Research for Experimental Marketing Design

Research for Marketing Decisions
Experimental Design
Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y" will have the
following meaning to an ordinary person and to a
scientist.
____________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
____________________________________________________
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.
X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the

(X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probable
cause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y).
It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a

that X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can
infer that X is a cause of Y.
2 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

Conditions for Causality
 Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause, X, and an
effect, Y, occur together or vary together in the way predicted by the
hypothesis under consideration.
 The time order of occurrence condition states that the causing
event must occur either before or simultaneously with the effect; it
cannot occur afterwards.
 The absence of other possible causal factors means that the
factor or variable being investigated should be the only possible
causal explanation.

Definitions and Concepts
 Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are manipulated and whose
effects are measured and compared, e.g., price levels.
 Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to the
independent variables or treatments is being examined, e.g., consumers or stores.
 Dependent variables are the variables which measure the effect of the independent
variables on the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market shares.
 Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent variables that affect the
response of the test units, e.g., store size, store location, and competitive effort.

Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of procedures specifying:
 the test units and how these units are to be divided into
homogeneous subsamples,
 what independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated,
 what dependent variables are to be measured; and
 how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.

Validity in Experimentation
 Internal validity
 refers to whether the manipulation of the independent variables or treatments

actually caused the observed effects on the dependent variables. Control of
extraneous variables is a necessary condition for establishing internal validity.
 External validity
 refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the experiment can

be generalized. To what populations, settings, times, independent variables, and
dependent variables can the results be projected?

Extraneous Variables
 History
 refers to specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same time
as the experiment.
 Maturation (MA)
 refers to changes in the test units themselves that occur with the passage of time.
 Testing effects
 are caused by the process of experimentation. Typically, these are the effects on the
experiment of taking a measure on the dependent variable before and after the
presentation of the treatment.
 The main testing effect (MT)

 occurs when a prior observation affects a latter observation.

 In the interactive testing effect (IT),
 a prior measurement affects the test unit's response to the independent
variable.
 Instrumentation (I)
 refers to changes in the measuring instrument, in the observers, or in the
scores themselves.
 Statistical regression effects (SR)
 occur when test units with extreme scores move closer to the average score
during the course of the experiment.

 Selection bias (SB)
 refers to the improper assignment of test units to treatment conditions.
 Mortality (MO)
 refers to the loss of test units while the experiment is in progress.

Controlling Extraneous Variables
 Randomization
 refers to the random assignment of test units to experimental groups by using random
numbers. Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to experimental groups.
 Matching
 involves comparing test units on a set of key background variables before assigning
them to the treatment conditions.
 Statistical control
 involves measuring the extraneous variables and adjusting for their effects through
statistical analysis.
 Design control
 involves the use of experiments designed to control specific extraneous variables.

A Classification of Experimental Designs
 Pre-experimental designs
 do not employ randomization procedures to control for extraneous factors:
the one-shot case study, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the static-
group.
 In true experimental designs,

 the researcher can randomly assign test units to experimental groups and
treatments to experimental groups: the pretest-posttest control group design,
the posttest-only control group design, and the Solomon four-group design.

 Quasi-experimental designs result when the researcher is

unable to achieve full manipulation of scheduling or allocation of
treatments to test units but can still apply part of the apparatus of
true experimentation: time series and multiple time series designs.
 A statistical design is a series of basic experiments that allows for

statistical control and analysis of external variables: randomized
block design, Latin square design, and factorial designs.

Experimental Designs
Pre-experimental True Experimental Quasi

Statistical
Experimental
One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized

Study Control Group Blocks
One Group Posttest: Only Multiple Time Latin Square

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Series
Static Group Solomon Four-Group Factorial Design

One-Shot Case Study
X 01
 A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X.
 A single measurement on the dependent variable is taken (01).
 There is no random assignment of test units.

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
01 X 02
 A group of test units is measured twice.
 There is no control group.
 The treatment effect is computed as 02 – 01.
 The validity of this conclusion is questionable since

extraneous variables are largely uncontrolled.

Static Group Design
EG: X 01
CG: 02
 A two-group experimental design.

