance than that to the tabletop upon which the photos rest. This overcomes the
difficulties noted above. The lenses also serve to magnify the images, thereby enabling details to be
seen more clearly.
FIGURE 7-7 Lens or pocket stereoscope. (Courtesy University of Florida.)

FIGURE 7-8 Schematic diagram of the pocket stereoscope.

In using a pocket stereoscope, the photos are placed so that corresponding images are slightly
less than the eye base apart, usually about 5 cm. For normal 23-cm-format photos taken with 60
percent end lap, the common overlap area of a pair of photos is a rectangular area about 14 cm wide,
as shown crosshatched in Fig. 7-9a. If the photos are separated by 5 cm for stereoviewing with a
pocket stereoscope, as shown in Fig. 7-9b, there is a rectangular area, shown double crosshatched, in
which the top photo obscures the bottom photo, thereby preventing stereoviewing. To overcome this
problem, the top photo can be gently rolled up out of the way to enable viewing the corresponding
imagery of the obscured area.

FIGURE 7-9 (a) The common overlap area of a pair of 23-cm-format photos taken with 60 percent
end lap (corresponding images coincident). (b) Obscured area when photos are oriented for viewing
with pocket stereoscope.

The mirror stereoscope shown in Fig. 7-10 permits the two photos to be completely separated
when viewed stereoscopically. This eliminates the problem of one photo obscuring part of the overlap
of the other, and it also enables the entire width of the stereomodel to be viewed simultaneously. The
operating principle of the mirror stereoscope is illustrated in Fig. 7-11. The stereoscope has two large
wing mirrors and two smaller eyepiece mirrors, all of which are mounted at 45° to the horizontal.
Light rays emanating from image points on the photos such as a1 and a2 are reflected from the mirror
surfaces, according to the principles of reflection discussed in Sec. 2-2, and are received at the eyes,
forming parallactic angle ϕa. The brain automatically associates the depth to point A with that
parallactic angle. The stereomodel is thereby created beneath the eyepiece mirrors, as illustrated in
Fig. 7-11.

FIGURE 7-10 ST-4 mirror stereoscope. (Courtesy LH Systems, LLC.)

FIGURE 7-11 Operating principle of the mirror stereoscope.

Simple lenses are usually placed directly above the eyepiece mirrors as shown in Fig. 7-10. Their
separation may be changed to accommodate various eye bases. The focal length of these lenses is also
slightly greater than the length of the reflected ray path from photo to eyes, and therefore they serve
basically the same function as the lenses of the pocket stereoscope. Mirror stereoscopes may be
equipped with binoculars which fasten over the eyepiece mirrors. The binoculars, which may be
focused individually to accommodate each eye, permit viewing images at high magnification—a
factor which is especially important and useful in photo interpretation or in identifying small image
points. High magnification, of course, limits the field of view so that the entire stereomodel cannot be
viewed simultaneously. The stereoscope must therefore be moved about if all parts of the stereomodel
are to be seen.
It is extremely important to avoid touching the first-surfaced mirrors of a mirror stereoscope.
This is true because the hands contain oils and acids which can tarnish the coatings on the mirrors,
rendering them useless. If the mirrors are accidently soiled by fingerprints, they should be cleaned
immediately, using a soft cloth and lens-cleaning fluid.
A different type of stereoscope called the zoom stereoscope is shown in Fig. 7-12. A variety of
these instruments are manufactured, affording a choice of special features such as continuous zoom
magnification up to 120X, capability of rotating images optically (which permits convenient
correction for crab or alignment), and differential enlargement so that two photos of different scales
can be viewed stereoscopically. For direct stereoscopic viewing of film negatives, these stereoscopes
may be obtained mounted on a light table and equipped with a special scanning mechanism. A reel of
film and a take-up reel are mounted on either end of the table. By turning a crank, the frames are
brought into position for viewing.
FIGURE 7-12 Zoom 95 stereoscope. (Courtesy Bausch and Lomb Co.)

