Kashgar[6][7][8] 

(Uighur: ‫قەشقەر‬, romanized: Qeshqer) or Kashi[8][9][10] (Chinese: 喀什) is an oasis city in

the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the
border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan. With a population of over 500,000,
Kashgar has served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between
China, the Middle East and Europe for over 2,000 years, making it one of the oldest continuously
inhabited cities in the World.
At the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the
rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of a
number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes.
Now administered as a county-level unit, Kashgar is the administrative center of Kashgar
Prefecture, which has an area of 162,000 km2 (63,000 sq mi) and a population of approximately 4
million as of 2010.[11] The city itself has a population of 506,640, and its urban area covers
15 km2 (5.8 sq mi), though its administrative area extends over 555 km2 (214 sq mi). The city was
made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the only city in western China with this distinction.
Kashgar also forms a terminus of the Karakoram Highway, whose reconstruction is considered a
major part of the multibillion-dollar China–Pakistan Economic Corridor.

Contents

 1Name
 2History
o 2.1Han dynasty
o 2.2The Kushans
o 2.3Three Kingdoms to the Sui dynasty
o 2.4Tang dynasty
o 2.5Battles with Arab Caliphate
o 2.6The Turkic Rule
o 2.7Mongol’s rule
o 2.8Qing conquest
o 2.91862 Chinese Hui revolt
o 2.10Qing rule
o 2.11Republic of China (1913-1933)
o 2.12First East Turkestan Republic
 2.12.1Battle of Kashgar (1933)
 2.12.2Battle of Kashgar (1934)
o 2.13Republic of China (1934-1949)
o 2.14People's Republic of China
 3Climate
 4Administrative divisions
 5Demographics
 6Economy
 7Sights
 8Gallery
 9Transportation
o 9.1Air
o 9.2Rail
o 9.3Road
 10International relations
o 10.1Consulates (in the past)
o 10.2Twin towns – Sister cities
  11Notable persons
 12See also
 13Notes
 14References
o 14.1Citations
o 14.2Sources
 15External links

Name
The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently
used 喀什噶尔 (Kāshígá'ěr). Ptolemy (AD 90–168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to
Kashgar as “Kasi”.[12] Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which
the East Iranian -γar ("mountain") and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old
Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical
Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar[13] and Cashgar.[14]
Other names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒[15] and Tibetan Śu-lig[16] may
have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate
hospitality").[17]
Variant transcriptions of the official Uighur: ‫قەشقەر‬ include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar.[18]

History
Main article: History of Kashgar
Kashgar located at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, it has been
under the rule of the historically Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also
been the site of a number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes.[19]

Han dynasty
Further information: Shule Kingdom

Relief with Ban Chao and King Yule (Zhong) of Kashgar in 73 CE

The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled

the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west.[20]
Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han
dynasty), when in 76 BCE the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar)
and a group of states in the Tarim Basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range.[citation needed]
Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the
name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed.[21] The
country's people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam.[citation needed]
In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BCE and 23 CE, it is recorded that
there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time
covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 CE), it had grown to 21,000 households
and had 3,000 men able to bear arms.[citation needed]

History of Kashgar

Year City Name Dynasty Notes

≈ 2nd cent.
Shule Shule Kingdom [Note 1]

BC

≈ 177 BC Xiongnu

60 BC Western Han dynasty [Note 2]

1st cent.
Xiongnu, Yuezhi
AD

74 Eastern Han dynasty

107 Northern Xiongnu [22][23]: 23 

127 Eastern Han dynasty [22][23]: 23 

150 Kushan [23]: 23 

323 Kucha, Rouran

384 Former Qin

≈450 Hephthalite Empire [23]: 30 

492 Gaoche [22]

≈504 Hephthalite Empire [22]

≈552 First Turkic Khaganate, [22][23]: 30 

Western Turkic
≈583 [22]

Khanate,

648 Tang dynasty [22]

Western Turkic
651 [22]

Khanate,

658 Tang dynasty [22]

670 Tibetan Empire [22]

679 Tang dynasty [22]

686 Tibetan Empire [22]

692 Tang dynasty [22]

790 Tibetan Empire [22]

791 Uyghur Khanate [22]

840 Kashgar Karakhanid Khanate

893

1041 Eastern Karakhanid

1134 Karakhitai Khanate

(Western Liao dynasty)
1215

1218 Mongol Empire [22]

1266 Chagatai Khanate

Moghulistan
1348
(Eastern Chagatay)
[22]

