POSITION OF WOMEN IN KERALA IN 1956

Throughout history, most societies have held women in an

inferior status compared to that of men. Women's status was often

justified as being the natural result of biological differences between

the sexes. In many societies, for example, people believed women to

be naturally more emotional and less decisive than men. Women

were also held to be less intelligent and less creative by nature.

However, research shows that women and men have the same range

of emotional, intellectual and creative characteristics. Many

sociologists and anthropologists maintain that various cultures have

taught girls to behave according to negative stereotypes (images) of

femininity, thus keeping alive the idea that women are naturally

inferior.

Archaeological sources from Europe and India has suggested

that the Palaeolithic civilizations worshipped goddess and were

organized as matriarchies. However, from the time of the earliest

written records, almost all the civilizations had been overtaken by

male-deity-worshipping, matriarchal culture began to switchover to

patriarchal cultures, by which men were political, religious, and

49
military leaders and women were kept in subordination1. In Europe,

during the Classical times and the early Christian era, women were

excluded from public life and were made subordinate to men. For

example, Aristotle, in Politics, argued that women were inferior to

men and must be ruled by men. St.Paul insisted the Christian

women to obey their husband and not to speak in the church.

Similarly, according to traditional Hindu custom, a virtuous woman

is considered to be one who worships her husband (pathivratha) and

derives great power from her virtue to protect her husband and

herself. Throughout most of the second millennium, in most

societies, women were deprived of property, education, and legal

status. They were made the responsibility of their husbands, if

married, or of their fathers or other male relatives if not2.

Scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal

status with men in all fields of life. However, some others hold

contrasting views. Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as

Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the

early Vedic period. Though the family was patriarchal in nature, the

position of women was much better during the Rig Vedic period than

any later times. Women were allowed to attend assemblies and offer

rituals and sacrifices along with men. Many women have been

mentioned as composers of hymns, among them

1 Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia.©1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation.

2 Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia.©1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation.

50
Ghosha, Gargi, Maitreyi, Lopamudra, Apala were prominent3. Rig-

Veda verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and

were probably free to select their husband. There is also evidence

about levirate (Niyoga) and widow remarriage during the Rig Vedic

period. Marriage was arranged with the consent of the bride. There

was no evidence to substantiate the social evils such as Sati or

widow burning in Rig Vedic period4.Marriage was arranged with the

consent of the bride. Swayamvara was also common. Women

enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic

period. However, during the later period, that is approximately 500

B.C., the status of women began to decline with the Smritis

especially Manusmriti.

During the Epic age, the position of women was fair at the

beginning, but there was a decline towards the end. There was no

instance of widow remarriage. Early marriage started towards the

end of the Epic age. Women were not allowed much freedom in the

matters of their marriages. However the system of Swayamvara for

the royal families existed. “It is pointed out that maidens were

exhibited for sale and given to the highest bidders”5. The above line

shows that women were sold as slaves and the condition of women

3 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), Indian History, Allied publishers private limited,

New Delhi, 1981, p.A -130.
4 Ibid, pp. A-130 – 132.
5 V.D.Mahajan, Ancient India, S.Chand & Co, New Delhi, 1968, p.125.

51
during the Epic age was pathetic. However, women maintained their

dignity; Seetha, Savitry and Anasuya become ideal for all women

hood. Sati was in practice, widow lived excluded life and usually

they covered their heads with white cloths. Ganikar or courtesans

enjoyed a good social standing. Prostitution was common during the

Epic age. Sati was one of the brutal practices that prevailed from the

ancient period in India. From the Epic age, it was practiced in North

West India. Madri burnt herself on the funeral pyre of her husband is

an example6.The people of pre-historic society believed that even

after the death, a man need more or less same amenities that he

enjoyed in life. Hence when an influenced person like a king or noble

man died, along with him, his wealth, his servants and wives were

also buried. In India, the Aryans introduced the custom of sacrificing

a widow along with her husband. Although reformatory movements

such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to the religious order,

by and large, the women in India faced confinement and restrictions.

The condition of nuns in Jainism and Buddhism was miserable.

They were under the jurisdiction of the monks and they were

considered as an inferior category7.

6 V .K Agnihotri, Indian History, Allied publishers private limited, New

Delhi, 2009, p.A-45.

7 Romila Thapar, Ancient Indian social history-Some interpretations,

Orient Blackswan private limited, New Delhi- 2, 1978, p. 76

52
 Position of women during Mauryan period was fair. Women

were employed as personal bodyguard of the king, spies and other

diverse jobs. Divorce was permitted. There is frequent mention of

women of the commonalty moving about with freedom and engaging

themselves in gainful occupations. Offences against women of all

kinds were severely punished8.