Other systems have been developed to facilitate stereoscopic viewing. These systems employ
schemes such as colored filters, polarized light, or alternating imagery in order to achieve the
stereoscopic effect. Sections 12-5 and 12-15 include a description of several of these approaches as
they apply to stereoscopic plotting instruments.

7-6 The Use of Stereoscopes

Before you attempt to use a stereoscope, it is important to study the operator’s manual if one is
available. This is especially true for stereoscopes having more elaborate optical viewing systems.
Also, the lenses and mirrors should be inspected and cleaned if necessary.
In stereoscopic viewing, it is important to orient the photos so that the left and right eyes see the
left and right photos, respectively. If the photos are viewed in reverse, a pseudoscopic view results in
which ups and downs are reversed; e.g., valleys appear as ridges and hills appear as depressions. This
can be advantageous for certain work such as tracing drainage patterns, but normally the correct
stereoscopic view is desired.
Accurate and comfortable stereoscopic viewing requires that the eye base, the line joining the
centers of the stereoscope lenses, and the flight line all be parallel. Therefore, after the photos have
been inspected and laid out so as to prevent a pseudoscopic view, the flight line is marked on both
photos. For vertical photographs, the flight line is the line from the center of the left photo to the
center of the right photo. In marking the flight line, the photo centers (principal points) are first
located by joining opposite fiducial marks with straight lines. Principal points are shown at o1 and o2
on Fig. 7-13. Corresponding principal points (also called conjugate principal points), which are the
locations of principal points on adjacent overlapping photos, are marked next. This may be done
satisfactorily by carefully observing images immediately surrounding the principal points, and then
marking the corresponding principal points by estimating their positions with respect to these
surrounding images. If the area is level and there are identifiable features in the photos, the method
illustrated in Fig. 7-14 can be used to find the conjuagte principal point with acceptable accuracy. In
Fig. 7-14a, intersecting lines joining opposite fiducial marks define the principal point of the left
photo. Since there is no distinct feature located at this intersection, distances R1 and R2 are measured
to nearby features at approximately the same elevation. Figure 7-14b shows the corresponding area on
the right photo, where arcs centered on these features and having radii R1 and R2 are intersected to
obtain the conjugate principal point. The corresponding principal points are shown at o1′ and o2′ on
Fig. 7-13.

FIGURE 7-13 Pair of photos properly oriented for stereoscopic viewing.

FIGURE 7-14 (a) Center portion of left photo showing its principal point and distances to two
manhole covers. (b) Intersection of corresponding distances to the same features at the conjugate
principal point in the right photo.

The next step in orienting a pair of photos for stereoscopic viewing is to fasten the left photo
down onto the table. Then the right photo is oriented so that the four points defining the flight line (o1,
o2′, o1′, and o2) all lie along a straight line, as shown in Fig. 7-13. The right photo is retained in this
orientation, and while being viewed through the stereoscope, it is moved sideways until the spacing
between corresponding images produces a comfortable stereoscopic view. Normally the required
spacing between corresponding images is slightly more than 5 cm for a pocket stereoscope and about
25 cm for a mirror stereoscope.
 It is not absolutely necessary to mark the flight lines and orient photos for stereoscopic viewing
in the manner outlined above; in fact, for casual stereoviewing, the geometry shown in Fig. 7-13 is
normally achieved by a trial method in which the photos are simply shifted in position until a clear
stereoscopic view is obtained. If accuracy and eye comfort are considerations, however, orientation by
the flight-line procedure is recommended.
As previously stated, comfortable stereoscopic viewing requires that the line joining the
stereoscope lens centers be parallel with the flight line. Once the photos are properly oriented, the
operator can easily align the stereoscope by simply rotating it slightly until the most comfortable
viewing position is obtained. The operator should look directly into the centers of the lenses, thereby
holding the eye base parallel with the flight line.