1387

1392 Timurid dynasty

1432 Chagatay

1466 Dughlats

1514 Yarkent Khanate [22]

1697 Dzungar Khanate

1759 Qing dynasty [22]

1865 Emirate of Kashgaria [22]

1877 Qing dynasty [22]

1913 Republic of China

1933 East Turkestan Republic

1934 Republic of China

 1949- People's Republic of
Kashgar / Kashi
present China

  Capital of an independent political entity

The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region:[citation needed]
In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions were under the control of the
Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a
Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49
BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General.
Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons
on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan].[citation needed]
During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BCE - 1 CE] and Emperor Ping [1 - 5 CE], the principalities of
the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the
Throne [in 9 CE], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western
Regions became resentful and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior
[China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again.[citation needed]
The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their
demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in
38 and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China] and to
express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the
Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs and
[therefore] finally refused his consent [in 45 CE].[citation needed]
In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped
out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. 62 CE], they began to attack and fight each other.
Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya] and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by
Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma]
were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan
Cheng] and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]; said kingdoms were
subsequently reestablished in later years.[citation needed]
During the Yongping period [58 - 75 CE], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help
them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in
broad daylight."[24]: 3 
More particularly, in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record:[citation needed]
In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and
killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the
Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). In winter 73 CE, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who
captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king
of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him.[24]: 43 

The Kushans
Kashgar in the Kushan Empire under Kanishka the Great

The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record
of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis:
During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled
his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offense. The king of the Yuezhi
became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the
government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit.
“posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king
of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying:
"Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of
(Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king."
The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had
previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans).
They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king.
Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule].
Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule
(Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian
(Khotan)."[24]: 43 
However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region:
In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to
respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great
Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was
appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to
serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand),
brought tribute and offerings.[24]: 43 
From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition:
In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with
20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and
released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo
from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.[24]: 15 
The first passage continues:
In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu
cattle.
Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year [168], the king of Shule (Kashgar)
and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was killed while hunting by
the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king.
In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren
She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and
Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci
(Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering
more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach −
near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they
withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the
Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.[24]: 43, 45 

Three Kingdoms to the Sui dynasty

These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin.
The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as
dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand),
the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of
Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also
known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’
− near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and
the kingdom of Qin.
However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to
have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we cannot be sure that this is a
reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation
before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and
came to be divided into three separate kingdoms.
Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei
Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger
ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are
said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times.

Camels traversing the old silk road in 1992

In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented
tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to
indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time.
In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and
"the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It
must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar.
The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha,
Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the
Wei court.
In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to
present tribute.
According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha,
Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began
sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440).
In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455.
An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented
a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible.
In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8).
In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8).
Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda
or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between
563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim
Basin.

Tang dynasty
Main articles: Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, oasis states, and Conquest of the
Western Turks

The Chinese Tang dynasty during its greatest extension, controlling large parts of Central Asia.

The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between
China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an
emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary
bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state.
Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on
his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India,
was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their
bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers,
wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but
their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist
adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all
members of the Sarvastivadin School.
At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics
at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally
to China proper itself.
In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the
Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this
did not happen as planned.
In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese
finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim
Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648,
and Kucha fell in 648.
In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was
defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar.
After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole
region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when
the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty
years.
In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu"
or Gilgit.
In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor.
In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help
of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas.

Mosque entrance in old Kashgar

In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan
Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang
dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all
communication between China and the West in 766.
Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached
Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as
the local king.

Battles with Arab Caliphate

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In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar.[25] It is alleged that Qutayba ibn Muslim in 712-715 had
conquered Xinjiang.[26][27] Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained
checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the
north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th
century that Islam was established at Kashgar,[28] under the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
The fall of Kashgar to Qutayba ibn Muslim is claimed as the start of Islam in the region by Al-
Qaeda ideologue Mustafa Setmariam Nasar[29] and by an article from Al-Qaeda branch Al-Nusra
Front's English language "Al-Risalah magazine" (‫)مجلة الرسالة‬, second issue (‫)العدد الثاني‬, translated
from English into Turkish by the "Doğu Türkistan Haber Ajansı" (East Turkestan News Agency)
and titled Al Risale: "Türkistan Dağları" 1. Bölüm (The Message : "Turkistan Mountains" Part 2.)[30]
[31]

The Turkic Rule

According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old
were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma."[32] The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as
the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to
Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state
for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th
century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and
the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970.[33] Chinese sources
recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar.
[34]
 Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan.
The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two,
the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the
Eastern Karakhanid state.[35] In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of
the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent.
Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured
Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-
Khitans.[36] The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life
continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see.[37] The last
Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of
the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214.[38]

Mongol’s rule
See also: Chagatai Khanate and Moghulistan
The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar
came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar,
about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own
churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and
Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy.

Kashgar road scene, 1870s

In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar

endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed
by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences
higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572
with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the
White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose
differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria,
make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered
Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers.

Qing conquest
See also: Altishahr
Kashgar (c. 1759)

The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took
control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics
emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison.
Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions
towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from
the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah
withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the
situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was
too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms.
The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts.
One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir
Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the
other rebellious cities in 1828.

Kalmyk Archer, Kashgar Army in the 1870s

The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali

Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade
privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called.
The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur
governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the
authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on
the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last
of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who
murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit.

1862 Chinese Hui revolt

The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups.
It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in
the Tarim Basin.
Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand
Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against
their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan,
the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at
Sadik's request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends
in Kashgar.