The queens, princesses and other high class women of a

defeated country were forced to commit Sati in order to escape from

the hands of Muslim invaders9. In due course of time it became a

custom and women were forced to jump into the funeral pyre of his

husband. There were rare incidents of Sati in South India. Among

the Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas of South India, there existed rare

case of Sati until 900 A.D. The solitary case known is that of the

Perumkoppendir, the queen of Butappandiyan is one such case

during Sangam age10. However, the prevalence of Sati or

Saughamana in the Vijayanagar Empire is proved both from

inscriptions and foreign accounts of the period. The widows

committed Sati two or three months after the death of their

husbands11. Many folk also tells us about the rule of Aravalli,

Sooravalli, Pavalakkodi and others who were petty rulers in

8 Ibid, p.A-264.
9 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), op.cit, p.164.
10 N Jayapalan, Women Studies, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors,
New Delhi, 2000, p.8.
11 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), op.cit, p.164.

53
Tamilaham. Women have been glorified in Tamil literature as the

‘lamp of home’ women are always referred as ‘Mangala

Mahalir’,’Melliyal Mahilir’, ‘Seyelai Mahilir’ and ‘Manaiyal’ during the

Sangam period. There is no Yagna, no purohita and no typing of tali,

after Aryan influence in the later period the above things were

practiced12. The Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta

Mauryan, Megasthenese had mentioned in his book Indica about the

rule of a queen in the Pandya country. Silappadikaram says about a

Pandya queen who shares the throne equally with her husband.

Kalingattuparani, which deals with Kalinga war, says about some

privilege of Thigavalli, wife of Chola king Kulotunga I had. She

shared the throne with her husband and supported the king in the

day-to-day administration. Queen Magammal, Rani Meenakshi,

Muththiruvai Nachiyar of Ramnad, Velu Nachiyar of Sivaganga and

Lakshmidevi of Sreerangam were some of the important women who

ruled many parts of South India.

The position of the women began to decline rapidly as a result

of the advent of the Muslims. In the thirteenth century Qutab-ud-Din

Aibak(1206 – 1210) formed the Delhi sultanate in India. It was a

great threat to the Hindu society. Hindu society developed tactics to

protect the women from the Muslim invaders. Therefore like the

Muslim women upper class Hindu women also started to wear

12 N Jayapalan, op.cit, p.8.

54
purdah in order to escape from the men. Several social restrictions

were imposed on her. The birth of a female child was considered a

curse. Women continued to occupy this position for a long period up

to nineteenth century13. So many inhuman controls were imposed

upon women during this period.

Purdah system, Sati, child marriage, female infanticide,

prostitution and polygamy were the main social evils imposed on the

women during the medieval period. Child marriage was another

improper practice developed during the medieval period. It was

practiced in most of the parts of India by high class Hindus and

Muslims. The age at marriage for girls was five to seven. Before

completing her childhood she becomes mother. In addition to these

ordeals if her husband dies she become widow that is child widow.

Position of women in Kerala

During the Sangam period, the whole South India was under

the control of Chera,Chola and Pandya empire. Kerala was also a

part of this political system during the Sangam age. Chastity of

women was honoured during the Sangam age. According to a double

standard of morality, respectable women had to be chaste but

respectable men did not. Chastity of women was glorified on many

contemporary works like Tolkappiyam, Akananuru, Silapatikaram

etc. Kannaki was noted for her chastity. Love marriage was common

13 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), op.cit, pp.164-165.

55
during Sangam period14. During 15th and 16th century there was so

many unworthy practices and customs in Kerala. Feudalism emerged

in all parts of Kerala and they become defacto rulers. Namboodri and

Nairs acted as feudal lords. Slavery, untouchability, dowry, Devadasi

system were the evil systems that pulled women into untold misery.

Slavery

Slavery had existed in India as elsewhere in the world from the

immemorial. Slavery prevailed during the Indus valley civilization. It

was also clear that during the heyday of Buddhism, slavery existed

as Romila Thapar stated that ‘Slaves and debtors were not allowed to

be recruited as monks since many of them would have treated the

monastery as a refugee from the inequality of the society’.15

References are there in old accounts and sources that in the early

years of the Christian era, there was some kind of trade in slave girls

between India and the old Roman Empire and even there existed

some trade markets. Periplus writing in 80 A.D observed that among

the commodities imported from the west, slaves were included and of

the slaves, most of them were women16. The Parayas, the Pulayas,

14 P K Gopalakrishnan, Keralattinte Samskarika charitram, Malayalam,

Thiruvananthapuram,1974, pp.172-177.
15 Romila Thaper, From lineage to state, OUP, Delhi, 1984, pp. 145-150.
16 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, Slavery in Kerala, KK Mittal, Delhi,
1986, p.11.

56
the Kuravas , the Vedas, The Ulladans and the Pallas who together

constituted one eighth of the total population, were soil slaves17.