 The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the treatment, and the
control group (CG) is not.
 Measurements on both groups are made only after the treatment.
 Test units are not assigned at random; selection bias issue
 The treatment effect would be measured as 01 - 02.
True Experimental Designs:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
EG: R 01 X 02
CG: R 03 04
 Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control
group.
 A pretreatment measure is taken on each group.
 The treatment effect (TE) is measured as: (02 - 01) - (04 - 03).
 Selection bias is eliminated by randomization.
 Most extraneous variables controlled for

Posttest-Only Control Group Design
EG : R X 01
CG : R 02
 The treatment effect is obtained by:

TE = 01 - 02
 Except for pre-measurement, the implementation of this design is
very similar to that of the pretest-posttest control group design.
 Time, cost and sample size advantages
 Simple to implement

Quasi-Experimental Designs: Time Series Design
01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
 Periodic measurements on group of test units
 There is no randomization of test units to treatments.
 The timing of treatment presentation, as well as which test units are

exposed to the treatment, may not be within the researcher's
control.
 Some extraneous variables, such as maturation, main testing effect

etc. controlled

Multiple Time Series Design
EG : 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
CG : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 010
 If the control group is carefully selected, this design can be an

improvement over the simple time series experiment.
 Can test the treatment effect twice: against the pretreatment

measurements in the experimental group and against the
control group.

Statistical Designs
Statistical designs consist of a series of basic experiments that
allow for statistical control and analysis of external variables and offer
the following advantages:
 The effects of more than one independent variable can be measured.

 Specific extraneous variables can be statistically controlled.
 Economical designs can be formulated when each test unit is measured
more than once.
The most common statistical designs are the randomized block

design, the Latin square design, and the factorial design.

Randomized Block Design
 Is useful when there is only one major external variable, such as
store size, that might influence the dependent variable.
 The test units are blocked, or grouped, on the basis of the external
variable.
 By blocking, the researcher ensures that the various experimental

and control groups are matched closely on the external variable.

Randomized Block Design
Treatment Groups
Block Store Commercial Commercial Commercial
Number Patronage A B C
1 Heavy A B C
2 Medium A B C
3 Low A B C
4 None A B C
A, B, C denote three test commercials with respectively no

humor, some humor and high humor
Latin Square Design
 Allows the researcher to statistically control two noninteracting external variables as
well as to manipulate the independent variable.
 Each external or blocking variable is divided into an equal number of blocks, or levels.
 The independent variable is also divided into the same number of levels.
 A Latin square is conceptualized as a table, with the rows and columns representing the
blocks in the two external variables.
 The levels of the independent variable are assigned to the cells in the table.
 The assignment rule is that each level of the independent variable should appear only
once in each row and each column, as shown in table

Latin Square Design
Interest in the Store

Store Patronage High Medium Low
Heavy B A C
Medium C B A
Low and none A C B
A, B, C denote three test commercials with respectively no

humor, some humor and high humor

Factorial Design
 Is used to measure the effects of two or more independent

variables at various levels.
 Allows for interaction between variables
 A factorial design may also be conceptualized as a table.
 In a two-factor design, each level of one variable represents a
row and each level of another variable represents a column.

Factorial Design
Amount of Humor
Amount of Store No Medium High
Information Humor Humor Humor
Low A B C
Medium D E F
High G H I
A to I are commercials with varying levels of store
information and humor
Laboratory Versus Field Experiments
Factor Laboratory Field

Environment Artificial Realistic
Control High Low
Reactive Error High Low
Demand Artifacts High Low
Internal Validity High Low
External Validity Low High
Time Short Long
Number of Units Small Large
Ease of Implementation High Low
Cost Low High

Limitations of Experimentation
 Time consuming, particularly if the researcher is interested in
measuring the long-term effects.
 Expensive – the requirements of experimental group, control group,
and multiple measurements significantly add to the cost of research.
 Difficult to administer. It may be impossible to control for the
effects of the extraneous variables, particularly in a field
environment.
 Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of a field
experiment.

Measurement and Scaling, Questionnaire Design

Scale Characteristics
Description
By description, we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to
designate each value of the scale. All scales possess description.
Order
By order, we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is
denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.

Scale Characteristics
Distance
The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the
scale descriptors are known and may be expressed in units.
Origin
The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning
or true zero point.

Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale
Nominal Numbers
Assigned Finish
to Runners 7 8 3
Ordinal Rank Order Finish

of Winners
Third Second First
place place place
Interval Performance
8.2 9.1 9.6
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale
15.2 14.1 13.4

Ratio Time to Finish
in Seconds
Nominal Scale
 The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects.
 The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the
objects.
 The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting.
 Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, are
permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode.

Ordinal Scale
 A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the
relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
 Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than
some other object, but not how much more or less.
 Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships
between the objects.
 In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal
scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile,
median.

Interval Scale
 Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic
being measured.
 Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary.
 Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the
properties of the scale.
 It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
 Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to
nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation,
and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.

