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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

In this part, it represents the literature pursued to collect insights for the

study. This also includes the studies related and is considered to strengthen the

concepts.

Oregano (Oreganum vulgare)

As stated by Singletary (2010), oregano is an herb that has been

cultivated for centuries in the Mediterranean area, although it now can be found

on most continents mostly in Asia. Actually, there is no simply one "oregano," but

rather several species that may contribute to the used for culinary and

medicinalbpurposes.

There are so many species of oregano that are common in our

environment. Some of this are commonly used in Southern European and

Middle Eastern recipes. Among the all types of oregano the most common and

more familiar specie is Origanum vulgare, sometimes known as true oregano or

Italian oregano, this is the familiar herb used on pizzas and in tomato sauces and

most abundant in the asian continent and mostly in the philippines. Although

some specie of oregano are used for decorations and culinary purposes but they

can be also used in many ways.

Based on the results obtained from the review of Iran's

Ethnopharmacological literature indicated in Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic

Research (2010), it was found that Oregano (Origanum vulgare) can also be
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used in different role such as energy producer, diuretic, stomach booster,

nervous system reliever, laxative, anticancer and even an insect repellent that

can repel insects such as flies, mosquitos and cockroaches.

Nowadays, some companies and entrepreneurs used oregano

(Oreganum vulgare) as part of their products mostly in insects repellents

because it is alternative and can be found everywhere. Oregano contains some

antioxidants that are responsible for its repellent capacity.

. As eloquently stated to the book of Kintzio (2002) entitled Oregano: The

Genera Origanum and Lippia, mentioned by Baser (2008) , oregano is one of the

most commercially valuable ingredients in most insect repellents either chemical

or alternatives. It is possible to use because of the presence of carvacol and

thymol which are both antimicrobial properties that can repel insects. Thymol is

the major component in the essential oils of oregano and it gives a chemical

effect to the insects that makes them to repel, while carvacrol is the major

phenolic constituent of the essential oil of thyme and screened for

pharmacological effects on the central nervous system and found to have

repelling activity when administered directly to cockroaches.

To sum it all, oregano is important in our environment especially when it is

admistered as insect repellent. Also, it is abundant in many parts of our world and

can be easily used in many purposes. Oregano is alternative and has no

chemical effects to human. Therefore, oregano is not only helping us but also

securing our safety and the productivity of our community.

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Cockroachesb(Periplanetabamericana)

Cockroaches have been in existence for about million years, they are

common pest in tropical countries like Philippines. They have been known to

cause allergic reactions to most people and chew holes in the clothes.

Cockroaches is truly an evolutionary wonder, they are ideal for physiological and

behavioral investigations under controlled conditions.

According to Wilson (1978) as mentioned by Bell et. al (2012)

cockroaches are one of the most dangerous pest because of their filty habits that

spread chemicals in our environment and cause lethal diseases to humans. The

standard cockroach body is flattened and broadly oval, with a large shield like

protonum covering the head. ventrally deployed, chewing mouthparts, and long

highly segmented antennae that is responsible for their repellent response.

All of the body parts of cockroaches are important for them to spread

bacteria that causes lethal diseases to humans. Also, their body structure makes

them to survive for a long time and gives their ability to transmit antigens easily.

According to Bato Balani for Science and Technology , Vol. 14, No. 2, the

real danger of cockroach lies in their ability to transmit sometimes lethal diseases

and organisms such as Staphylococcus spp. Streptococcus spp.,Hepatitis

viruses, and Coliform bacteria.

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Cockroaches have been known to contaminate food, at the same time

infect it with the bacteria they carry. The bacteria they spread in food can cause

food poisoning and the antigens can caused allergic reaction to humans.

According to Triwidodo (2011) cockroaches are urban pest that can

transmit human diseases that can cause health problems in the society such as

Typhoid, Polio, Dysentery and diarrhea. Prevention of those diseases caused by

cockroaches is generally focused on controlling the vectors in various ways, such

as sanitation, use of home pesticides, use of cockroach repellents, and other

traditional ways developed by the community.