7-7 Causes of Y Parallax

An essential condition which must exist for clear and comfortable stereoscopic viewing is that the line
joining corresponding images be parallel with the direction of flight. This condition is fulfilled with
the corresponding images a1 and a2 shown in Fig. 7-13. When corresponding images fail to lie along a
line parallel to the flight line, y parallax, denoted by py, is said to exist. Any slight amount of y
parallax causes eyestrain, and excessive amounts prevent stereoscopic viewing altogether.
If a pair of truly vertical overlapping photos taken from equal flying heights is oriented perfectly,
then no y parallax should exist anywhere in the overlap area. Failure of any of these conditions to be
satisfied will cause y parallax. In Fig. 7-15, for example, the photos are improperly oriented, and the
principal points and corresponding principal points do not lie on a straight line. As a result, y parallax
exists at both points a and b. This condition can be prevented by careful orientation.

FIGURE 7-15 Here y parallax is caused by improper orientation of the photos.

I n Fig. 7-16 the left photo was exposed from a lower flying height than the right photo, and
consequently its scale is larger than the scale of the right photo. Even though the photos are truly
vertical and properly oriented, y parallax exists at both points a and b due to variation in flying
heights. To obtain a comfortable stereoscopic view, the y parallax can be eliminated by sliding the
right photo upward transverse to the flight line when viewing point a and sliding it downward when
viewing point b.
FIGURE 7-16 The y parallax is caused by variation in flying height.

The effect of tilted photos is illustrated in Fig. 7-17. The left photo is truly vertical and shows
positions of images a through d of a square parcel of property on flat terrain. The right photo was
tilted such that the same parcel appears as a trapezoid. In this case, y parallax exists throughout the
stereoscopic model as a result of the tilt, as indicated for points a and c. In practice, the direction of
tilt is random, and therefore small y parallaxes from this source are likely to exist in variable amounts
throughout most stereomodels. If it is the intent to obtain vertical photography from a constant flying
height, however, these conditions are generally so well controlled that y parallaxes from these sources
are seldom noticeable. Most serious y parallaxes usually occur from improper orientation of the
photos, a condition which can be easily corrected.

FIGURE 7-17 The y parallax is caused by tilt of the photos.

7-8 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

Under normal conditions, the vertical scale of a stereomodel will appear to be greater than the
horizontal scale; i.e., an object in the stereomodel will appear to be too tall. This apparent scale
disparity is called vertical exaggeration. It is usually of greatest concern to photo interpreters, who
must take this condition into account when estimating heights of objects, rates of slopes, etc.
Although other factors are involved, vertical exaggeration is caused primarily by the lack of
equivalence of the photographic base-height ratio, B/H′, and the corresponding stereoviewing base-
height ratio, be/h. The term B/H′ is the ratio of the air base (distance between the two exposure
stations) to flying height above average ground, and be/h is the ratio of the eye base (distance between
the two eyes) to the distance from the eyes at which the stereomodel is perceived. Figures 7-18a and b
depict, respectively, the taking of a pair of vertical overlapping photographs and the stereoscopic
viewing of those photos. In Fig. 7-18a, the camera focal length is f, the air base is B, the flying height
above ground is H′, the height of ground object AC is Z, and the horizontal ground distance KC is D. In
Fig. 7-18a, assume that Z is equal to D. In Fig. 7-18b, i is the image distance from the eyes to the
photos, be is the eye base, h is the distance from the eyes to the perceived stereomodel, z is the
stereomodel height of object A′C′, and d is the horizontal stereomodel distance K′C′. Note that while
the ratio Z/D is equal to 1, the ratio z/d is greater than 1 due to vertical exaggeration.

FIGURE 7-18 Simplistic diagrams for analyzing vertical exaggeration. (a) Geometry of overlapping
aerial photography. (b) Geometry of stereoscopic viewing of the photos of part (a).