During the medieval period, slavery was the most common

business in Travancore, Cochin and Malabar regions. Many

inscriptions including Kolezhethu records (Written in old Malayalam

Script) have mentioned the existence of slavery in Kerala. The earliest

inscription mentioning slavery was an inscription of Venad king

Ayyan Adikal Tiruvadikal granting certain privileges to the

congregation of the Tharisa Church at Kollam. It exempted Christian

from levying Adimakal kasu (Slave levy) from Christians. There are

also many inscriptions containing some slave sale deeds18. Durate

Barbosa in 1515 observed it was usual in India to sell children in the

time of drought. Slavery was the basis of agriculture in ancient and

medieval Kerala. There was no domestic slavery as the law of caste

pollution made that practice impossible. The Europeans took keen

interest in the trade of slaves. Even the East India Company officials

involved in this inhuman practice. Dr Francis Buchanan, who visited

Malabar at the end of 1800, had stated that before invasion of Hider

Ali, the Namboodiri proprietor cultivated their estates by means of

their slaves. He estimated that one fifth of the population around

17 Sadasivan S.N, A Social history of India, A.P.H. publishing corporation,

NewDelhi, 2000, p.397.
18 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, op.cit. p.13.

57
Palghat and adjacent areas were slaves19. Rev. Samuel Mateer,

Missionary of the London Society in his book ‘The Gospel in South

India’ had mentioned that ‘the lowest third of the population of

Travancore –the slave caste – were held in a condition of oppressive

slavery. They were prohibited even from the use of public roads; from

near approach to court of justice or respectable houses, lest they will

pollute the higher orders. They were sunk vastly lower than slaves in

other land by the caste notion of their essential and inherent

religious pollution…’ The adult male fit for work was valued at 250

fanams20, the female at 300 fanams, the male between twelve and

eighteen years of age at 60 fanams female of such age had 100

fanams and children below ten years with the mother between 25 to

35 fanams that was about the value of a bullock. There were slave

markets at Tirunakkara in Kottayam, Alappey, Kayamkulam, Kollam,

Attingal, Chirayinkil, Kaniyapuram, Pettah, Kovalam etc21. Slaves

were brought to the Portuguese fort at Cochin and kept tied at poles

in the scorching heat and torrential rain till they carried to

Portuguese colonies and Lisbon22.

Women and children were sold as slaves. Slavery was the major

income of the kingdom. Portuguese made many Hindus, Muslim

19 Ibid, p.17.
20 A coin used on those days.
21 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, op.cit, p.30.
22 Sadasivan S.N, op.cit, p.397.

58
women as slaves. Salves were deployed on agricultural fields.

Government had also owned slaves. Feudal lords were allowed to heir

slaves from the government. In the early stage owner had right to

even kill the slaves. Slavery in Travancore was hereditary as the

children of the slaves become slave to the same feudal lord. Mostly

they used leaves as clothes. According to the census report of 1835

there was 144,000 slaves in Malabar region and it rose to 159,000 in

1842. In the early 18th century, there were 98,974 slaves in

Travancore and 32,368 slaves in Cochin kingdom. This was above 10

to 15 percent of the total population of respective states. In 1853

slavery was abolished in Travancore and 1854 in Cochin State23.

In 1850, Rev.George Matthan wrote that slaves are bought and

sold like cattle and are often worse treated by their masters. The

price of an able slave was 6 to 8 rupees. The children of slaves do not

belong to the father’s master but are the property of mother’s owner.

When a property known as Munro Island was granted to The CMS by

Travancore government in 1819 a hundred slaves were given along

with it.24 In a court auction, an infant of barely ten months was sold

for approximately rupees 11/2 and for its mother, a separate price

was paid25. Women of slave classes worked as actively as the men for

23 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, pp.172-177.

24 T.K. Joseph(ed.), Kerala Society Papers, Government of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram,1997, pp.275-278.
25 Sadasivan S.N, op.cit, p.398.

59
their living. Most of the women engaged in fieldworks, gathered

leaves and cut twigs for manure, carried these to the fields,

transplanting etc. they were kept toiling throughout the day. At the

night, they returned to their huts hungry. Then they boiled their rice

and ate it with salt and pepper. During the month of scarcity (July,

August) they suffered much from sickness and from want of food. At

this period women of the Vedar tribes used to go to the forest and dig

up various kinds of wild yams and tubers with pointed sticks to boil

and eat these roots. These products were their chief means of

subsistence26. Thus, poverty and atrocity of the Brahmins were the

root cause for slavery. In a land of prosperity, where nature showered

her blessings as grain, fruits, roots, honey etc thousands of her

children lived without a single drop of food. The state produced some

of the finest woven cotton but lion share of her children remained

uncovered. Slavery was the brutal system prevailed in Kerala during

the medieval ages.

