Original Research

Oxygen Uptake of Wave Surfers and

Complementary Parameters in Front Crawl and
Surfing-Paddling Tests
Daniel F. Godoy,1 Eduardo L. Cadore,2 Wellington G. Feitosa,1,3 Ricardo de A. Correia,1 and
Flávio A. de S. Castro1
1
Aquatic Sports Research Group, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Dance, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul,
Porto Alegre, Brazil; 2Strength Training Research Group, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Dance, Federal University of
Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; and 3Faculty of Physical Education, Cearà State University, Fortaleza, Brazil

Abstract
Godoy, DF, Cadore, EL, Feitosa, WG, Correia, RdA, and Castro, FAdS. Oxygen uptake of wave surfers and complementary
parameters in front crawl and surfing-paddling tests. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2645–2650, 2021—The aim of this study was to
assess the reliability of the oxygen uptake and complementary parameters (heart rate [HR], blood lactate concentration, and rate of
perceived exertion [RPE]) obtained from surfers swimming and paddling in a swimming pool. Fourteen recreational male surfers
(37.7 6 4.7 years old) were evaluated in (a) a maximal 300-m front crawl test and (b) paddling in a surfboard test, both at the same
intensity and for the same duration. Peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak) during the tests (direct method), HR, blood lactate concentration
(LA), and RPE were assessed. Two-way analysis of variance, a simple Student t test, effect size calculation, intraclass correlation
coefficient, and limits of agreement were applied. In general, the tests presented similar results (except for HR), with low agreement,
high intraclass correlation, and average to large effect sizes between swimming and paddling. The results suggest that surfers
training in a swimming pool should not simply be swimming. Front crawl swimming and surf paddling are 2 distinct actions that
should be practiced and tested on their own merits rather than assumed to be interchangeable.
Key Words: swimming, assessment, physiological parameters

Introduction
Surfing is practiced in many regions around the planet and can be
considered a sport, physical exercise, or a leisure activity. It is
performed intermittently, with high-intensity moments in-
terspersed with periods of low intensity and rest (4). High levels of
strength, aerobic power, and dynamic postural control are im-
portant factors in surfing performance (22). These physical
capacities will all make easier for a surfer who is paddling to
overcome the wave’s breaking point, sprint paddle to catch
a wave, and pop-up on the surfboard in an explosive way, which
will consequently improve the overall surfing performance.
Studies focusing on the physiological characteristics of surfers,
among other possibilities (14), are still scarce and involve the
technical difficulty of undertaking studies in the ocean.
Studies on surfing are also hampered by the fact that this sport
is practiced outdoors in nature where it is impossible to control
the climatic conditions (i.e., wave height, breaking point distance,
and currents) and, consequently, the physical demands. Studies
investigating oxygen uptake (V̇ o2) during maximal surfing-
paddling effort are scarce. To provide experimental conditions
close to those of surfing, V̇ o2 has been assessed using arm ergo-
meters on adapted boards out of the water (14,16,18).
As an alternative to the difficulties of investigating surfing in
the ocean, surfers can be assessed in modalities similar to those of
surfing, such as swimming using boards in swimming pools.
Address correspondence to Flávio A. de S. Castro, souza.castro@ufrgs.br.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 35(9)/2645–2650
ª 2019 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Wave surfers, especially those who live far from the ocean,
commonly undertake training in pools using a surfboard. This
situation can provide a controlled environment and easy access to
technicians and coaches. It therefore seems useful to design
evaluation protocols that could be applied to prescribe training
based on physical tests in the same environment. In fact, it has
been suggested that surfing practice can be improved by aerobic
training of the upper-body muscles (18), such as that performed in
a swimming pool, swimming or surfing-paddling.
A surfer’s metabolic demands have been quantified through
V̇ o2 measures using specific ergometers for swimming adapted
using surfboards (11). It has been demonstrated that a surfer
spends several minutes paddling on the board at high intensity,
using upper-body muscle groups (18). An assessment of upper-
limb aerobic power thus seems useful to improve the training of
these athletes (18). Despite the importance of V̇ o2 assessment to
identify the physiological demands of surfing, specific tests to
measure a surfer’s V̇ o2 in swimming pools using surfboards have
not been determined, and only tests using incremental paddling
ergometers have been used (11,14).
