Qușayy appears to be most significant leader and statesman in

pre-Islamic history of Mecca. He is credited to be a unifier

(mudhammi') who organized the tribal union of the Quraysh and

brought them from their dwellings to the settlement of Mecca.201

He behaved as a king over his tribe and the people of Mecca.202

Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Sa'ad both mention that he cut trees in the

haram district to renovate the periphery of the haram

district.203 Cutting trees in Haram is considered a crime in early

Islamic traditions. Apparently Qușayy got immunity from his

fellow tribesmen. He performed both cultic (hidhaba) and

political (siyada) functions over Ka'ba. He established the

institution of siqaya (that Quraysh will provide water to pilgrims

and probably to their animals) and rifada (that Quraysh will

provide food to the pilgrims).204 Ibn Ishaq reports that Quraysh

used to provide food to pilgrims.205 Siqaya and Rifada helped

Qușayy attaining total control of management of pilgrimage.

Azraqi has also described the ritual of lot-casting with arrows. 206

As this function was linked to the priest's office, Qușayy also

acted as judge (sahib al-qidah). Al-Fasi reports another privilege

of Quraysh. They performed official duties of arbitration on the

basis of the 'Qasama' and in return for which they were paid 100

camels per man.

207

Quşayy might have presided over Qasama ceremony.08 Azraqi

and Ibn Ishaq both report that Quşayy founded an assembly

house, Dar al-Nadwah (ogals) which was used for consulting

Quraysh, and only a Quraysh who had crossed forty years of age

was allowed in such consultations.209 Dar al-Nadwa was also

used for conducting ceremonies that had to do with the rites des
passages; entering into a marriage contract, performing

circumcision on young boys and carrying out ceremonies for girls

upon reaching puberty who were declared marriageable, received

a dir (a shift like dress) and were finally led into the house of their

parents. On the occasion of initiation ceremonies, ritual banquets

(T'dhar/'adhir/'adhira) were also celebrated.210 Quşayy kept

Liwa, the banner of war in Dar al-Nadwa and had a right to

declare war. In this regard he must have been, of course,

dependent on the assembly of noble men (mala). He was supreme

commander of military (qiyada). According to al-Hufi three war

banners were kept in the Dar al-Nadwa, one for the bani Kinänah,

another for the Ahābish and a third for the Quraysh. The Ka'ba

was considered property of a divinity; Quşayy acted as its

administrator and hence had access to the supernatural.21

Furthermore, it should not go unmentioned that QUşayy unifie

Qureysh on behalf of Allah. Azraqi mentions 'abuhum Qusayyu

kana yud'a mudjammi'an bi-hi djama'a Allahu al-qaba'ila min

Fihr?' meaning their father Quşayy is called the unifier, through

him Allah has united the tribes of Fihr.212 Fihr is fictitious

ancestor of the Quraysh. Similar passages are written by Ibn

Ishaq and ibn Sa'd.213 Hence we can see Qusayy converted Mecca

into a state like tribal entity. This entity remained neutral from

superpowers of the time up till advent of Islam, though it

underwent deterioration in terms of leadership and reduced to

mutually conflicting clans.

3
Over time the spiritual and political combined chieftainship of

Qusayy underwent a radical structural change. Political

leadership ultimately rendered itself independent of cultic

offices. In this process Meccan political organization became

dynastic. It was contrary to general Arab rule of succession of

chieftainship that was qu'dud. This kind of succession could be

under influence of the states existing in Arabia at that time.14

There are two versions how it took place. According to the first

version, passed onto us by Ibn Ishag, Qusayy's eldest son, 'Abd

al-Dar, assumed all functions of Quşayy and bequeathed them to

his agnates. Abd Manāf, who was more prominent son of Qussay

didn't get any of the functions. Later on 'Amir bin Häshim bin

Abd Manāf bin Quşayy, who belonged to the 4m descending

generation of Quşayy, contested for these privileges from

agnates of "Abd al-Där. The dispute was settled by "Abd al Dar

group

getting all rights except the offices of siqaya and rifada that were

allotted to Hashim bin Abd Manāf.215 According to second version

passed onto us by Azraqi on reference of ibn Djaridh and ibn

Ishaq, the first-born, 'Abd al-Där received the most important

cultic offices, namely the superintendence over the sanctuary

(hidhaba), through which he occupied the priest's office (sadaa).

Further political offices he got were protection of Dār al Nadwah

and the right of disposal over the war banner, liwa. The second

eldest 'Abd Manāf, had to content himself with siqaya and rifada,

however, he was also entrusted with military leadership, qiyada.