Devadasi system

Like slavery, devadasi system was another social evil. In India,

the practice originated and developed during early medieval period,

but in countries like Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece, the system

26 Rev.Samual Mateer, Land of Charity – a descriptive account of

travancore and its people, W.H.Allen and Co., London, 1871, pp.199-
201.

60
flourished several thousand years earlier27. It flourished during the

end of the first millennium in Kerala. Kulasekara, the Chera king is

said to have dedicate to his daughter as devadasi28. The meaning of

devadasi is the server of the god. It is also interpreted as

handmaiden of god, sacred slave girl, temple dancer, the temple

courtesan etc. She had a life of culture case and pleasure and

provided amusement and intellectual companionship to those who

afford29. The dedication of the girls to sacred service was universal

practice. This system was prevalent in continent of Asia, Africa and

America and in the temples of Sumeria, Babylon, Japan, India, Sri

Lanka, etc. The system of devadasi has a history of more than 1700

years. The term devadasi had its origin in Sanskrit and though it is

commonly used.

In Tamil Nadu they were called Devadasis or dasis, Busavis in

Andhrapradesh region, Toyatis in Karnataka, Bhavis or Bahavinis in

western India. In Travancore they were called as Kudidass or

Devadasikkal. The Chola kings like Raja Raja Chola, Rajendra Chola

showed special interest in the appointment of devadasis in temples.

It is probable that when the Cholas subjugated South Travancore,

they instituted the system of devadasis in the temples there also.

27 Simmi Jain, Encyclopaedia of Indian women through the ages, Kalpaz

publications, Delhi, 2003, p.119.
28 Ibid, p.120.
29 K A.Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas, University of Madras, Madras, 1955,
p.544.

61
From there the system is gradually spread to the other parts of

Kerala. The status of women was further lowered in Kerala by the

introduction of the devadasi system. Under this system the young

girls were presented by their parents to the temple in fulfilment of

vow or as atonement for a sin. These girls were formally married to

the idol before they entered their temple duties such as dancing and

singing. During the festivals the God went out for a Chariot – ride,

the devadasis followed the lord as faithful maids30.

By the 11th century the system became popular in important

temples of Kerala. There were four posts of devadasis in the Sree

Vallabha temple at Thiruvalla. deavdasi system was also practised in

Suchindram temple, Padmanabhasamy temple etc. The enlightened

Maharaja of Venadu in the 13th and 14th centuries refused to

promote the devadasi system in Kerala31. The devadasi system in

Kerala declined due because of the lack of royal patronage, the

growth of education and western influence.

The position of women in medieval Kerala was not hopeful. The

society was scattered into castes and sub-castes topped with

Brahmins to the lower caste including Pulayas and Parayas. The

status of women varied according to the status of each caste. Though

Brahmin occupied high position in the society, their women

30 Simmi Jain, op.cit, p.120.

31 Ibid, p.122.

62
experienced worst coustoms and practices including Sapatni system.

The Nair women enjoyed unrestricted freedom and status in the

society. The Marumakkattayam system gave an important position to

Nair women. But she faced a great set back due to the development

of Sambhandam system. Apart from this a number of restrictions

were also imposed on her. Nair women had to uncover her breast

and remove her upper cloth as a mark of respect while seeing

Brahmin. The position assigned to the lower caste was pathetic.

Lower caste people had no right to worship the gods of the high caste

Hindus. They were not allowed to enter the temples. They were forced

to pay number of taxes. They were denied the right to own property,

right to movement, right to education etc.

Pulappedi

Nair women witnessed some brutal practices like Pulappedi,

Parrappedi and Mannappedi. This dreadful custom existed in Kerala

during the 16th and 17th centuries. During the certain period of the

year, the low caste peoples had the right to pollute the high class

women of Nair and Namboodiri families. The persons belonging to a

low caste like Pulayas, Parayas and Mannas touched or threw a

stone or stick on the high class women particularly Nair women. The

family members join together and announced her as polluted and

63
hence she would lose her caste32. The polluted woman will be driven

out from her house. She has to live the rest of her life with the men

who polluted her. Rev.Samuel Malker has recorded this practice as,

‘the various castes met annually at fighting grounds at Pallam,

Ochira etc and in this season it was supposed that the low caste men

were at liberty to seize high caste women spectators if they could

manage it and attain them’. There are references to this curious

custom in the description of Barbosa and the inscription of

UnniKerala Varma dated Thai Masam 25, 871 Malayalam era.

Honour killing was also in practice by which a low caste man

accidently touches a Nair lady, her relatives will immediately kill her

as well as the men who touched her33. If any Nair women broke caste

rule she would either be sold to Muslim or Christian or put to death.