Two protocols have been widely used among swimmers, for
direct V̇ o2 measurement: (a) an incremental swim speed test with
200-m repetitions until exhaustion and (b) 400-m testing at max-
imum speed, which has been pointed out similar to the swim speed
required to reach the maximal oxygen uptake (V̇ o2) (25). Con-
sidering the possibilities of surfing training and the similarities
between surfing and swimming, the aim of this study was to assess
the reliability of the oxygen uptake and complementary parameters
(heart rate [HR], blood lactate concentration, and rate of perceived

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 Pool-Based Front Crawl and Surfing-Paddling Tests (2021) 35:9
exertion [RPE]) obtained from surfers swimming and paddling in
a swimming pool. Our hypothesis is that the V̇ o2 and comple-
mentary physiologic parameters (HR, blood lactate concentration,
and RPE) obtained from both tests would be similar, highly cor-
related, and concordant. To the best of our knowledge, this is the
first study assessing the surfer’s physiological parameters directly in
water, even simply in a swimming pool.
Methods
Experimental Approach to the Problem
To test the study’s hypothesis, the experiments were conducted in
a 25-m length pool over 3 days.
First Day. Subjects’ anthropometric data collection and famil-
iarization with the instruments and protocols were done. Body
mass and height were recorded following the ISAK protocol (21).
The subjects performed a 150-m front crawl and 150-m paddling
on a soft board (board developed for teaching surfing) as a warm-
up. They then performed two 200-m repetitions, the first front
crawl and the second surf paddling on the board, both at low
intensity, but breathing into the Aquatrainer snorkel (COSMED,
Rome, Italy). The subjects then performed 2 more 100-m repeti-
tions with the snorkel, at maximum intensity: the first in front
crawl and the second surf paddling. These are the intensities used
in the subjects’ swimming and surf paddling training. After each
distance covered (200 or 100 m), the Borg 6–20-point perceived
exertion scale (6) was used, and the subject indicated the RPE.
Second Day. Before the warm-up (previously described), the
subjects rested for 5 minutes. In the last 30 seconds of the rest
period, V̇ o2, respiratory exchange rate (RER), HR, blood lactate
concentration (LA), and RPE relative to rest were recorded. The
subjects then had a 150-m warm-up, swimming front crawl, and
surfing-paddling 150 m with the surfboard. They then immedi-
ately swam 300-m front crawl using a snorkel (Aquatrainer;
COSMED) at low intensity. The subjects then performed the 300-
m front crawl all-out test (FCT). V̇ o2 and RER were collected
throughout the FCT. Heart rate, LA, and RPE were collected
immediately at the end of the FCT. The FCT total time was
obtained with a manual chronometer (Casio HS-70W; Casio,
Tokyo, Japan).
Third Day. All procedures before the test (rest and warm-up)
were the same as the second day. A surfing-paddling test (SPT)
was conducted, similar to that of the second day, with the same
duration as that of the FCT. As the surfboard made turns difficult,
subjects made their return movement on the “T” line at the bot-
tom of the pool, for each lap covered. V̇ o2 and RER were collected
throughout the SPT. Heart rate, LA, and RPE were collected
immediately at the end of the SPT. A 183-cm length soft board
was used for subjects with a total body mass up to 75 kg, and
a 203-cm length soft board was used for subjects with a total body
mass over 75 kg for the SPT. The SPT duration was the same as
that of the FCT, but the distance covered in the SPT was properly
recorded. Figure 1 shows a subject performing the SPT.
Subjects
Subjects were 14 male surfers (37.0 6 4.7 years old, ranging from
29 to 45 years old; 21.2 6 6.7 years of surfing; 177.8 6 7.1 cm
height; and 77.7 6 7.8 kg body mass) who practiced surfing in
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between four and seven 60-minute sessions per month. They had at
least 3 years of swimming experience, training at least twice a week.