Night interview with Yakub Beg, King of Kashgaria, 1868

Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar,
which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven
back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub
Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-
Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg
Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler.
With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing
industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined.
Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British
Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed.
Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg's rule until May
1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of
the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang.

Qing rule

A view of the City of Kashgar in 1915

Colonel Mannerheim at the Russian Consulate in Kashgar, 1906

Sign marking previous Russian Consulate in Kashgar

There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, and "laxity" set upon
Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men in the period after Yakub Beg's rule ended. It is
also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical
intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan.[39]
Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880 to
1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang when Chinese men married Uyghur women. Because
they were viewed as "outcast", Islamic cemeteries banned the Uyghur wives of Chinese men
from being buried within them. Uyghur women got around this problem by giving shrines
donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such
as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis (Pamiris) intermarried with local
Uyghur women.[40]: 84  The local society accepted the Uyghur women and Chinese men's mixed
offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law.
An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian
courier invited local Uyghur prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar. There was a
general anti-Russian sentiment, but the inflamed local Uyghur populace started a brawl with the
Russians on the pretense of protecting their women. Even though morality was not strict in
Kashgar, the local population confronted with the Russians before they were dispersed by
guards, and the Chinese then sought to end tensions by preventing the Russians from building
up a pretext to invade.[41]: 124 
After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol
postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the
Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the
Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since
the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be
evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian
presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them
alone and only involved themselves in the mail service.[41]: 125 

Republic of China (1913-1933)

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First East Turkestan Republic

Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim,
was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another
Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang.
Battle of Kashgar (1933)
Main article: Battle of Kashgar (1933)
Uighur and Kyrgyz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New
City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated.
Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendant of Muhammed) and
arrived at Kashgar on 26 August 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in
September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and
beheaded on 9 August 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque.
Han Chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A
number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit
of the 36th division; presumably they had converted to Islam.[42]
Battle of Kashgar (1934)
Main article: Battle of Kashgar (1934)
The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on 6
February 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kyrgyz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He
freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese
Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kyrgyz since 22 May
1933. In January 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks,
launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on 13 January 1934, inflicting massive
casualties on the Uighur forces.[43] From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were
massacred by Tungans in February 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of
Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief
General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on 7 April 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah
Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government
at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th
division on 16 March 1934.[44][45][46][47]

Republic of China (1934-1949)

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People's Republic of China

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Map of Kashgar (labeled as SU-FU (KASHGAR)) and surrounding region from the International Map of the
World (1966)[a]

Map including Kashgar (labeled as Kashi K'a-shih (Kashgar)) (DMA, 1983)

Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural

Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's
Square.

Cafe built on site of old British Consulate-General. Kashgar. 2011

On 31 October 1981, an incident occurred in the city due to a dispute between Uyghurs and Han
Chinese in which three were killed. The incident was quelled by an army unit.[48][49]
In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural
significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the
1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police
officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the
deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in
the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded
and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. Additionally, the newer buildings may also
have been built with increased ease of surveillance in mind.[50]
When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. As the plan was
undertaken, residents have been removed from their homes in order to demolish large sections
of the old city and replace these areas with new developments.[51] The European
Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation."[52] The
International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed
concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally,
urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake
vulnerability.[53]
Following the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in
an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into
a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of
violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012, two-thirds of the old city had been
demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals."[54] Critics have called the destruction of
the old city part of a campaign of cultural genocide.[55] In July 2014, the Imam of the Id Kah
Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar by Uyghur extremists.
On 21 October 2014, Aqqash Township (Akekashi) was transferred from Konaxahar (Shufu)
County to Kashgar city.[56]

Climate
Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large
temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature
ranges from −4.8 °C (23.4 °F) in January to 25.6 °C (78.1 °F) in July, while the annual mean is
12.28 °C (54.1 °F). Spring is long and arrives quickly, while autumn is somewhat brief in
comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 71.4 mm (2.81 in) of
precipitation per year. The city's wettest month, May, only sees on average 11.2 mm (0.44 in) of
rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records
have been as low as −24.4 °C (−12 °F) in January and up to 40.1 °C (104.2 °F) in July. The frost-
free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in
March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually.

hideClimate data for Kashgar (1981−2010 normals)