Unfortunately, most of cockroach repellent and pesticides used for

cockroaches are loaded with chemicals that may harm human beings.

Conventional insecticides are used as main tool to control cockroach infestations

but there are many concerns about the harmful side-effects of these chemical

compounds. These restrictions of chemical insecticide application increase

demand for safer alternativesbagainstbcockroachbinfestations.

Insect Repellent

Now a days, Insect repellent is important in securing the health of humans

specially the children’s. Today, there are some major diseases

concerned by parents to their children’s safety caused by cockroaches. But now,

because of the advancement of science, this will allow humans to become more

productive by making new alternatives of insect repellent from organic materials,

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but it is hard to determine if insect repellent can truly repel insects especially

cockroaches.

According to (Rutledge et al., 1997) as stated on A Review of Essential

Oils as Bio-pesticide in Insect-Pest Management (2009), it is unclear if repellents

work by common mechanisms in different arthropods, and conflicting evidence

exists in the literature. For example, tick detects repellents on the tarsi of the first

pair of legs and cockroaches detect the same substances on the antennae.

Furthermore, the difference in sensitivity to the same repellent between different

classes, orders and families are differences of degree only, no fundamental

difference in type of response are observed.

Insect repellents are popular but its reason is hard to quantify, although

there have been open‐source studies of opinions by major manufacturers and

individual. Common sense and experience with the public suggest that the

perceived essential advantage of repellents is that they can be easily used it to

control the dangerous effects of pest like cockroaches

According to (Frances et. al 2010) the logic of disease prevention is that

repellents reduce the number of arthropod bites and that arthropod bites are a

necessary step in the transmission of vector‐borne pathogens that can caused

severe diseases to humans like asthma and diarrhea, therefore repellents reduce

the occurrence of infection and disease. This study reviews the literature on the

prevention of disease in individuals caused by arthropod bites like cockroaches

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by the used of repellents, including repellents on the skin, in clothing and

dispersed in the air.

As a conclusion on a practical level, repellents can reduce the incidence of

diseases caused by vector‐borne pathogens caused by cockroaches but they

can only rarely eliminate the risk because of the imperfections of use by

individuals.

Incense Stick

Incense stick is a stick coated with clayed herbs commonly used different

purposes like funeral, religous functions or even as insect repellent.

Incense burns slowly and releasing a fragrant odor based on its herb used.

According to Cheng and Bechtold (1993) mentioned by Hung (2008)

burning of incense stick in houses and temples for religious functions is

especially common in Asia. Smoke from burning incense is a source of indoor

aerosols and produce great odor. In the Philippines incense stick is not only used

as aerosols but they are also capable in repelling insects.

Incense stick is one of the alternatives that can be used to repel insects

but its process and materials is not easy. Some of the materials used to make an

incense stick may be organic or not.

As mentioned by Ji et al. (2010) the chemical composition of particles

from incense stick is highly complex because they are a mixture of numerous

pyrolysis products from equally complex biomass substrates. These substrates

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can be wood as the incense material, bamboo to act as the stick on which

the incense material is coated in the case of an incense stick or joss stick, and

different herbs as the material for antipest incense.

Incense is composed of different plant materials with great aroma and the

essential oils were combined. The forms taken by incense differ with the

underlying culture, and have changed with advances in technology and

increasing number of uses.

According to Hughes (2014), Incense is available in various forms and

degrees of processing. Depending on how it is used, incense can be categorized

as direct burning or indirect burning .Preference for one form or another varies

with culture, tradition, and personal taste.Direct burning incense, also

called combustible incense, generally requires little preparation prior to its use.

The incense is lit directly by a flame and then extinguished by fanning, a glowing

ember on the incense will remain and continue to smolder and burn away the

rest of the incense without another application of heat or flame. Indirect burning

incense, also called non-combustible incense, is simply a combination of

aromatic ingredients that are not prepared in any particular way or encouraged

into any particular form, making them mostly unsuitable for direct combustion.

