RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

Introduction What is RT ?

• RT is a NDT technique with VISION-, as one

can literally “see through” the object of interest,
i.e. RT can make the object “inside out”.

• In other NDT methods, one has to IMAGINE,

interpret the signals for the defect whereas in
RT one can SEE the defect. The technique is
just like wearing a special goggles to see
through the material.
 Introduction
• Radiography uses- penetrating radiation.
• Sources- of radiation: X-ray or Gamma ray.
• The -component stops some of the
radiation. The amount that is stopped or
absorbed is affected by material density and
thickness differences.

• These difference in “absorption” of

radiation is recorded on the radiographic
film.
 Electromagnetic Radiation- -
The radiation used in Radiography testing is a higher
energy radiation (shorter wavelength) of the
electromagnetic spectrum that we see every day.
Visible light is in the same family as x-rays and
gamma rays.
 General Principles
of Radiography - - -
The object is placed between the radiation
source and a radiographic film. . . The part
will stop some of the radiation - - . Thicker -
and more dense - area will stop more
radiation.
The film darkness
(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
reaching the film through
X-ray film
the test object. -

= less exposure-
= more exposure-
Top view of developed film
--
 RADIOGRAPHY

Radiography is a process in which

 1) Any fractional change in thickness,
 2) which may be due to any discontinuity,
 3) is recorded on the radiography film
 4) as different pattern of gray shades
 5) when a penetrating radiation passes
through the object and then falls upon the
film.
 General Principles
of Radiography
• The energy of the radiation - affects its
penetrating power. Higher energy radiation can
penetrate thicker and more dense materials.

• The radiation energy and/or exposure time must

be controlled for a proper image of the region of
interest. --
Thin Walled Area

Low Energy Radiation High energy Radiation

 IDL 2001

Flaw Orientation -
Optimum
Radiography Angle = easy to
has sensitivity detect
limitations when
detecting
cracks.
= not easy
to detect

X-rays “see” a crack as a thickness variation and the

larger the variation, the easier the crack is to detect.
When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the
thickness variation is less and the crack may not be visible.
Comparing UT
 Radiation Sources -
Two of the most commonly used sources of
radiation in industrial radiography are x-ray
generators and gamma ray sources. Industrial
radiography is often subdivided into “X-ray
Radiography” or “Gamma Radiography”,
depending on the source of radiation used.
 Gamma Radiography
 Radioisotopes are used in gamma radiography.
 A device called a “camera” is used to store, transport and expose
the Radioisotopes. The camera contains shielding material to
reduce the radiographer’s exposure to radiation during use.
- -

- -
The isotopes are
encapsulated to prevent
leakage of the material.
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
A “drive cable” is used to
force the radioactive material
out into the guide tube where
the gamma rays will pass
through the specimen and
expose the recording device.

Gamma rays cannot be turned off.

 X-ray Radiography -
Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an X-ray
generator system. These systems typically include an X-
ray tube head, a high voltage generator, and a control
(system) console.
- -

• There is a high vacuum-? inside the X-ray tube and two

electrodes ie anode and cathode are there.
• X-rays are produced by establishing very high voltage
between two electrodes.
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• The cathode contains a small filament High Electrical Potential
much the same as in a light bulb.
• Current is passed through the filament Electrons
which heats it. The heat causes + -
electrons to be stripped off. -
• -The high voltage causes these free X-ray Generator
electrons to be pulled towards anode. or Radioactive
• A target, made of tungsten, is located Source Creates
Radiation
in the, anode.
• The electrons impact against the
target-. This impact causes an energy
exchange which causes x-rays to be Radiation
Penetrate
created. the Sample
• How to control X-ray intensity
• How to control x-ray energy
Exposure Recording Device
 Image Recording -
Radiographic Film
• One of the most widely used
and oldest imaging mediums in
industrial radiography is
radiographic film.

• A cross section . . of typical film is shown in the figure.

Protective layer (1 µ)
Emulsion (10-15 µ)
Polyester base (175-200 µ)

Emulsion (10-15 µ)
Protective layer (1 µ)
Silver bromide (AgBr) emulsion coating is applied on film base.
Once exposed to radiation and developed in a darkroom, silver
bromide turns to black metallic silver which forms the image.
Emulsion may be both side or one side
 Film Radiography
• Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just like
x-rays and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded
in a “light proof” cassette in a darkroom.
• This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite
the source of radiation. Film is often placed between
lead screens to intensify the effects of the radiation. --
 RT - TECHNIQUES 2 DWSI - -
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES

1 SWSI -
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES

FILM

FILM
3 DWDI-
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES

4 PANORAMIC - -
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES

FILM
FILM
16
 Image Quality -

Radiograph image quality is controlled by using

image quality indicators (IQIs).
These are also called penetrameters.

 Information -
 They inform the film
interpreter about the
contrast and definition of
radiograph.