Ma Ap Ma No Yea
Month Jan Feb Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Dec
r r y v r
18. 19. 29. 34. 34. 35. 30. 25. 19.
38.2 38.2 39.2 39.2
Record high °C 9 8 2 1 5 0 6 2 2
(100 (100 (102 (102
(°F) (66. (67. (84. (93. (94. (95. (87. (77. (66.
.8) .8) .6) .6)
0) 6) 6) 4) 1) 0) 1) 4) 6)
14. 22. 26. 26. 20. 11.
0.6 6.1 30.3 32.0 30.9 2.3 18.6
Average high °C 5 4 7 6 0 2
(33. (43. (86. (89. (87. (36. (65.
(°F) (58. (72. (80. (79. (68. (52.
1) 0) 5) 6) 6) 1) 5)
1) 3) 1) 9) 0) 2)
−4. 15. 20. 19. 12. −2.
0.4 8.5 23.8 25.6 24.4 4.4 12.3
Daily mean °C 8 7 1 6 5 8
(32. (47. (74. (78. (75. (39. (54.
(°F) (23. (60. (68. (67. (54. (27.
7) 3) 8) 1) 9) 9) 1)
4) 3) 2) 3) 5) 0)
 −9. −4. 13. 12. −1. −7.
2.6 8.9 16.8 18.8 17.6 5.4 6.1
Average low °C 6 9 4 5 4 0
(36. (48. (62. (65. (63. (41. (43.
(°F) (14. (23. (56. (54. (29. (19.
7) 0) 2) 8) 7) 7) 0)
7) 2) 1) 5) 5) 4)
−22 −21 −3. −3. −11 −21 −22.
−10 3.7 6.8 7.9 9.4 3.2
Record low °C .3 .8 6 8 .1 .4 3
(14 (38. (44. (46. (48. (37.
(°F) (−8. (−7. (25. (25. (12. (−6. (−8.
) 7) 2) 2) 9) 8)
1) 2) 5) 2) 0) 5) 1)
11.
Average precipit 2.7 3.7 7.2 5.1 9.1 9.2 7.7 6.3 5.5 2.1 1.6 71.4
2
ation mm (0.1 (0.1 (0.2 (0.2 (0.3 (0.3 (0.3 (0.2 (0.2 (0.0 (0.0 (2.8
(0.4
(inches) 1) 5) 8) 0) 6) 6) 0) 5) 2) 8) 6) 1)
4)
Average
precipitation 2.2 2.1 2.3 1.6 2.9 3.5 3.7 3.7 2.5 1.1 0.6 1.7 27.9
days (≥ 0.1 mm)
Average relative
66 56 45 38 40 40 43 48 53 56 60 69 51
humidity (%)
Mean
154 160 184 213 255 304. 312. 287. 259 239 196 158 2,72
monthly sunshin
.9 .1 .5 .7 .6 3 2 5 .4 .9 .2 .0 6.3
e hours
Percent possible
52 53 50 54 58 68 69 68 70 69 65 54 61.5
sunshine
Source: China Meteorological Administration (precipitation days and sunshine 1971–2000)[57][58]

Administrative divisions
Kashgar includes eight subdistricts, two towns, and nine townships.[59][60][61]
Subdistricts (‫كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 街道)

 Chasa Subdistrict (Qiasa; ‫چاسا كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 恰萨街道), Yawagh

Subdistrict (Yawage; ‫ياۋاغ كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 亚瓦格街道), Östeng Boyi
Subdistrict (Wusitangboyi; ‫ئۆستەڭ بويى كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 吾斯塘博依街道), Qum Derwaza
Subdistrict (Kumudai'erwazha; ‫قۇم دەرۋازا كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 库木代尔瓦扎街道), Gherbiz
Yurt Avenue Subdistrict (Xiyu Dadao; ‫غەربىي يۇرت يولى كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 西域大道街
道), Sherqiy Köl Subdistrict (Donghu; ‫شەرقىي كۆل كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 东湖街道), Merhaba
Avenue Subdistrict (Yingbin Dadao; ‫مەرھابا يولى كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 迎宾大道街道), Gherbiz
Baghcha Subdistrict (Xigongyuan; ‫غەربىي باغچا كوچا باشقارمىسى‬ / 西公园街道)
Towns (‫بازىرى‬ / 镇)

 Nezerbagh[62][63] (Naize'er Bage;[64] ]65[‫نەزەرباغ بازىرى‬ / 乃则尔巴格镇; formerly 乃则尔巴格

乡), Shamalbagh (Xiamalebage; ]66[‫شامالباغ بازىرى‬ / 夏马勒巴格镇; formerly 夏马勒巴格
乡)
Townships (‫يېزىسى‬ / 乡)
  Döletbagh Township (Duolaitebage; ‫دۆلەتباغ يېزىسى‬ / 多来特巴格乡), Qoghan
Township (Haohan; ‫قوغان يېزىسى‬ / 浩罕乡), Semen Township (Seman; [‫سەمەن يېزىسى‬
]67
 / 色满乡), Xangdi Township (Huangdi; ‫خاڭدى يېزىسى‬ / 荒地乡), Beshkërem
Township (Baishikeranmu; ‫بەشكېرەم يېزىسى‬ / 伯什克然木乡), Paxtekle
Township (Pahataikeli; ‫پاختەكلە يېزىسى‬ / 帕哈太克里乡), Awat Township (Awati;  ‫ئاۋات‬
‫يېزىسى‬ / 阿瓦提乡), Yëngi’östeng Township (Yingwusitan; ‫يېڭىئۆستەڭ يېزىسى‬ / 英吾斯坦
乡 / 英吾斯塘乡[68]), Aqqash Township (Akekashi; ‫ئاققاش يېزىسى‬ / 阿克喀什乡)

Demographics

Kashgari Musicians in 1915

Kashgar market

Woman on motorcycle. Kashgar. 2011

Uyghur family with two calves for sale at Kashgar market.