This type of incense requires a separate heat source, since it does not generally

kindle a fire capable of burning itself, and may not ignite at all under normal

conditions.
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Related Studies

There are related studies regarding the use of oregano (oreganum

vulgare) as repelling incense stick against cockroaches. Such that new studies

are being conducted to address the infestation of cockroaches in some places of

thebcommunity.

Data to support the use of Oregano (Oreganum vulgare) as repelling

incense stick against cockroaches are scarce. Although the essential oils from

oregano presents a safe alternative for indoor application against cockroaches

because of less toxicity to humans and no toxic remain.

Based on the study of (Hashemi et. al 2017), oregano oil showed an

extensive repellent effect against cockroaches so, it could be recommended as a

potential repellent compound for further evaluation on a larger scale and under

field conditions. Contact and abstergent toxicity of oregano oil were extensive but

additional study is required for the practical application and developing

affirmative formulation of them against cockroaches.

There is a little evidence in support of oregano is one of the treatment for

the infestation of pest like cockroaches as fumigant. The fumigant toxicity of the

essential oils of oreganum vulgare were tested against the adult German

cockroach, Blattella germanica. The response of the cockroaches varied

according to the concentration, and exposure time of the plant. High insecticidal

activity against adult B. germanica specimens was achieved with allyl

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isothiocyanate (component of horseradish) and the essential oil of Oreganum

vulgare at the concentration of 2.5 and 5 \mul l^{-1} of air, respectively.

Concentration and time-mortality tests were conducted for these 2 chemicals.

Estimated LC50 and LT50 values for allyl isothiocyanate were 0.68 \mul l^{-1} of

air and 6.51 h, respectively. The findings show that allyl isothiocyanate and

Oreganum vulgare had high insecticidal activity, and that they have potential as

fumigants for use against the German cockroaches. The essential oils and

monoterpenoid components of the two plants were studied in require in further

investigation to determine their potential as fumigants for cockroach control

(Tunaz et. al 2008).

Pest like cockroaches has been well established as a vector for viral,

bacterial and parasitic infections. Apart from its dirty, repulsive appearance and

the fetid odor, they are also the caused of some dangerous diseases like

asthma. Cockroaches have been established as the second most important

allergen, producing allergic diseases, especially in low socio economic

populations.

As mentioned in the study of (Tungtrongchiltr et. al 2004) as mentioned by

Chaimcumpa and Sookrung (2010). There are 44-61% of atopic patients that are

positive to cockroach extract by skin-prick test in Thailand. This study examined

cockroach allergen levels in relation to cockroach species and allergic diseases

in the houses of cockroach-sensitive patients. Sixty households of allergic

patients in the Bangkok metropolitan area were surveyed using open- and close-

ended questionaires. Cockroaches were collected using commercial cockroach

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traps, while dust samples were obtained from the bedrooms, kitchens and living

rooms of the houses using a vacuum cleaner. Cockroaches were counted and

their species identified. The levels of cockroach allergens were determined by

specific monocial antibodies using a monocianal-polyclonal antibody based on

Sandwich ELISA kit. Six cockroach species were identified. Periplaneta

americana (American cockroach, 72.15%), Supella longipalpa (2.75% found only

in only one house), Periplaneta brunnea (0.78%), Periplaneta australasiae (0.78),

Neostylopyga rhombifolia (0.78%) Blatella germanica (0.39%) and nymphs

(23.35%). Allergens of the predominant species, P. Americana, were detectable

in all homes studied, with the highest levels in the kitchen areas. The range of all

allergen levels in house dust varied from 0.40-162.00 ug per g of dust. The

median and mean allergen levels in the kitchen dust were 59.16 ug and 62.80 ug

per g of dust, respectively, while the median allergen level in bedroom dust was

only 15.90 ug per dust. The german cockroach allergen was undetectable in any

of the houses. To sum it all, P. americana was the most common cockroach and

may be the species causing allergic diseases, especially asthma, in Thailand.