Ratio Scale
 Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval

scales.
 It has an absolute zero point.
 It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
 Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is

a positive constant, are allowed.
 All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Scale Scale Scale Scale
Preference Preference Rs.spent last
No. Store Rankings Ratings 3 months
1-7 11-17
1. Spencer’s
7 79 5 15 0
2. Reliance
2 25 7 17 10000
3. Shoppers’ Stop
4. Lifestyle 8 82 4 14 0
5. Big Bazaar 3 30 6 16 2000
6. Westside 1 10 7 17 500
7. Max 5 53 5 15 750
8. Pantaloons 9 95 4 14 0
9. Trendz 6 61 5 15 500
10. Superbazaar 4 45 6 16 0
10 115 2 12 900

A Classification of Scaling Techniques
Scaling Techniques
Comparative Noncomparative
Scales Scales
Paired Rank Constant Continuous Itemized Rating

Comparison Order Sum Rating Scales Scales
Semantic Stapel
Likert
Differential
A Comparison of Scaling Techniques
 Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus

objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative
terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.
 In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of

the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally
assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales
 Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected.

 Easily understood and can be applied.
 Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
 Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to
another.

Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales
 Ordinal nature of the data
 Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.

Comparative Scaling Techniques
Paired Comparison Scaling
 A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one

according to some criterion.
 The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
 Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative
scaling technique.
 Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired
comparison data to a rank order.

Paired Comparison Scaling
The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The
consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one
with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum
of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for
a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very
important factors in the consumer’s purchasing decision, may not be a
good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of
New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind
paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful,
because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke.
A paired comparison
taste test

Rank Order Scaling
 Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and
asked to order or rank them according to some criterion.
 It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in
an absolute sense.
 Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling
Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of

preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most
and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand
and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have
ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least
preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10.
No two brands should receive the same rank number.
The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or

wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

Preference for soft drink brands
Using Rank Order Scaling
Form
Brand Rank Order
1. Mirinda _________
2. Fanta _________
3. Coke _________
4. Sprite _________
5. Seven Up _________
6. Limca _________
7. Pepsi _________
8. Maaza _________
9. Mountain Dew _________
10. Thums Up _________

Constant Sum Scaling
 Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to

attributes of a product to reflect their importance.
 If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points.
 If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives
twice as many points.
 The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
Using a Constant Sum Scale
Form
Average Responses of Three Segments
Attribute Segment I Segment II Segment III
1. Mildness 8 2 4
2. Lather 2 4 17
3. Shrinkage 3 9 7
4. Price 53 17 9
5. Fragrance 9 0 19
6. Packaging 7 5 9
7. Moisturizing 5 3 20
8. Cleaning Power 13 60 15
Sum 100 100 100
49
Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3
Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
 Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason
non-comparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales.
 Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized

rating scales.

Continuous Rating Scale
Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that
runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Lifestyle as a department store?

Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Version 3
Very bad Neither good Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Itemized Rating Scales
 The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief
description associated with each category.
 The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the

respondents are required to select the specified category that best
describes the object being rated.
 The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic
differential, and Stapel scales.

Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or
disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly

disagree agree nor agree
disagree
1. Lifestyle sells high-quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 5
2. Lifestyle has poor in-store service. 1 2X 3 4 5
3. I like to shop at Lifestyle. 1 2 3X 4 5
 The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be
calculated.
 When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the respondents should be
scored by reversing the scale.

Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with
bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
LIFESTYLE IS:
Expensive --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Cheap
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
 The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and
sometimes at the right.
 This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or
very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels.
 Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to
7 scale.

Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories
numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented
vertically.
LIFESTYLE
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4X -4
-5 -5
The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the
same way as semantic differential data.

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales
Jovan Musk for Men is: Jovan Musk for Men is:
Extremely good Extremely good
Very good Very good
Good Good
Bad Somewhat good
Very bad Bad
Extremely bad Very bad

Rating Scale Configurations
Tide detergent is:

1) Very harsh --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Very gentle
2) Very harsh 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very gentle
3) . Very harsh
. Cheer
.
. Neither harsh nor gentle
.
.
. Very gentle
4) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat Gentle Very
harsh harsh nor gentle gentle gentle
5) -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Very Neither harsh Very

harsh nor gentle gentle

Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing
CONSTRUCT SCALE DESCRIPTORS

Attitude Very Bad Bad Neither Bad Nor Good Good Very Good
Importance Not at All Important Not Important Neutral Important Very Important
Satisfaction Very Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neither Dissat. Nor Satisfied Satisfied Very Satisfied
Purchase Intent Definitely will Not Buy Probably Will Not Buy Might or Might Not Buy Probably Will Buy Definitely Will Buy
Purchase Freq Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very Often