Kashgar is predominantly populated by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital

and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents. In
1998, the urban population of Kashgar was recorded as 311,141, with 81% Uyghurs and 18%
Han Chinese.[69]
In 1999, 81.24% of the population of Kashgar (Kashi) city was Uyghur and 17.87% of the
population was Han Chinese.[70]
In the 2000 census, the population of the city of Kashgar was given as 340,640. In the 2010
census, this number increased to 506,640. Some of the increase is due to boundary changes
and the number may include some rural population.[71]
In the 2015 census, 534,848 of the 628,302 residents of the county were Uyghur, 88,583
were Han Chinese and 4,871 were from other ethnic groups.[72]
Kasghar Census 2015[72]

Ethnicity Inhabitants Percentage

Uyghur 534,848 85.12%

Han
88,583 14.10%
Chinese

Tajik 42,746 0.95%

Kyrgyz 7,036 0.15%

Hui 6,395 0.14%

Uzbek 4,767 0.10%

Korean 1,658 0.03%

Mongol 740 0.01%

 Manchu 603 0.01%

Shina 206 0.01%

Others 1,980 0.04%

Kashgar Nationality breakdown, 2018

The proportion of nationalities in Kashgar City
Nationality Percentage
Uyghurs   85.8%
Han People   13.5%
Hui People   0.2%
Uzbeks   0.2%
Others   0.3%
Source of the population statistics :[73]

Economy

Kashgar's Sunday market.

The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile
lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar's livestock market
is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts,
such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes.
In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the
sixth Special Economic Zone of China in 2010.[74]
The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside
stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety
and security reasons.

Sights
Before its demolition, Kashgar's Old City had been called "the best-preserved example of a
traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia".[75] It was estimated to attract more
than one million tourists annually.[76]

 Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city.
  People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar.
 An 18 m (59 ft) high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale
statues of Mao remaining in China.
 The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang.
Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km (3.1 mi) northeast of the city
center also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a
powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as
Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great saint (Aulia).
 Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a
pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more
than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest.[77]

Gallery


Downtown Kashgar. 2011

 

Id Kah Mosque
 

Kashgar minaret at night

 

The tomb of Afaq Khoja

 
 

Mosque next to the tomb of Afaq Khoja.

 

Mao statue in the city square of Kashgar.

 

An old Kashgar city street.

Transportation

Kashgar Airport

Kashgar railway station

Air
Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi.

Rail
Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China.[78] It is connected to the rest of China's rail
network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan
Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the
southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time
to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately
ten hours.
The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In
November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of
the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass.[79]
Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels
since at least 1996.[80]
In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and
beyond has been proposed.[81]

Road
The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass.
The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project that will upgrade transport
links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes
exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via
the Torugart Pass or the Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects
Kashgar with Bishkek's Western Bus Terminal.[82] Kashgar is also located on China National
Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the
opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar.

International relations

Map of the region including Kashgar (1893)

Consulates (in the past)

The British Empire had a consulate from 1890 to 1948 at Kashgar. Though a British consulate, it
was manned and paid by the Indian Political Department of British India. The consulate was not
fully recognized by Qing China until 1908. It was upgraded to a consulate-general in 1911.[83]
The wives of the inaugural consul and of the last consul left important ethnographic accounts of
Kashgar, namely An English Lady in Chinese Turkestan (1931) by Lady Macartney and That
Antique Land (1950) by Diana Shipton, the wife of mountaineer and consul Eric Shipton.

Twin towns – Sister cities

Main article: List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Kashgar is twinned with:

  Malacca City, Malaysia from February 2012[84]

  Gilgit, Pakistan from May 2009

Notable persons
  Mahmud al-Kashgari, 11th-century scholar
 Abdurehim Heyt, Uyghur folk singer
 Nury Turkel, commissioner on the United States Commission on International
Religious Freedom, one of the Time 100 Most Influential People in the World

See also
 China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
 Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
 Silk Road

Notes
0. ^ From map: "DELINEATION OF INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MUST NOT BE
CONSIDERED AUTHORITATIVE"

0. ^ Capital of the Shule Kingdom.

1. ^ During the Eastern Han dynasty, Shule was administered by the Protectorate of the
Western Regions.