In this arrangement 'Abd al-Dār had a right to declare war but

Abd Manāf was commander of army. All important offices in

'Abd al-Dār segment were bequeathed. The functions of Abd

Manāf were, on the other hand, distributed among his agnates in

the following manner. Qiyada was assumed by his son 'Abd

Shams, siqaya and rifada was consigned to his brother Hāshim,

the great grandfather of Prophet Muhammad.217, 218 Duties of

rifada and Saquia ultimately fell on shoulders of 'Abdu Muttalib

bin Hashim.219 Friction that developed between two branches of

Qussay and as result of which combined offices separated and one

group became mutayyabun and the other ahlaf was of political

importance. Both groups had even separate cemeteries in

Mecca.220 It was this development after which 'Abd Manaf group,

who was deprived of cultic functions, was free to devote itself

more intensively to the development of foreign commercial

relations. 221

In 561 CE Byzantine and Sassanians entered into a peace treaty.

Paragraph five of this treaty dealt with duty payments on goods

brought in by Arab merchants. They could enter into Byzantine

only through border post of Daras and into Sassanid Empire

through Nisibis. This regulation of controlling goods coming

from Arabia was adhered to by the two great powers even when

they were involved in conflicts. It shifted the Mesopotamian

trade route towards northwest Arabia, a route that the Meccans,

by virtue of the geographic_cpLocation of their settlement,

could easily find access to. And this regulation formed a

prerequisite of any future settlement that Quraysh could enter

into with representatives of both goverments.222 Hāshim, being

relieved of cultic offices of ka'ba and well positioned to enter into

trade, was the first to conclude such treaty ('ahd yc) with the

representatives of Byzantine government in Syria. His brother

Abd Shams made such arrangements with the government

authorities in Sassanid Mesopotamia, Yemen and

Axum.223 Meccan society was a tribal class society, very dissimilarto capitalistic class society. Tribal
based social stratification in

Meccan society was more profound than economic stratification.

Exact details of stratification are not known due to lack of

sources. Probably it had four classes, tribes of equivalent

descent, clientele groups whose descent was not always clear,

certain craftsmen and slaves. The ruling class established its

social status, on the one hand, through ideology of heredity

(genealogy) and on the other, by right of disposal and control

over the most important means of production (land, cattle and

commercial capital). They claimed political self-determination.

The less privileged classes were further organized hierarchically

according to their birth and professional specialization. The

political right of self-determination was refused to them. They

were under protection of the ruling class on the basis of jiwar

relation.4 The less privileged groups were excluded from

participating in consultations in the Där-al-Nadwah. It is still not

clear what social status did freed slaves have.

Practice of redistribution of wealth to the poor was considered

piety and a mean of enhancing one's honour and hence it was a

matter of social prestige 225 Appearance of commercial capital in

one branch of Banu Quşayy resulted in wealth difference among

Meccans. The wealthier were able to redistribute to the poorer

segment. It is described as a positive trait of the Prophet's kin

group by early Muslim sources. Dostal suggests that this custom,

that was already present in the Prophet's family, would have

continued as zakät220 (6255). Three types of poor groups are

known; ta'if 1-khula'a, meaning the out casts; ta'ifa l-aghraba,

meaning probably bastards and ta'ifa 1-sa'alik al-fuqara,

Degears.227

6
No doubt, Ka'ba existed in Mecca before Islam. Its existence in

Mecca is proven by a tradition according to which the Himyar

ruler Abu Karb As'ad Tubba', who reigned during the first quarter

of 5th century CE225 visited Mecca. On this occasion he is said to

have ordered the ka'ba to be covered with a curtain/kiswa anda

sealing door.229 The question is how did Ka'ba look like before

Islam? Scholars have concluded that shape of its building evolved

over time. Ibn Jurayj (d. 767 CE), who was borm in Mecca, relates

that Ka'ba was originally an 'arish into which cattle could burst,

and it remained in this condition till Quraysh built the ka'ba 15

years before Prophet Muhammad's first revelation.20 Arish is a

term that Arabs used to describe the Tabernacle which was built

by the children of Israil in wilderness in Mosses times231 Another

report on authority of Ma'mar (d. 770 CE) narrates that the ka'ba

was built in the Jahilyyah with loose stones (radm), without clay.

Its height was such that young goats could burst into it. It had no

roof, its clothes (thiyab, ie. the Kiswa) were merely laid upon it,

hanging down. It had two corners like D shaped ring.232 These

two reports give an impression of an enclosure of four walls

without roof made with loose stones and clothes hanging down

the walls.

Almost all early Islamic sources are unanimous that Ka'ba was

rebuilt during youth of Prophet Mohammad. The date when

ka'ba was rebuilt into a roofed structure is not known exacthy.

Prophet Muhammad's age is said to be 15, 20, 30 or 35 by that

time by different authorities235 From these accounts the closest

guess is last quarter of 6th century CE.