Pulappede, Parappedi, Manappedi and other similar customs were

abolished in Travancore by a proclamation issued on February 7,

1696 which was erected at the Tiruvitamcode highway by Venad king

Unni Kerala Varma commonly known as Kottayam Kerala Varma34.

According to the inscription, the punishment for the violation of the

proclamation was severe as the culprit and his entire family would be

killed. It was also ordered that if a woman was polluted by Pulappedi,

32 A Sreedhara Menon, Kerala Charitram (Malayalam), Sahitya

Pravarthaka Co –operative, Kottayam, 1967, p.233.

33 A Sreedhara Menon, op.cit, p. 233.

34 V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, Vol 1, p .312.

64
Parappedi or Mannapedi, the pollution should be considered as

removed if the women bathed in a tank and come out. Thus, a cruel

custom ended35.

Unlike the Brahmin or Namboodiri women, the Nair women

enjoyed certain privileges in the society. In the traditional Nair family

organization women occupied important position. Family system of

the Nair’s was naturally tended to the preserve a much greater social

freedom for women than elsewhere in India. The Nair women of

Kshetriya hypergamy received the title Kettilamma and received

material benefits from the ruling class36. The Marumakkattayam

system prevailed in the Nair community gave her considerable

freedom and status in the society. Marumakkattayam is descent

through the female line, that is through sister’s children. A man’s

heirs are his sister’s children and his wife and children had no legal

claim to this property37.This gave some importance to the female

members of Nair community. Women were respected in their house

and community38.

35 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, op.cit, p .30.

36 Kumari Padma, A Study on the Status and role of women in the public
life of Kerala from 1850 to 1956, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department
of History, University of Kerala, p .75.
37 C.Achyuta Menon, The Cochin State Manual, Government of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram, reprint 1995, first published 1911, pp.246-247.

38 A Sreedhara Menon, op.cit, p.233.

65
Humiliation of womanhood

In the society, Brahmin women had the right to cover

their upper part of their body. The Nair women also had the privilege

to cover their upper part of the body, but they exposed their bosoms

in the presence of the members of royal family and of high rank 39.

They looked upon women of any status who refused to expose their

breasts before the Brahmins as immoral and immodest40. The low

caste women who are below Nairs were insisted not to cover the

upper part of the body as a sign of submission. Many incidents were

happened giving severe punishment for violating this anarchic

custom. A woman of south Travancore named Yesudial went to

market to purchase household goods wearing a cloth to cover her

upper portion of the body. On seeing this, upper class men assaulted

her and forcibly tore off her upper cloth and remained her half

naked. In another incident, a woman named Neethiyudial went to the

fair at Veluthori in Kunnattur. Seeing her in upper cloth, the upper

class men abused her with filthy language and she was forced to

remove the upper cloth41.

39 V Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State manual, Vol II, Madras, 1989, p. 252.
40 R N Yesudas, A people’s revolt in Travancore: a backward class
movement for social freedom, Kerala Historical Society, 1975, p.10.
41 D Peter(ed.), Years of Challenge: Charles Mead, Nagercoil, 1994,
pp.37-43.

66
 It is an irony to note that even upper class women also did not

like the low class women to cover their breast in front of them. They

even behave worse than men in performing this injustice. For

instance, when the Attingal Rani42, once she went to attend a temple

festival, a woman of lower caste appeared in front of her with upper

part of her body concealed with cloth, on seeing it, the Rani got

infuriated and ordered to cut her breasts43. Protest against these

atrocities by the low class people resulted in violence in various

places in Travancore and it severely affected the law and order in the

country. Thus, this peculiar social injustice existed in south

Travancore from the days of yoke proved the amount of inequality

and social suppression imposed on the low caste people.

Breast Tax

Women of the low caste women had to pay many humiliating

taxes, taxes varied from caste and profession. The height of the

cruelty was that women of the Ezhava and other lower communities

had to pay Mulakkaram (Breast tax). In 1840, to protest this insult a

woman in the town of Cherthala- a place in Kerala refused to pay the

tax and cut off her breasts and threw them before the tax collector.

42 Ruler of small princely state which was later merged with Travancore.
43 Suma Rose, Political,Society, And women: with special reference to
Travancore, 1700-1900 A.D, Carmel International Pub.House, 2004,
pp.71-72.

67
She died of blood loss later that night 44. This was considered as the

worst tax imposed on humanity. Apart from this, the peasants, small

scale workers and other section of the working class people were

exploited through a myriad of taxes known by various names like

Enikaram, Talakaram45 and Meniponnu46. The revenue from these

taxes were utilised for conducting festivals and rest was distributed

to the Brahmins. Finding the difficulties faced by the people by

paying these unwarranted taxes, in 1865 the government issued a

proclamation to stop 110 such taxes in Travancore47.