References
Citations
0. ^ Cox, W (2018).  Demographia World Urban Areas. 14th Annual Edition  (PDF). St. Louis:
Demographia. p. 22.  Archived  (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 15
June  2018.
1. ^ http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf[bare URL PDF]
2. ^ "喀什市概况（2020"  (in Chinese). 25 November 2020. Archived from the original  on 18
January 2021. Retrieved  12 March 2021.
3. ^ "The Working-Calendar for The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
Government".  Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Government. Archived from the
original on 9 November 2007.
4. ^ "喀什市概况（2020"  (in Chinese). 25 November 2020. Archived from the original  on 18
January 2021. Retrieved  12 March 2021.
5. ^ "Xinjiang's Kashgar to provide duty-free shopping".  Embassy of the People's Republic
of China in the United States of America. 10 December 2013. Retrieved 2
April  2020. Kashgar will start providing duty-free shopping from 2015 as the Xinjiang city
tries to build itself as a trade hub in Central Asia.
6. ^ mingmei, ed. (18 May 2020). "Non-stop flight to link Beijing, Xinjiang's
Kashgar".  Xinhua News Agency.  Archived  from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved  2
April  2020. A new direct air route linking Beijing and the city of Kashgar, northwest
China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, will be launched on June 10, according to
Air China.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Collins World Atlas Illustrated Edition (3rd  ed.). HarperCollins. 2007.
p. 80.  ISBN  978-0-00-723168-3  – via  Internet Archive. Kashi (Kashgar)
8. ^ 中国地名录. Beijing: SinoMaps Press. 1997.  ISBN  7-5031-1718-4.
9. ^ World Atlas Trade & Logistics Edition. World Trade Press. 2008. p.  84. ISBN 978-1-
885073-44-0  – via  Internet Archive. Kashi
10. ^ Stanley W. Toops (August 2012). Susan M. Walcott; Corey Johnson (eds.).  Eurasian
Corridors of Interconnection: From the South China to the Caspian Sea. Routledge.
pp.  65–66.  ISBN  978-1135078751.
11. ^ de la Vaissière, Étienne (2009). "The Triple System of Orography in Ptolemy's Xinjiang".
In Sundermann, Werner; Hintze, Almut; de Blois, François (eds.). Exegisti monumenta  :
Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
p. 530.  ISBN  978-3-447-05937-4.
12. ^ E.g., René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, ISBN 0-
8135-1304-9, p. 360; "Cascar" is the spelling used in most accounts of the travels
of Bento de Góis, starting with the main primary source: Trigault, Nicolas S. J. "China in
the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Mathew Ricci: 1583–1610". English translation
by Louis J. Gallagher, S.J. (New York: Random House, Inc. 1953). Cascar (Kashgar) is
discussed extensively in, Book Five, Chapter 11, "Cathay and China: The Extraordinary
Odyssey of a Jesuit Lay Brother" and Chapter 12, "Cathay and China Proved to Be
Identical."(pp. 499–521 in 1953 edition). The full Latin text Archived 30 April 2016 at
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2016 at the Wayback Machine, A Translation of the Chronicle on the ‘Western Regions’
from the Hou Hanshu. Based on a report by General Ban Yong to Emperor An (107-125
CE) near the end of his reign, with a few later additions. Compiled by Fan Ye (398-446
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17. ^ 国家测绘局地名研究所 (1997).  中国地名录 [Gazetteer of China]. Beijing:  SinoMaps
Press. p.  117. ISBN 7-5031-1718-4.
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Burnham".  Archived  from the original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
20. ^ "The Triple System of Orography in Ptolemy's Xinjiang", pp. 530–531. Étienne de la
Vaissière.(2009) Exegisti monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams.
Eds W. Sundermann, A. Hintze and F. de Blois Harrassowitz Verlag
Wiesbaden. ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4
21. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u 《疏勒县志》"第二节 历史沿革"  (in Simplified
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Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. BookSurge,
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24. ^ Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger, eds. (2012). Asia and Oceania:
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26. ^ Marshall Broomhall (1910). Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. Morgan & Scott,
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(1999).  "Muslims in Central Asia and The Coming Battle of Islam".  Archived  from the
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29. ^ *"Al Risale  : "Türkistan Dağları " 2. Bölüm". Doğu Türkistan Bülteni Haber Ajansı.
Translated by Bahar Yeşil. 29 October 2015. Archived from the original  on 4 March
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 "El Risale Dergisi'nden Türkistan Dağları -2. Bölüm-". ISLAH HABER
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Yaghma and its Towns". Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources.
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Press. pp.  227–228.  ISBN  978-0-19-515931-8.
33. ^ E. Yarshater, ed. (1983). "Chapter 7, The Iranian Settlements to the East of the
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C.E. (eds.), History of Civilisations of Central Asia, vol. 4 part I, UNESCO Publishing,
pp.  119–144,  ISBN  92-3-103467-7
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24304-1
36. ^ Sinor, D. (1998), "Chapter 11 - The Kitan and the Kara Kitay", in Asimov, M.S.;
Bosworth, C.E. (eds.), History of Civilisations of Central Asia, vol. 4 part I, UNESCO
Publishing, ISBN 92-3-103467-7
37. ^ Biran, Michal. (2005).  The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between
China and the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. pp.  80–81.  ISBN  0-521-
84226-3.
38. ^ Joanne N. Smith Finley (9 September 2013).  The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur
Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang. BRILL.
pp.  309–. ISBN 978-90-04-25678-1.
39. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a
Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL.  ISBN  978-90-04-16675-2.
40. ^ Jump up to:a b Pamela Nightingale; C.P. Skrine (5 November 2013) [First published
1973].  Macartney at Kashgar: New Light on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in
Sinkiang, 1890-1918. Routledge.  ISBN  978-1-136-57609-6.
41. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political
history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive.
p. 288.  ISBN  0-521-25514-7. Retrieved 28 June  2010.
42. ^ AP (1 February 1934).  "REPULSE REBELS AFTER SIX DAYS".  Spokane Daily
Chronicle.[permanent dead link]
43. ^ AP (17 March 1934). "TUNGAN RAIDERS MASSACRE 2,000".  The Miami News.[permanent
dead link]