17
 Image Quality
 The IQI indicates that a specified amount of
change in material thickness will be
detectable- in the radiograph, and that the
radiograph has a certain level of definition.
 Image quality indicators take many
shapes and forms due to the various
codes or standards.
 Generally, two types of IQI are
prevalent: the hole-type and the wire
IQI. fig.-
 IQI comes in a variety of materials, so
that one, with radiation absorption
characteristics, similar to the component,
can be used. 18
 IQI Placement

• IQIs should be placed

on the source side of
the part.
• Thickness at the place
should be equal to
thickness of the region
of interest.
• If this is not possible,
the IQI may be placed
on a block of similar
material and thickness
to the region of
interest. 19
 Image Quality (cont.)

 Image quality levels are typically designated

using a two part expression.
 The first term refers to the IQI thickness
expressed as a percentage of the region of
interest of the part being inspected.
 The second term in the expression refers to
the diameter of the hole that must be revealed
and it is expressed as a multiple of the IQI
thickness.

20
 Image Quality Level

 Image quality levels designated using a two part

expression
 A 2-2T call-out would mean that the IQI
thickness should be 2% of the material thickness
and a 2T hole (twice the IQI thickness) must be
detectable on the radiograph.
 A 2-2T quality level assures that the radiograph
is having a sensitivity of 2%. -

21
 Some Radiographs of discontinuity-
and defect- in welding
 Discontinuities or defects are interruptions in
the typical structure of a material.
 Discontinuities, which do not meet the
requirements of the codes or specifications
used to invoke and control an inspection, are
referred to as defects -.
 These defects may occur in the base metal,
weld material or "heat affected" zones.

22
 Some Radiographs of discontinuities
Porosity

 Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal.

Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as
dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in
clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear
to have a tail. All porosity is a void in the material and it will have a
higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.

23
 Cluster porosity

 Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are

contaminated with moisture. The moisture turns into a gas
when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular
porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be
grouped close together.

24
 Slag inclusions

 Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in

weld metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph,
dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along
the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

25
 Lack of penetration (LOP)

 Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP)

occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is
one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of
penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack
may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area
with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root
face down the center of the weldments.

26
 Lack of fusion/ Incomplete fusion

 Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal

does not properly fuse with the base metal. Appearance on
radiograph: usually appears as dark lines in the direction of
the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining area.

27
 Internal concavity or suck back

 Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld.
On a radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line
has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld
image.

28
 Inadequate weld Excess weld
reinforcement reinforcement

 The image density in

the area will be
higher (darker) than
the image density of
the surrounding base
The appearance
material.
on a radiograph
is a localized,
lighter area

29
 Cracks

 Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are

propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness
that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged
and often very faint irregular lines.

30
 Tungsten inclusions

 Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the

electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding
procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld.
Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel,
therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on
the radiograph.

31
 Radiation Safety
There are three means of protection to help
reduce exposure to radiation:
 Advantages of Radiography
• Technique is not limited by material type
or density.
• Can inspect assembled components.
• Minimum surface preparation required.
• Sensitive to changes in thickness,
corrosion, voids, cracks, and material
density changes can be found out.
• Provides a permanent record of the
inspection.
Disadvantages of Radiography
• Many safety precautions for the use of
high intensity radiation.
• Many hours of technician training prior to
use.
• Access to both sides of sample required.
• Orientation of equipment and defect - can
be critical.
• Determining flaw depth is impossible
without additional angled exposures.
• Expensive initial equipment cost.
 Radiographic Images
Can you determine what object was radiographed
in this and the next slides?
Radiographic Images
Radiographic Images
 Radiography Practice Test

1) The letters NDE Mean ___________ ?

a) Non Destructive Inspection
b) Non Destructive Evaluation
c) Non Disruptive Evaluation
d) Non Destructive Examination b) Non Destructive Evaluation
2) Which statement is not true of radiography?
a) Radiography can be used to test most materials.
b) Radiography provides a permanent record of a test object.
c) Radiography can reveal fabrication errors.
d) Radiography is practical because all you need is access to one side of
the test object. d) Radiography is practical because all you
need is access to one side of the test object
3) True or False- Less radiation absorption occurs when materials are
thicker and more dense.
a) True
b) False b) False
4) The sharpness of a radiographic image is determined by
a) size of radiation source and the materials thickness
b) pixel density in film
c) size of radiation source, ratio of the object to film and source to object
distance.
d) radiation beam being parallel to the film/detector plane.
c) size of radiation source, ratio of the object
to film and source to object distance.
6) Which one is not an energy form released from radium?
a) Roentgen
b) Gamma Rays
c) Alpha Particles
d) Beta Particles a) Roentgen

10) Exposure to radiation is measured in _______.

a) Roentgens b) sieverts c) radiant flux d) a and b
e) b and c
d) a and b