Seclusion of Women

Though the Brahmin women were privileged class, they were

not free from social taboos. They had no permission to go outside

their illams. Even in the house they were not free to walk on veranda

or to sit on pumugham. Hence they had no opportunity to mingle

with men. Namboodiri women could not meet any member other

than her husband and children. Education was denied to them

hence they could neither read nor write. Nambootiri women are

called Anterjanams or Akathuammamar both of which term means

44 K K Nair, Sages Through Ages: India’s Heritage, – Vol V, Author

House, 2007 p.30.
45 Levied for toddy tapping.
46 Levied for wearing gold ornaments.
47 T.B.Premjith Kumar, op.cit, p.67.

68
‘living inside’ referring to the seclusion in which they are kept48.

Brahmin women had no right over their father’s property. Rarely the

Namboodiri women got opportunity to go outside their houses.

However, they have to cover their entire body with white cloth and

should use umbrella called as ola kuda to cover their face, so that

their body could not be seen by any one. Usually they had to be

accompanied by their servants mostly Nair women. The servants

made some sound so that the low caste people should run away from

the path of the Namboodiri women.

In general all sort of women were isolated from socio religious

and economic activities. Even the women of the royal family were

restricted in many ways. The women of the royal family were not

allowed to participate in the amusements. In Padmanabhapuram

palace and Kowdiar palace women had separate curtained suite to

watch dances and other functions without mingling with others.

They were restricted from performing ritualistic functions.

Polyandry and Polygamy

Hypergamy49 was prevalent in Kerala. It was common among

the Kshetriyas, Ambalavasis and the Nairs. According to this custom

48 C.A.Innes. Malabar Gazetteer, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram,

1997, p.106.
49 Hypergamy is the act or practice of seeking a spouse of higher socio-
economic status or caste status than oneself.

69
Nambuthiris could consort with Antarala, Kshetriya and Nair women.

The Antarala and Kshetriyas also permitted to consort with Nair

women. The Nair would consort with lower than their own. However

in no case a woman belonging to higher caste was permitted to

consort with lower men. Polyandry existed among the Nairs and

many other castes. The Nair women had no strict sex code. They

believed that a woman who dies a virgin does not goes to the

paradise50. After Talikettu Kalyanam was over, the mother would

invite various men to cohabit with her daughter, the Namboodiries

had the preference. If a sword was found outside the room of the

women, her husband and other paramours would know that

someone was inside and they would go away51.

The position of the low caste people was pathetic. The

untouchable communities like Pulayas, Parayas and other similar

caste began to suffer from various kinds of disabilities viz. economic,

education, social, occupational, political and religious. The common

people were prohibited from walking through public roads and

drawing water from public wells. Apart from this untouchable

apartheid, they had to keep a stipulated distance from the

Namboodiries and Nair. From a Namboodiri, a Pulaya should keep a

distance of 96 paces and 36 paces from a Nair. If a Namboodiri or

Brahmin walking on the road, a special sound was produced by his

50 C.A.Innes, op.cit, p.116.

51 R.Raman Nair and I. Sulochana Devi, op.cit, p.35.

70
assistant at every four of five paces. Hearing the warning the low

caste people had to instantly quit the road and retrieve somewhere 52.

The low caste people were not allowed to own land. Wages were paid

in kind instead of cash. They lived in small huts called maadam. The

Pulayas, Parayas and similar caste had no other choice of occupation

but to work as agriculture labourers.

Dowry system

The giving of dowry was an ancient custom in India; most often

prevailed among the higher castes in Hindu society. Traditionally

dowry denoted a woman’s share of the family wealth, transferred to

her at the time of marriage. The practice was both socially and

religiously sanctioned. As per the custom, a properly dowered

daughter reflected well on her family and their social standing. In

India, the dowry system began to spread from upper strata to all

sought of community. Until the early twentieth century, only the

upper strata like the Brahmin communities like Namboodiri and the

Syrian Christians, who were allegedly converted from the upper

castes, followed the custom of dowry in Kerala. Dowry was not in

practice among the followers of Marumakkattayam like Nairs, and

other castes like Ezhava, Parayas and Pulayas53. Among the Syrian

Christians before 1961 Dowry Prohibition Act, a particular portion of

52 Indian Law Commissioner, Report on Slavery, 1841, p.129.

53 Now dowry is practiced by all communities in Kerala.

71
the dowry was given to the Church. This contribution was known as

pasaram varied from 4 to 10 per cent of the dowry54.

Scrutinizing the marriage system in Kerala had further

widened the gender relations and women’s equality in Kerala. Mostly

marriages were arranged by parents or family members, who were

very particular to match attributes such as religion, caste, age,

education, and socio economic standing in their quest for good

partners for their children. Every religious group and its sub-groups

followed distinct family structure and different marriage customs.

Personal law related to marriage, divorce, and inheritance also varies

according to religious affiliation India55. Dowry was justified as the

appropriate transfer of wealth to a woman as share from her family.