However, the reason why they had to rebuild it is definitely

known. Azraqi reports that flood water used to flow down the

area of Bab bani Shayba which was situated opposite the facade of
ka'ba. A barrier (called Jidar and radm) was built in era of Jurhum

tribe along with Safa and Marwa to protect ka'ba from floods.235

According to Musa bin 'Uqba (d.758 CE), the barrier eventually

overflowed. It urged Quraysh to turn ka'ba itself into a massive

building.236, 237

Ibn Ishaq reports that timber for it was taken from a ship of

Byzantine merchant named Baqum which had been cast ashore

near Jeddah.238 An interesting report by ibn Hijr records that

Quraysh asked Baqum, who is reported to have been an architect

or a carpenter, to build the ka'ba for them 'on the model of

chuches.'239 Azraqi reports that they asked him to build ka'ba on

the Syrian model.240 It appears that only internal decoration of

ka'ba was on church style. Azraqi, Isami and abu l-Baqa report

that the interior of ka'ba was decorated with images of trees,

angels and some prophets including the images of Isa (Jesus) and

Mariam (Mary).241 Outer appearance remained that of a cubicle

as the name ka'ba indicates.

One sacred object in haram of Ka'ba was Hajrul Aswad, the black

stone also called Rukn. Black stone has not been in Ka'ba

originally. In an informative report al Fākihi tells ... Ata bin abi

Rabah from Ibn Abbas. He said: 'Quraysh discovered in the first

period of Jāhilyyah two stones on the summit of Abu Qubays.

These were brighter and more beautiful than any other stone

Quraysh had ever seen before. One of them was yellow and the

other was white. They said; 'by God, these stones do not belong

to the stones of our country, nor to the stones of any other

country that we know. They must have descended from the sky'.

Later on yellow stone was lost. Quraysh used to name it 'al-

Safir'. They kept the white one till they built ka'ba and then

placed it in it. This is the black rukn. 242 According to Ibn Sa'ad
people used to ascend the mountain of Abu Qubays in order to

stroke that stone, until it blackened and Qureysh removed it from

Abu Qubays four years before Prophet Muhammad's first

revelation 243

There were three more structures around Ka'ba, as important as

Ka'ba itself. They were the well of Zamzam, Maqām and Hijr.

Abd al-Razzaq and Azraqi both report that Quraysh were unable

to finance constructing Hijr as part of ka'ba so they constructed

the cubicle and left Hijr outside it.244

It means the original enclosure extended over Hijr but when

Ka'ba was rebuilt it was smaller leaving Hijr outside it. Areport

on authority of Ma'mar informs us that the semicircular

enclosure near ka'ba called Hijr was considered integral part of

ka'ba, indicating that Quraysh continued to consider it part of the

sacred ground where animals were sacrificed.245 Ibn Habib in

Munammaq quotes a pre-Islamic verse mentioning women were

lamenting the death of "Abdullah bin Jud'an between Zamzam

and Hijr.246 This report gives us cpLocation of Hijr between

Zamzam and Ka'ba. Isfahani and Ibn Kathir report that a man

from Zubayd was cheated by one of the Meccans when he came

there with his merchandise. He climbed up mountain of Abu

Qubays and asked for help from Quraysh. He stated that he had

been cheated 'between the Hijr and the Black Stone.247 This

tradition places Hijr along the front wall of ka'ba as we know

black stone was placed along front wall of Ka'ba. Another stone

of reverence that was moved to ka'ba was 'Maqām Ibrāhim'.

Fakihi, on reference of Wahb bin Munabbih (d. 728 CE) reports

that the Rukn (Black Stone) and the Maqäm were two sephites

which descended from heaven and were placed by Allah upon the

Safa. Later on Allah took away their brightness and placed them
in their present place.,243 It is known that Safa is a foot hill of Abu

Qubays. (Marwa is a foothill of mount Qu'ayqi'an).249 Maqam

was placed close to front wall of ka'ba. Fākihi reports on

reference of Awfal bin Mu'awiya that in the days of 'Abd ul

Muttalib Magam was adjacent to ka'ba. When Khargushi (d. 1015

CE) visited Ka'ba he saw Maqām inside ka'ba with footprints on

it,250

10

Zamzam was a well in vicinity of Ka'ba. Water might have been

present near Ka'ba earlier but Abd ul Muttalib dug the well.

According to Ibn Ishaq, when Abd ul Muttalib discovered

Zamzam, Quraysh disputed its ownership saying that 'this is the

well of our father Isma'il”. This report gives a clue that Quraysh

tended not to accept ownership of Abd al Muttalib to the well

claiming that water was present before the well was dug and it

should be a communal property.251 Where exactly Zamzam was,

is evident from the fact that 'Abdallah bin Khatal was executed on

orders of the Prophet at the time of conquest of Mecca, and it was

between Zamzam and Maqam, as reported by Ibn Hajar.252 A map

of the area can be sketched in light of these traditions (sketch 1).