44. ^ Associated Press Cable (17 March 1934). "TUNGANS SACK KASHGAR CITY,
SLAYING 2,000".  The Montreal Gazette.
45. ^ The Associated Press (17 March 1934).  "British Officials and 2,000 Natives Slain At
Kashgar, on Western Border of China". The New York Times. Archived from the original
on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
46. ^ AP (17 March 1934). "2000 Killed In Massacre".  San Jose News.
47. ^ Tiziano Terzani (1985).  The Forbidden Door. Asia 2000 Ltd.
p. 224.  ISBN  9789627160014 – via Internet Archive.  A similar incident occurred in the
center of Kashgar on October 31, 1981. A group of Uighur workers wanted to dig a
trench in the pavement in front of a state shop run by Hans. The initial discussion
became a quarrel and a Han ended up shooting and killing one of the Uighurs with a
shotgun. Thousands of Uighurs joined in. For hours the city was in chaos, and two Hans
were killed. An Army unit had to be called in to quell the violence and separate the two
communities.
48. ^ "33. China/Uighurs (1949-present)".  University of Central Arkansas.  Archived  from the
original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2020.  Two individuals were killed in ethnic
violence in Kashgar on October 30, 1981.
49. ^ Buckley, Chris; Mozur, Paul; Ramzy, Austin (4 April 2019). "How China Turned a City
Into a Prison". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.  Archived  from the original on 4
April 2019. Retrieved  4 April  2019.
50. ^ Fan, Maureen (24 March 2009). "An Ancient Culture, Bulldozed Away".  Washington
Post. Archived from the original on 22 September 2018. Retrieved  29 October 2017.
51. ^ "JOINT MOTION FOR A RESOLUTION". European Parliament. 9 March
2011.  Archived  from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 15 March  2011.
52. ^ ICOMOS-ISCEAH (2009). "Heritage in the Aftermath of the Sichuan Earthquake". In
Christoph Machat, Michael Petzet and John Ziesemer (Eds.), "Heritage at Risk: ICOMOS
World Report 2008–2010 on Monuments and Sites in
Danger"  (PDF). Archived  (PDF)  from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 6
June  2011. Berlin: hendrik Bäßler verlag, 2010.
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blog, London Review of Books, 25 May 2012.
54. ^ Lipes, Joshua (5 June 2020). "Kashgar's Old City Destruction Emblematic of Beijing's
Cultural Campaign Against Uyghurs: Report". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the
original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved  7 May 2020.
55. ^ "Archived copy"  疏附县历史沿革.  XZQH.org. 14 November 2014. Archived from the
original on 8 November 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2020.  2014 年，自治区政府（新政函
[2014]8 号）同意撤销乌帕尔乡，设立乌帕尔镇。2014 年 10 月 21 日，自治区政府（新政
函[2014]194 号）同意将疏附县阿克喀什乡划归喀什市管辖。
56. ^ "Archived copy"  中国气象数据网 - WeatherBk Data (in Chinese (China)). China
Meteorological Administration. Archived from the original on 5 September 2018.
Retrieved 15 April  2020.
57. ^ 中国地面国际交换站气候标准值月值数据集（1971－2000 年）. China Meteorological
Administration. Archived from  the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved  25
May 2010.
58. ^ "Archived copy"  喀什市历史沿革.  XZQH.org. 27 May 2015. Archived from the original
on 4 November 2019. Retrieved  2 April  2020. 2013 年 3 月，自治区政府（新政函
[2013]35 号）同意将疏附县阿瓦提乡划归喀什市管辖。2013 年，自治区政府（新政函
[2013]207 号）批准同意将疏附县英吾斯坦乡划归喀什市管辖（11 月 20 日正式实施）。阿
瓦提乡面积 87.2 平方千米，人口 3.42 万人；英吾斯坦乡面积 109.16 平方千米，人口 3.98
万人。 2014 年 10 月 21 日，自治区政府（新政函[2014]194 号）同意将疏附县阿克喀什乡