But there was evidence that the money does not remain with the

bride. In most of the cases, the sthreedhanam is utilised by the

husband or his family for their personal uses like to pay off loans,

starting business etc, in many cases after emptying the wealth

received from the bride, the husband and his relatives started to

harass the women in order to gain more wealth from the groom’s

house.

54 Caroline Sweetman (ed), Gender, development, and marriage, Elizabeth

Chako, Marriage, development, and the status of women in Kerala,
Oxfam, UK, 2003, p.55.
55 Ibid, pp.52-54.

72
Sambandham

The development of Sambhandam system brought great

miseries to Nair women. According to this system only the eldest

member of the Brahmin family had the right to marry from his own

caste. The younger brother in the Namboodiri family made informal

alliance with the women of Nair families. The Nair women and her

family members considered these alliances as great honour and Nair

women made many alliances as much as one can56. Nair women

also married many Nair men. The status and honour of Nair woman

increased on the number of husbands she had57. The children from

this alliance lived in mother’s house. The Brahmin (Namboodiri) had

no responsibility over the children. More over the children of a

Namboodiri through a Nair woman had no legal rights over paternal

property58. Namboothiri father also considered these children

untouchable.

Smarthavicharam

Smarthavicharam was another custom that humiliated the

Namboodiri women. It was a vigorous trail on a Namboodiri girl or

women for adultery charges. If accused, the particular woman was

lodged in a separate hut, for her presence inside the house could

56 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, pp.303-304.

57 A Sreedhara Menon, op.cit .p.233.
58 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, p.430.

73
pollute other members of her family59. The trial may extend for

months and if found guilty she was out casted and ousted from their

house. Such women were made as a concubine by low caste people

or sold as slaves60. The permission of the king was necessary for

conducting Smarthavicharam. The most notorious Smarthavicharam

was held in 1905 that involved Kuriyedath Thathri, the wife of

Chemmanthatta Kuriyedath Raman Namboodiri of Mukundapuram

Taluk in Trissur district. The ritualistic trial extended many months.

Finally the verdict was announced on July 13 1905 indicting Thathri

and the other accused men. Now this custom is outdated and the

last incident of Smarthavicharam reported was taken place in 1918.

In Namboodiri community, the oldest male member of the family

could marry from the same caste. The elder male member married

several wives in exchange for his daughter or sister. This system was

called as Sapatni system and it led to polyandry among the

Namboodiries.

Talikettukalyanam

Talikettukalyanam was prevalent among most of the castes

particularly in the Nair community. It was to be conducted before a

girl attains puberty. On failure her family was excommunicated.

Usually it was performed at the age of eleven and was more

59 C. J Fuller, The Nayars Today, Syndics of the Cambridge University

Press New York, 1976, p.13.
60 P. K. Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, p.453.

74
expensive than a marriage. It was not obligatory for a girl to marry

the same person who tied the Taali at Talikettukalyanam ceremony.

And there was no objection in accepting him as her husband. It was

believed that the virginity of the girl ceased with the performance of

Talikettukalyanam61. The families consider this ceremony to expose

their power and prestige and they conducted this ceremony in a

luxurious manner, which led to the disintegration of Thravadu. Child

marriage was very common in Brahmin and Nair communities. Child

marriage was a major impediment to girl’s education. Because of the

child marriage the society denied freedom of the girl to interact with

peers and participate in community activities62.

Divorce

Divorce was easy and common among Nairs. A marriage lasted

as long as the parties wished. In order to terminate marriage

alliance, they did not have to go through any disgusting processes. If

she was tired of her husband, she had to put her sandals outside the

house, which meant that he was no longer welcome63. In due course

61 R. Raman Nair, l Sulochana Devi, op.cit, p.2.

62 A. Stanley Wolpert (ed.) , Encyclopedia of India, Vol 1, Charles
Scribner’s Sons,U.S.A, 1927,p.262.
63 R.Raman Nair and I. Sulochana Devi, Chattampi swamikal, an
intellectual Biography, Centre for south Indian studies, Trivandrum,
p.33.

75
of time the Sambhandam system and Marumakkattayam made chaos

in the society particularly in Nair families64.

Widowhood

Widowhood is considered as punishment for the crimes

committed in her previous lives. Hence she is looked up on as sinner.

Widowhood among the upper caste is state of social death65 . Widows

are considered inauspicious beings. It was the worst ordeal that the

women faced in Kerala particularly the higher caste women. Factors

that made widowhood are child marriage and age difference between

husband and wife. Widowhood is not transition from one marital

status to another after the death of her husband. Entering into

widowhood is more hazardous, painful and humiliating. Widows not

only suffered with social and economic sanctions but also faced

many psychological consequences, loneliness and many cases

deprivation causing emotional disturbances and imbalance66.