Yaqut, Azraqi, Ibn Hajar, khargushi and abu l-Baqa all report that

Hatīm was located between the black rukn, the door of the ka'ba,

Muqam Ibrāhīm and Zamzam suggesting for us that term Hijr was

used interchangeable with Hatīm.253

11

Ka'ba was a sacred ground for religious purposes. Its religious

importance will be discussed in the section of pre Islamic

religious believes. Here, it will be appropriate to discuss another

function of ka'ba. It was used as a public square. Ibn Habīb

mentions in Muhabbar that whenever a leap year was observed in

pre-Islamic era, it was proclaimed by one qalaamisa standing at

the door of the ka'ba and another at Hijr.254 When Prophet

Muhammad adopted Zayd bin Harith he announced it at Hijr

according to Baladhuri.255 Similarly, according to ibn Ishaq's

report whatever measures Quraysh had to take against Prophet

Muhammad were discussed at Hijr. 256

12

Mecca had not succumbed to any foreign powers. External

powers, anyhow, were adamant to snatch independence from

Meccans. A tradition recorded by Ibn Sa'id in his Naswat al-

Tarab reports an interesting attempt by Sassanians to cast their

power over Mecca. When Qubad (r. 488 - 531 CE) embraced the

faith of Mazdak and deposed the Banu Nasr who refused to accept

it, Hārith al-Kindi accepted the faith. Qubad, the story relates,

ordered Harith to impose this faith on the Arabs of Nejd and

Tihamah. (Hārith bin 'Amr al-Kindi was accepted king of Arabs

by Qubad after defeat of Lakhmids at Hārith's hands]. When these

tidings reached Mecca some people embraced the faith of Mazdak

and when Islam appeared there was a group of people who were

indicated as former Mazdakites (zanādiq). There were however

people who refrained from embracing this faith. Among them

was 'Abd Manāf, who gathered his people and stated that he

would not abandon the religion of Isma'il and Ibrāhīm and follow

a religion imposed by the sword. When Harith came to know

about it he reported it to Qubad. Qubad ordered him to rush upon

Mecca, to destroy the ka'ba, to kill 'Abd Manāf and to abolish the

leadership of Banu Quşayy. Hārith was not willing to comply with

the order; because of his partisanship of the Arabs. He prevented

Qubad from it and Qubad was busy with other people than

Quraysh. The tradition may be spurious, but it points to the wish

of Sassanian's to control Meccans.257

13
An important event, mentioned by almost all early Islamic

sources, was the Yemenite king Abraha's threat to invade Mecca.

It occurred in the year of elephant, guessed to be 553 CE from

Abraha's inscription. It changed whole political scenario in

Mecca. It was only after this event that Quraysh started

organising a tribal association by name of Hums. Many clans of

different tribes joined Hums. On the other hand, Hums could not

gain support of all clans of any single tribe. 258 This tribal

organization was based on common religious believes rather than

common ancestry. Hums members were thought to be pure and

were called Muhrimun while Hilla who did not joint Hums were

impure and were called Muhillun. Hums had pledged to defend

Ka'ba and position of Quraysh as wardens of Ka'ba.259 Hums was

not an exclusive group like an ancestry based tribe. Anybody

could joint it by accepting conditions of membership.260 Quraysh

did not give their daughters in marriage unless on a condition

that the children will be Hums. They themselves married women

only from Hums. Hence marriage policy of Quraysh strengthened

Hums.261 Some religious beliefs of Hums will be discussed in the

section of pre Islamic religious believes.

14

Development of Hums by Quraysh was an important milestone in

history of Mecca. It was a supra-tribal organization, whose

members considered themselves united by the same religion (din

ws) rather than blood ties. Later on Islamic ummah was

organized on the same principal that eventually evolved into a

state263 Member tribes of Hums were scattered all over the

peninsula.264 Hums had their own military troops, the Dhada

Muhrimun.265 It cannot be overlooked that by Hums union

Quraysh acquired means for integrating Mecca into the network

of Arabian foreign commerce. 266 To strengthen trade further,

Hāshim bin Abd Manāf initiated ilaf contract with those tribes

who did not belong to Hums. Ilaf is considered an agreement

whereby a tribe gives guarantee of life and property when others

enter into this tribe's sovereign area. On the basis of these

contracts and the contracts mentioned above with foreign lands,

Quraysh could conduct their celebrated winter and summer

commercial caravan.267 Al-Marzuqi informs that Quraysh only

conducted their caravans through the parts of Arabia under

control of the Mudar confederation in this way, and for the rest,

they had to pay tolls (khararah, the modern siyarah). By figuring

out the tribes who asked for tolls, one can calculate boundaries of

influence of Meccan haram. Tribes outside this might be attached

to other religious centers.268

15