划归喀什市管辖。阿克喀什乡面积约 266 平方千米，人口 1 万余人。至此，全市辖 4 个街
道、2 个镇、9 个乡：恰萨街道、亚瓦格街道、吾斯塘博依街道、库木代尔瓦扎街道、乃则
尔巴格镇、夏马勒巴格镇、多来特巴格乡、浩罕乡、色满乡、荒地乡、帕哈太克里乡、伯
什克然木乡、阿瓦提乡、英吾斯坦乡、阿克喀什乡。2015 年 4 月 3 日，自治区政府批复同
意设立西域大道街道（新政函[2015]87 号）、东湖街道（新政函[2015]88 号）。调整后，
全市辖 6 个街道、2 个镇、9 个乡。
59. ^ "Archived copy"  2019 年统计用区划代码和城乡划分代码：喀什市 (in Simplified
Chinese). National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China.
2019.  Archived  from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2020.  统计用区划代
码 名称 653101001000 恰萨街道 653101002000 亚瓦格街道 653101003000 吾斯塘博依
街道 653101004000 库木代尔瓦扎街道 653101005000 西域大道街道 653101006000 东
湖街道 653101007000 迎宾大道街道 653101008000 西公园街道 653101100000 乃则尔
巴格镇 653101101000 夏马勒巴格镇 653101202000 多来特巴格乡 653101203000 浩罕
乡 653101204000 色满乡 653101205000 荒地乡 653101206000 帕哈太克里乡
653101207000 伯什克然木乡 653101208000 阿瓦提乡 653101209000 英吾斯坦乡
653101210000 阿克喀什乡
60. ^ 喀什市概况（2017） (in Simplified Chinese). Kashgar City People's Government. 12
October 2018. Retrieved  2 April  2020.  喀什市面积 1056.8 平方千米，人口 62.79 万
（2016 年），辖 8 个街道、2 个镇、9 个乡。
61. ^ Eset Sulaiman, Joshua Lipes (14 September 2015).  "Authorities in Xinjiang Require
Special Permits to Buy Kitchen Knives". Radio Free Asia. Translated by Eset
Sulaiman. Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2020.  A Uyghur
officer from the Nezerbagh township police station on the outskirts of Kashgar also
refused to comment on the notice, but acknowledged that a special regulation is currently
in place in the region to control the purchase and sale of tools with blades on them, as
well as how the items are used.
62. ^ Shohret Hoshur, Joshua Lipes (9 January 2020). "Uyghurs in Xinjiang Ordered to
Replace Traditional Décor With Sinicized Furniture".  Radio Free Asia.  Archived  from the
original on 5 March 2020. Retrieved  2 April  2020. After receiving information about the
implementation of the Sanxin Huodong campaign in Kashgar (in Chinese, Kashi) city’s
Nezerbagh township, RFA’s Uyghur Service contacted a government employee there
who refused to comment on the situation.
63. ^ Naize’er Bage (Approved - N) at GEOnet Names Server, United States National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
64. ^ « ‫گۈلنى ۋاسىتە قىلىپ» گۈزەل تۇرمۇش بەرپا قىلىش‬.  Tianshannet (in Uyghur). 28 August 2019.
Retrieved 2 April 2020.  š‫قەشقەر شەھىرى نەزەرباغ بازىرىنىڭ‬
65. ^  ‫ خەلق تورى‬ .)1 (‫شامالباغ بازىرىدا ئىنقىالبىي ناخشا ئېيتىش مۇسابىقىسى ئۆتكۈزۈلدى‬ [people.com.cn Uyghur]
(in Uyghur). 15 August 2014. Retrieved  2 April  2020.  ‫قەشقەر شەھىرىنىڭ شامالباغ بازىرى‬
66. ^  ‫ خەلق‬ .‫قەشقەر شەھىرى نامراتلىقتىن قۇتۇلدۇرۇش ئۆتكىلىگە ھۇجۇم قىلىش جېڭىگە ياخشى ئاساس سالدى‬
‫تورى‬ [people.com.cn Uyghur] (in Uyghur). 23 December 2016. Retrieved  2
April  2020.  ‫قەشقەر شەھىرى سەمەن يېزىسى‬
67. ^ 喀什市 2019 年涉农资金统筹整合使用实施方案 (in Simplified Chinese). Kashgar City
People's Government. 27 November 2019. Retrieved  2 April  2020.  建设 2703 人林果业
技术服务队（其中英吾斯塘乡 620 名、阿瓦提乡 464 名、伯什克然木乡 845 名、浩罕乡
160 名、阿克喀什乡 275 名、荒地乡 40 名、帕哈太克里乡 199 名、色满乡 50 名、乃则尔
巴格镇 50 名），{...}英吾斯塘乡 38 台农机设备 337 万元其中 8 村玉米收割机 2 台
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74. ^ George Michell, in the 2008 book Kashgar: Oasis City on China’s Old Silk Road, quoted
by Michael Wines in the New York Times, 27 May 2009. ("To Protect an Ancient City,
China Moves to Raze It Archived 2017-12-03 at the Wayback Machine")
75. ^ Michael Wines, To Protect an Ancient City, China Moves to Raze It Archived 3
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