Dowry was common in Brahmin community. It forced the

parents of the poor Brahmins to give their daughters to very old

Namboodiries. These ill- sorted marriages created many child

64 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, pp .303-304.

65 Nandini Chawan and Qutub Jehan Kidwai, Personal Law Reforms and
Gender Empowerment: a debate on Uniform Civil code, Hope India
Publications, Gurgaon, 2006, p.35.
66 P.Adhinarayan Reddy, problems of widows in India, Swarup and sons,
New Delhi, 2004, p.5.

76
widows. The plight of the widows was more pitiable than any other

social category. Widows were unwelcomed by the society. Seeing a

widow was consider as bad omen. Widows were restrained from

amusement, attending feasts, house hold functions and festivals.

They were isolated by all means. They were put up; caused them to

mourn till their death.

There are different categories of widows, the aged, the

destitute, the young and even widows of teen age and each category

of widows has its own problems and may also differ from one

category to another67. Immediately after the death of her husband,

she had to remove all her ornaments and required to wear white

cloth; the colour of mourning. Her hair was scraped, for sixteen days

she does not step out. Position of Namboodiri women was pity as

they were considered as bad omen and hatred one. They remained on

dark rooms till their end of the life. Widows suffered from various

handicaps and injustices in the society, they were ill-treated,

physically man handled. Some high caste Hindu women become

Devadasis in order to escape from widowhood. Among the lower

caste, widow remarriage was allowed yet there was some aversion

towards it68. One important aspect among the lower caste which

causes hard – ship to the widows was the situation in the family in

which they live. Husband and wife went to job daily in order to feed

67 Ibid, p.8.
68 Ibid, p.13.

77
their children. When husband dies no one would come to the

economic relief of the widow, as their relatives may also depend on

wage labour. Economic security for the widow and her infants among

lower caste is the most important problem rather than social cultural

discrimination69. Widow remarriage becomes common during the

beginning of the 20th century. The census commissioner in 1931

noted that widow remarriage was not prohibited among Nairs,

Ezhavas and many other Hindu castes 70. In a study the mortality

rate among the widows of age group forty five years and above is

eighty six per cent higher than married women71. According to a

census report of early nineteenth century, the number of widows

below the age of 10 years was 63,000 and above 10 years was more

than five lakhs. This shows the terribility of the social injustice72.

Status of Women in Muslim Community

The Muslim community in Kerala practiced many outdated

customs and practices that were directly harm to the womanhood.

Dowry was common in the Muslim community; they gave little

importance for the education of the girl children. Purdhah system

was common in Malabar region. Child marriage and Polygamy was

69 Ibid, p.3.
70 R Raman Nair, l Sulochana Devi, op.cit, p.5.
71 P.Adhinarayan Reddy, op.cit, p.7.
72 Kamal Kant Misra (ed.), Recent Studies on Indian Women: empirical
work of social scientists, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 2007, p.112.

78
common in all parts of Kerala. Divorce was common in Muslim

community the husband repeated the word ‘Talaq’ (Divorce) thrice

and divorce took legal73. Adultery was severely punished, the guilty

were being dragged through the village by a rope and was given 101

lashes as prescribed by the Jamat mosque74.

The general position of women in Kerala has improved

considerably during the last hundred years. The land reforms

introduced by the various governments helped in bringing a better

position to the women. The replacement of the joint family system

with nuclear family gave relief to the family system in Kerala. Women

also played a prominent role in the freedom struggle. After various

reform movements, women are educated and become a part of

Kerala’s development.

The medieval age witnessed a number of social evils in Kerala

particularly the caste System and its by-products like

Untouchability. Hindus lived in hundreds of separate compartments

of castes and sub castes. Lower caste people were consider inferior

even to animals were kept aside as untouchables. Women were the

greatest victim of this degradation. Superstition, polygamy,

polyandry, child marriage, and parsimonious practices like

Talikettukalyanam, Pulapedi etc gave untold miseries to women.

73 Dr.Patam Singh, Women Legislators in Indian Politics, Concept

Publishing company, New Delhi,2003, p.24.
74 C.A Innes, op.cit, p.530.

79
Sambhandam was another social evil that affected women. The ill

sorted marriages of girls with age old men resulted in widowhood of

the girls. The experience of widowhood was another mercy situation

that women faced. Women were not allowed to cover upper part of

their body. Roads were disabled to the common people. Education

was totally denied to women. Thus the position of women was worse

than the cattle. These atrocities resulted in an unstable society. After

viewing all these atrocities Swami Vivekananda once remarked that

Kerala is a lunatic asylum. The advent of the missionaries and the

rise of intellectual and spiritual leaders, the progressive attitude of

the rulers gave great relief to the common people particularly women.

Social system was worse than what we could than imagine now.

80