Scale Evaluation
Scale Evaluation
Reliability Validity Generalizability
Test/ Alternative Internal

Retest Forms Consistency

Measurement Accuracy
The true score model provides a framework for
understanding the accuracy of measurement.
XO = XT + XS + XR
where
XO = the observed score or measurement

XT = the true score of the characteristic
XS = systematic error
XR = random error
Reliability
 Reliability can be defined as the extent to which measures are free
from random error, XR. If XR = 0, the measure is perfectly reliable.
 In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered identical sets

of scale items at two different times and the degree of similarity
between the two measurements is determined.
 In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent forms of the scale are

constructed and the same respondents are measured at two different
times, with a different form being used each time.

Reliability
 Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to which
different parts of a summated scale are consistent in what they indicate
about the characteristic being measured.
 In split-half reliability, the items on the scale are divided into two
halves and the resulting half scores are correlated.
 The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the average of all
possible split-half coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting
the scale items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and a value of 0.6 or
less generally indicates unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability.

Validity
 The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to which
differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among
objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or
random error. Perfect validity requires that there be no measurement
error (XO = XT, XR = 0, XS = 0).
 Content validity is a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well
the content of a scale represents the measurement task at hand.

Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
 If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly reliable. In this case XO

= XT, XR = 0, and XS = 0.
 If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly valid, since at a minimum
XO = XT + XR. Furthermore, systematic error may also be present, i.e.,
XS≠0. Thus, unreliability implies invalidity.
 If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may not be perfectly valid,
because systematic error may still be present (XO = XT + XS).
 Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for validity.

Questionnaire Design
Question content
 Is the iPhone efficient and user-friendly?
 Is the iPhone efficient?
 Is the iPhone user-friendly?
 Even better,
 Rate the iPhone, on a scale of 1 to 5, on
 User-friendliness
 Efficiency of operation

Don’t tax the respondent
 For how many hours did you watch Netflix last month?
 On an average, how many hours of Netflix do you watch in a week?
 Less than 2 hours
 2 hours to 3 hours
 More than 3 hours

Don’t tax the respondent
 Please rank the following Institutes on overall quality of the MBA:

 IIM A
 IIM B
 IIM C
 ----
 ----
 ----
 ----
 Provide respondent with automated options here; don’t collect open-
ended
Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

68
Don’t collect unanalyzable/incorrect data
 How often do you watch Netflix?

 Never
 Occasionally
 Often
 Regularly
 In a typical week, how often do you watch Netflix?
 Less than once
 1 to 2 times
 3 to 4 times
 More than 4 times

Conceal sensitive questions
 How often do you consume chocolate?
 Ask instead for household chocolate purchase

Avoid leading questions
 Do you think Netflix provides good entertainment?
 On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate Netflix on

 Entertaining content
 Value for money
 Quality of streaming
 Variety of content

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Research for Marketing Decisions

X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the

It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a

2 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

3 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

4 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

5 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 refers to whether the manipulation of the independent variables or treatments

 refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the experiment can

6 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 The main testing effect (MT)

7 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

8 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

9 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

10 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 In true experimental designs,

11 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 Quasi-experimental designs result when the researcher is

 A statistical design is a series of basic experiments that allows for

12 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

Pre-experimental True Experimental Quasi

One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized

One Group Posttest: Only Multiple Time Latin Square

Static Group Solomon Four-Group Factorial Design

13 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

14 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 A group of test units is measured twice.

 There is no control group.

 The treatment effect is computed as 02 – 01.

 The validity of this conclusion is questionable since

15 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 A two-group experimental design.

17 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 The treatment effect is obtained by:

18 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 Periodic measurements on group of test units

 There is no randomization of test units to treatments.

 The timing of treatment presentation, as well as which test units are

 Some extraneous variables, such as maturation, main testing effect

19 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 If the control group is carefully selected, this design can be an

 Can test the treatment effect twice: against the pretreatment

20 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 The effects of more than one independent variable can be measured.

The most common statistical designs are the randomized block

21 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 By blocking, the researcher ensures that the various experimental

22 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

A, B, C denote three test commercials with respectively no

24 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

Interest in the Store

A, B, C denote three test commercials with respectively no

25 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

 Is used to measure the effects of two or more independent

26 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

Factor Laboratory Field

28 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

29 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

Measurement and Scaling, Questionnaire Design

31 Research for Marketing Decisions Term 3

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Ordinal Rank Order Finish

15.2 14.1 13.4