Subjects were also able to complete 1,000-m continuous swimming
in under 25 minutes. The sample size was calculated in the
G*Power program taking into account the use of the F test (anal-
ysis of variance [ANOVA]), with 0.8 as statistical power, 0.4 as
estimated effect size, and an alpha of 0.05. This study was ap-
proved by the research ethics committee of the Federal University of
Rio Grande do Sul, respecting the guidelines of the Helsinki Dec-
laration. All subjects provided written informed consent.
Procedures
Both V̇ o2 and RER were obtained, breath-by-breath, by means
of a portable ergometer (K5; COSMED). The K5 and Aqua-
trainer snorkel were moved slightly forward and above the
surfer (at a height of 2 m) on a double pulley attached to double
steel ropes, minimizing disturbances to normal swimming and
paddling movements. The K5 was calibrated according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations, using previously known
concentrations of gases (16% O2 and 5% CO2). The data were
extracted from OMNIA software (COSMED) and smoothed in
Excel spreadsheets, following the procedures: (a) a graph was
first created to verify the V̇ o2 curve obtained from the breaths;
(b) identification and separation of warm-up, rest, and test
periods; and (c) withdrawal of irregular breaths caused by
possible swallowing or coughing. V̇ o2 data were filtered and
analyzed by means of the calculation of means and SDs for
every 10 seconds of recorded breaths, with values greater or
less than the average plus or minus 4 SDs, according to the
procedures described previously (9,19). As neither of the tests
applied was progressive, but at maximum intensity from start
to finish, no V̇ o2 plateaus were identified, so the maximum V̇ o2
value after filtering was identified and represented as peak
oxygen consumption (V̇ O2peak). The respective RER values
were identified at the same identification points of rest and
V̇ O2peak values.
A transmitter was located in the region of the subject’s xiphoid
appendix to verify the HR at rest and after test (Polar V800 with
H10 Bluetooth transmitter; Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland).
The highest HR found in each subject after each test was recorded.
The blood lactate concentration was analyzed before and after
each test using an Accutrend Plus lactometer (Roche, Mannheim,
Germany). The blood sample was a drop of arterialized blood,
with potential volumes between 15 and 50 mL, from the index
finger. After warming-up, during rest, and after each test, the 15-
point Borg scale was shown to subjects, who indicated the RPE
according to their perception.
Statistical Analyses
Data distribution was previously verified using the Shapiro-Wilk
test. Means, SDs, and means’ confidence limits (95%) were cal-
culated. Comparisons were performed in 2 models. (a) A two-way
ANOVA was applied for the variables under 2-factor effect (each
test and each moment). When interaction was significant, the
splitting was performed with separate comparisons using the Stu-
dent t test for paired data. This model was applied to V̇ o2, HR, LA,
and RPE data. Test effect sizes were calculated with h2 (8): ,0.13:
small effect; 0.14–0.26: medium effect; and .0.26: large effect. (b)
A simple Student t test was applied for the comparison of the fixed
distance of the FCT and the SPT distance (variable as a function of
 Pool-Based Front Crawl and Surfing-Paddling Tests (2021) 35:9 |

Figure 1. A subject performing the SPT with a respiratory snorkel and valve system (Aquatrainer; COSMED)
coupled a telemetric gas exchange system (K5; COSMED). SPT 5 surfing-paddling test.

the duration of the FCT). Specific Cohen’s d was applied, when
insignificant effect size 0 , d , 0.19; small effect size 0.20 # d #
0.49; medium effect size 0.50 # d # 0.79; large effect size 0.80 #
d # 1.29; and very large effect size d . 1.30 (10). The intraclass
correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated to verify the correlation
between the data obtained from both protocols. The significance
was tested with the F test. Data agreement was analyzed using the
Bland-Altman graphics. The Bland-Altman method includes the
estimation of confidence intervals for bias (95%) and limits of
agreement (the limits of 95% according to the mean difference of
the SDs: 21.96 and 1.96) (5,17). For this purpose, the following
validity criterion was adopted: values should be at least 80%
within the concordance limits (mean difference of 6 1.96 of SD)
(2,3,12,13). In this case, (a) the difference between the values
obtained from both protocols was compared with the null value
with a simple Student t test, and (b) the data dispersion was ana-
lyzed with simple linear regression, whose significance was tested
with an F test. All procedures were performed in the IBM SPSS 23
program, with 0.05 as the level of significance.