An equation for calculating vertical exaggeration can be developed with reference to these
figures. From similar triangles of Fig. 7-18a,

(a)

(b)

Subtracting (b) from (a) and reducing gives

(c)

Also from similar triangles of Fig. 7-18b,

(d)
 (e)

Subtracting (e) from (d) and reducing yields

(f)

Equating (c) and (f) gives

In the above equation, the values of Z and z are normally considerably smaller than the values of
H′ and h, respectively; thus

(g)

Also from similar triangles of Figs. 7-18a and b,

(h)

(i)

Dividing (i) by (h) and reducing yields

(j)

Substituting (j) into (g) and reducing gives

(k)

I n Eq. (k), if the term Bh/(H′be) is equal to 1, there is no vertical exaggeration of the stereomodel.
(Recall that Z is equal to D.) Thus an expression for the magnitude of vertical exaggeration V is given
by

(7-1)
FIGURE 7-19 Base-height ratio (B/H′).

From Eq. (7-1) it is seen that the magnitude of vertical exaggeration in stereoscopic viewing can
be approximated by multiplying the B/H′ ratio by the inverse of the be/h ratio. An expression for the
B/H′ ratio can be developed with reference to Fig. 7-19. In this figure, G represents the total ground
coverage of a vertical photo taken from an altitude of H′ above ground. Air base B is the distance
between exposures. From the figure,

(l)

In Eq. (l), PE is the percentage of end lap, which gives the amount that the second photo overlaps
the first. Also by similar triangles of the figure,

(m)

In Eq. (m), f is the camera focal length and d its format dimension. Dividing Eq. (l) by Eq. (m)
and reducing gives

(7-2)

The stereoviewing base-height ratio varies due to differences in the distances between the eyes of
users and varying dimensions of stereoscopes. It can, however, be approximated in the following way.
Figure 7-20 illustrates the relationships involved in this approximation. With an eye base, be,
averaging about 65 mm in humans, we need only to find the perceived distance from the eyes to the
stereomodel, h to make an approximation. If the distance between the photos is bs, and the distance of
the stereoscope from the photos is i, then we can use the following equation to estimate h by similar
triangles:
FIGURE 7-20 Eye base to perceived model height ratio.

(n)

Equation (n) can be used to form Eq. (7-3) to directly solve for the stereoviewing base-height
ratio:

(7-3)

Example 7-1
Estimate the stereoviewing base-height ratio if the height of the stereoscope above the photos is 10.00
cm, and the photos are placed 5.0 cm apart.

Solution By Eq. (7-3)

Example 7-2
Using the results of Example 7-1, calculate the approximate vertical exaggeration for vertical aerial
photos taken with a 152.4-mm-focal-length camera having a 23-cm-square format if the photos were
taken with 60 percent end lap.

Solution By Eq. (7-2),

From Example 7-1, be/h is approximately 0.15,

Note: If a 305-mm-focal-length camera had been used, the B/H′ ratio would have been 0.30, and
vertical exaggeration would have been reduced to 2.

References
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Problems
 7-1. What are some of the monocular methods of perceiving depth?

7-2. What is a parallactic angle?

7-3. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the pocket and mirror stereoscopes.

7-4. Give a step-by-step procedure for orienting photos for stereoscopic viewing.

7-5. What is y parallax? What are the causes of y parallax in a stereomodel?

7-6. Prepare a table of B/H′ ratios for camera focal lengths of 91, 152, 213, and 316 mm; camera
format of 23-cm square; and end laps of 55, 60, and 65 percent.

7-7. Calculate the approximate vertical exaggeration in a stereomodel from photos taken with a
152-mm-focal-length camera having a 23-cm-square format if the photos are taken at 55 percent end
lap assuming 65-mm eye base, 11-cm stereoscope height above the photos and 5.5-cm separation of
the photo images.

7-8. Repeat Prob. 7-7, except that a 210-mm-focal-length camera was used, and end lap was 65
percent.