Cockroaches can reproduce easily and can adopt in any temperature that

may lead for them to transmit their allergens to human easily. Asthma is one of

the induced disease caused by cockroaches and need to be solved quickly.

Based on the study of (Arruda and Chapman 2001) as mentioned on the

study of Arshad (2009) cockroach allergy has been recognized as an important

caused of asthma. Cockroach induced asthma has been described as a more

severe disease, associated with perennial symptoms and high levels of total IgE.
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Cockroaches produce several allergens that induce sensitization, and exposure

to high levels of cockroach allergens in the home is a major risk factor for

symptoms in sensitized individuals.

The sustained decrease in cockroach allergen levels is difficult to

accomplish, even after successful extermination of cockroach populations. The

use of recombinant cockroach allergens should allow mechanisms of cockroach-

induced diseases especially asthma to be investigated and may lead to the

development of new approaches to reduced the infestation of cockroaches in the

future. Cockroach pesticide and repellant must be improve to diminished the

continous bad effects of this pest.

.People have used various instruments to control the cockroach problem

in homes. The most popular is the commonly used commercial insecticide

sprays, coils, traps and repellents. Most of these can destroy or repel

cockroaches but they can also do serious damage to humans as well.

As studied by (Ghent and Amsterdam 2010) on the Bayer’s neonicotinoid

products, there are three most popular cockroach infestation instruments. The

first one is the insecticides spray. The active ingredients in most insecticides

spray against cockroaches, like tethramethrin, and petroleum distillates can

cause severe chest pains and cough attacks to humans when inhaled.The

second most popular instrument for solving the infestations of cockroaches is

the cockroach coils. These coils can kill cockroaches through its active

ingredients like allethrin, pynamin forte, prothrin and pyrethrin but can also cause
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harm to humans when inhaled. It also has an ozone-depleting ingredient.The

third most popular is the flypaper. The concept of the flypaper is simple. The

cockroaches just stick into it. But when they are stuck, the cockroaches die and

the carcass can spread more bacteria. In addition to the side effects of these

materials, the costs of these insecticides are high.

There are many possible types of repellents and insecticide to solve the

dangerous effects of cockroaches in the community. Some product solutions are

maybe alternatives or commercialized but the fact is some insect repellents and

insecticide are harmful for many.

According to (Cilliers 2011) the community need to find a safer and

alternative solution for getting rid of pests in a more humane and sanitary way,

and to lessen the use of dangerous chemical in pesticides. In his study, using of

chemicals in getting rid of pests has faster results than using electronic

cockroach repellent but there are also disadvantage in using this method, by

using chemicals it may harm human and pets. It can also pollute the air, the

water and the soil. Both instrument aim to make a device produces a safer and

alternative solution that will repel cockroaches to prevent further damage in the

property and to decrease the case of cockroach related diseases.

Safer cockroach repellent must be adress to dimished the dangerous

effect of cockroaches to humans in an alternative way. Organic materials must

be needed to use for the community to stop the infestations of this pest. Some

instruments that can be used are insecticide sprays, traps, coils and incense
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sticks. Although incense stick produces smoke but it is hard to quantify if it is

dangerous to humans.

According to the study of (Wang ,Lee, and Ho .2006) as mentioned by

(Tsai 2010), chemical Composition of Fine Particles from Incense stick burning in

a large environmental like particles from other biomass burning processes are

slightly the same. Particles from incense burning are organic-rich thermal

degradation products of bio-molecules, including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin,

etc. It is therefore expected that the organic particles from incense stick burning

resemble those from biomass burning [known as biomass burning organic

aerosol (BBOA)], even though smoldering is normally the only burning process

in incense burning. In fact, the similarity between particles from incense burning

and those from other types of biomass burning has been investigated recently.

Basically, incense stick burning process emits same particles like biomass

therefore it is organic.