Results
Both tests, FCT and SPT, lasted approximately 322.0 6 33.0 sec-
onds. No difference was found when comparing the variables at rest
before each test (V̇ o2, HR, LA, and RPE, respectively, for the FCT
and SPT were as follows: 7.1 6 1.7 and 7.5 6 2.4 ml·kg21·min21;
92.1 6 13.8 and 93.7 6 14.2 b·min21; 2.8 6 1.3 and 2.7 6
0.8 mmol·L21; and 10.3 6 1.6 and 9.6 6 1.7 points). V̇ O2peak
was identified at 287.7 6 96.0 and 311.5 6 72.2 seconds, re-
spectively, for the FCT and SPT. No statistical difference was
identified between these points, and the effect size of the tests at
the point of identification of the V̇ O2peak was 0.07. Table 1
shows the results for both tests and the statistical results of the
comparisons between the tests.
Table 2 presents the ICCs between the FCT and SPT’s
parameters.
Figure 2 shows, respectively, the Bland-Altman diagrams for
V̇ O2peak, HR, LA, and RPE, for agreement analysis of the values
obtained from the FCT and SPT.
No linear patterns of dispersion between mean and difference
values were found (p . 0.05). The mean differences of (a)
V̇ O2peak (2.57 6 4.07 ml·kg·min21) and HR (15.6 6 26.4
b·min21) were noted to be different from zero (respectively, t13 5
2.36; p 5 0.034 and t13 5 22.21, p 5 0.045); however, the mean
differences of LA (1.5 6 2.3 mmol·L21) and RPE (0.7 6 2.5
points) are similar to zero (respectively, t13 5 22.42, p 5 0.03
and t13 5 20.106, p 5 0.91).
Discussion
This study compared and verified the correlation and agreement
of oxygen uptake, HR, blood lactate concentration, and RPE
obtained in the FCT and SPT. The main result of this study is that
the V̇ O2peak values obtained from the front crawl and paddling
tests were similar, with small test effect size, poor agreement, and
strong intraclass correlation, although there was a strong trend of
difference (i.e., p 5 0.051).
In general, subjects in this study were older (37.0 6 4.7 years)
and had longer experience in the modality (21.2 6 6.7 years) than
surfers evaluated in other studies; however, such studies were
conducted with professional surfers (23), junior competitors (1),
and amateur surfers (18). It should be pointed out that the sub-
jects of this study were recreational surfers who did not compete
but practiced surfing at least 4–7 times a month for 60 minutes

Table 1
V̇ O2peak, RER, HR, LA, and RPE in mean, SD, and mean 95% limits of confidence (n 5 14).*
FCT SPT F p h2
VȮ 2peak (ml·kg21·min21) 38.5 6 5.3 (35.4–41.5) 36.2 6 6.2 (32.2–39.5) 4.63 0.051 0.26
RER 1.07 6 0.7 (1.02–1.11) 1.03 6 0.08 (0.98–1.08) 3.32 0.091 0.20
HR (b·min21) 146 6 23 (133–15) 162 6 14‡ (153–170) 5.06 0.042 0.28
LA (mmol·L21) 10.4 6 2.9 (8.7–12.1) 12.0 6 1.9 (10.8–13.1) 2.58 0.13 0.16
RPE (points) 16.6 6 2.4 (15.2–18.0) 16.7 6 1.43 (15.8–17.5) 0.42 0.52 0.11
*RER 5 respiratory exchange rate; HR 5 heart rate; RPE 5 rate of perceived exertion; FCT 5 front crawl test; SPT 5 surfing-paddling test; F 5 Fisher exact test value.
Comparison results between the FCT and SPT.

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 Pool-Based Front Crawl and Surfing-Paddling Tests (2021) 35:9
Table 2
V̇ O2peak, HR, LA, and RPE intraclass correlation coefficients, n 5
14.*
ICC CI 95%
VȮ 2peak (ml·kg21·min21) 0.86† 0.57 to 0.95
HR (b·min21) 0.1 21.73 to 0.71
LA (mmol·L21) 0.72† 0.12 to 0.91
RPE (points) 0.33 21.06 to 0.78
*HR 5 heart rate; RPE 5 rate of perceived exertion; ICC 5 intraclass correlation coefficient; CI 5
confidence interval; F 5 Fisher exact test value.
†Significant intraclass correlation coefficient.
each time. This group used swimming as a complementary
practice and focused on the physical reparation for surfing during
the week, whereas actual surfing was practiced only at the
weekends. Therefore, although our findings should be applied
mainly in amateur surfers, it has an important practical applica-
tion because most surfers around the world share this amateur
status, not living by the sea or surfing only during the weekends.
Because of this, they use alternative training methods, as swim-
ming, when they cannot properly surf. Nevertheless, care should
be taken when extrapolating our data to competitive surfers, es-
pecially considering the required training and competition
intensity.
The oxygen uptake values obtained in the FCT and SPT can be
referred to as the V̇ O2peak because a single maximum effort
(rectangular test) was used, different from progressive protocols;
however, swimming and 400-m FCTs, with durations similar to
those of this study, allow for similar swimming speeds, corre-
sponding to the V̇ o2max (20,24). The V̇ O2peak values found in
Figure 2. V̇O2peak, HR, LA, and RPE agreement analysis; n 5 14. HR 5 heart rate; RPE 5 rate of perceived exertion.
Copyright © 2019 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
this study (respectively, for the front crawl and surfing) were 38.5
6 5.3 and 36.2 6 6.2 ml·kg21·min21. These values were mea-
sured directly during the surfer’s tests and are specific to the
F p evaluated gestures.
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are no studies that
7.23 0.001
1.14 0.40
assess oxygen consumption in surfers using surfboard tests in the
3.56 0.015 water, which makes the protocol of this study a pioneer in studies
1.51 0.23 with this population. The V̇ o2max of surfers in tests adapted to
the modality has been reported in the literature. The upper-body
aerobic fitness of world elite competitive surfers and regional
competitive surfers was assessed using a rowing ergometer
adapted to the test, with a surfboard (15,16). The V̇ O2peak values
of the regional athletes were 47.9 6 6.2 ml·kg21·min21 (15). The
V̇ O2peak was also evaluated in 8 professional surfers by means of
an arm-lever ergometer cycle, recording average values of 47.1 6
6.8 ml·kg21·min21 (18). As can be seen, both studies (15,18)
presented higher V̇ o2 values than this study. Another study (14)
found V̇ O2peak of 39.5 6 3.1 ml·kg21·min21 for athletes and
37.8 6 4.5 ml·kg21·min21 for recreational surfers, which are
similar values to those presented here, despite obtaining their
values in an adapted ergometer. It should be highlighted, how-
ever, that this study used more specific and ecological methods:
surfing-paddling in the water, not in an ergometer.
The subjects reached a lower HR on the FCT than SPT. This
may be due to the greater familiarity of the volunteers with
paddling than swimming front crawl for such a long and high-
intensity period. A group of 10 surfers (27.7 6 7.4 years old) were
evaluated during 2 sessions of recreational surfing on beaches in
Brazil, lasting from 840 to 4,860 seconds, and HR values (135.0
6 23.4 b·min21) were lower than those of this study (7). The
experimental conditions were different: in this study, continuous
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and vigorous surfing-paddling was measured, in contrast to
a surfing session on the sea. Similar V̇ o2 and lower HR in the FCT
could be related to the possible effect of the body submerged.
Water immersion and horizontal position increase the blood
volume and central venous pressure, which can lead to a re-
duction in the HR for a similar exercise intensity (1).
The results for LA in the FCT (10.4 6 2.7 mmol·L21) and SPT
(12.1 6 2.7 mmol·L21), when compared with the rest moments
(2.8 6 1.3 and 2.7 6 0.8 mmol·L21, respectively), demonstrated
that the subjects performed both tests at high-intensity and in-
creased anaerobic contribution. Such concentrations of LA are
higher than those found in a test that sought to evaluate the
V̇ O2peak of competitive junior surfers (LA 8.2 6 2.7 mmol·L21)
(14). Although this study observed higher lactate values than the
aforementioned studies, it should be noted that a maximum effort
of 300 seconds may not represent the specific activity of a com-
petitive heat or free surfing session because the distances are ful-
filled more intermittently. On the other hand, the observed high
concentrations emphasize that the protocol used took the surfers
very close to maximum effort, and the physiological variables
extracted from this test may be very useful for the prescription of
training for the surfers.
The RPE results in this study (16.6 6 2.44 points for the FCT
and 16.7 6 1.44 points for the SPT) indicate that there was no
difference in the internal load between the tests, and the subjects
performed the tests at high-intensity efforts, close to the maxi-
mum. These results show that the SPT, at the same intensity and
duration, will result in an approximately 28% longer distance
than the FCT to reach the same RPE. If the secondary parame-
ters of analysis for the identification of V̇ o2max (blood lactate
concentration, HR, and RPE) were analyzed, together with the
mean age of the subjects of this study, it would be possible to
infer that if V̇ O2peak is not V̇ o2max in surfers, it is very close to
this. This result is particularly important when prescribing
swimming pool training. The mean swimming speed in a 400-m
FCT is similar to the minimum swim speed necessary to reach
the V̇ o2max (20,26).
Medium effect sizes were found in the crawl and paddling tests
for V̇ O2peak and RER, and large for HR, LA, and RPE. These
results may help to provide a suitable training prescription to
surfers who, in swimming, seek to improve their paddling con-
ditions and thus increase the quality of surfing performed. The
main limitations of this study are as follows: (a) the absence of on-
site measures, closer to the reality of the modality and (b) the lack
of an incremental test to identify maximum oxygen consumption.
Future developments in technology are expected to make it pos-
sible to obtain data while actually surfing in the ocean. An in-
cremental test was not used because a test closer to the training
routine of the surfers was preferred. The hypothesis that the V̇ o2
obtained from both tests would be similar, highly correlated, and
concordant was partially confirmed because the V̇ o2 values were
similar, correlated but not concordant.
Regarding the agreement analysis (Bland-Altman), the crite-
rion adopted was that at least 80% of the values should be within
the concordance limits (mean difference of 6 1.96 of SD). In
Figure 2, it is possible to observe that none of the variables pre-
sented this result. Besides that, the mean differences of V̇ O2peak
and HR, obtained from both tests, were noted to be different from
zero, which indicates the poor agreement between the variables.
One should consider the difference between the front crawl and
paddling technique regarding the kicking: In front crawl, surfers
do kick 2, 4, or 6 beats per stroke cycle, as any swimmer. How-
ever, when paddling, there is no kicking. If the surfer does not kick
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Copyright © 2019 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
|
in the front crawl, the body, possibly, would be in a deeper po-
sition, which increases drag. To avoid this problem, the surfers
performed both tests as closely as possible to their actual char-
acteristics, swimming or paddling.
Practical Applications
The results of this study indicate that: (a) front crawl and
surfing-paddling produce similar V̇ o2 values; (b) there is
a significant intraclass correlation between these data; and
(c) there is no data agreement. According to these findings,
the modalities (i.e., front crawl and surfing-paddling) do
not produce identical results. The present findings advance
the body of knowledge regarding the physical training ap-
plied to surfing. As a practical application, these results
make it possible to use both tests of the mean speed to
prescribe the most suitable intensities with which to achieve
higher values of oxygen consumption and, therefore, im-
prove physical surfing training for recreational surfers.
Considering that the surfers in this study achieved physio-
logical parameters close to maximum in the distance used in
the paddling test (i.e., approximately 415-m surfing-
paddling), it is possible to prescribe intensities associated
with the average speed of the test, related to maximum
oxygen consumption, and close to the anaerobic threshold
intensity. In this way, surfers training series, swimming or
paddling, could be performed, at the test speed, or close to,
in an attempt to increase V̇ o2 because aerobic power is an
important factor in surfing performance (22).
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