Model 1

How are traits selected

- Natural selection
o Selection of the fittest
 Darwin fitness Able to survive, reproduce
 Not necessarily the best
 Only this one adapt population to enviroment
 Only on parents
- Sexual selection
o Assortative mating:
o short humans like short humans
o Inbreeding depression: low fitness if inbreed, X allel frequency but reduce geneotype
- Genetic Drift
o Refers to set of population process where sampling error affects allele
 Founder effect (found a new place)
 Small group of weid people move to a new place and change the entire
dna
 bottle neck (same place, suddenly die)
 A population suddenly crash to a small number of survivours
 Poputlation are small
- Random mutation
- Gene flow
o movement of genes between in either gametes between populations
o sudden arrival or departure of individuals from another environment

Ways of selecting

- Directional: shift left/right

- Disruptive: the extreme ones
- Stabilizing: the ones in the middle

But why do we need the bad traits

- variation created by
o Mutations
o Sexual selection
- Active maintenance of variation in population balance polymprphism
- Sources
o Dipoidy
 Hides the harmful alleles
o Patchy environments
 Ie the world becomes very cold, at least the fat people can survive
o Frequency dependent selection
  When a specific phenotype becomes very frequent, the environment can adapt
to it
 Eg prey can develop new strategies to pray on food
o Heterozygote advantage
 Sickle cell Amemia
 AA will have Malaira
 aa won’t have malaria but sickle cell disease
 Aa won’t have both
o Artificial selection
- Phenotypic plasticity: one genotype produces a variety of phenotypes in different environment

Hardy -Weinberg equilibrium

- Allelic frequency: p+q=1; p is the frequency of allel 1

- Hardey-Weinberg: P2+2pq+q2=1
o P square is the frequency of the homozygous genotype
o 2pq is the frequency of the heterozygous genotype

Species and speciation

- Ways
o Morphological: Look the same
o Biological: can interbreed
o Phylogenetic: shared ancestry
- Phase of speciation: separationDivergenceReproductivity Isolation
o Separation
 The organisms are separated from the original gene flow
o Divergence
 The genes start to become different
o Reproductivity Isolation
 Reproductively isolated from each other
- Allopatric speciation
o Geographic isolation
 Dispersal: individuals move to new location
 Vicariance: the land itself split
- Sympatric speciation
o Reproductive barriers
o No physical barriers
o Result of Reproductive mechanism
 Pre-zygotic: cannot find mate
 Post-zygotic: zygote cannot form
o Eg. Apple Maggot Fly
 The ones that can mature fast enough in apples became apple magot fly
*Think how speiciation relate to Separation, Divergence, Drift, gene flow and selection
Module II

Comparative physiology

- Homeostasis: maintaince of stable condiditon

- Allostasis: the process which the body responds to maintain homeostasis
- Regulators: can control own body enivroment
o Endotherms: warm blooded, use internal process to maintain body temp
o Homeotherm: keep body temperature relatively constant
- Comforters: will change depending on the environment
o Ectotherms: rely on external condition to control body temperature, cold blooded
o Poikilotherm: allow body temp to vary
- Plasiticity: the adaptability of an organism to changes in its environment or differences between
its various habitats.
- Accumulation: changes in response to a single environmental factor, usually in lab, irreversible
- Adaptation: change in population arriving over generations
- Acclimatization: changes in response to complex natural environment, natural, irreversible

Endocrine System

- Composed of endocrine/neuroendocrine glands that that secrete their hormones into fluid
- Factors
o Local regulators never enter circulatory system
o Pheromones leave the body
o Hormones: inside the blood
o Water hating (hydrophobic)
 Cannot be stored, very slow
 Can go inside the cell
 Cannot travel, need to bind to carrier protein
o Water loving (hydrophilic)
 Can be stored, fast
 Cannot go into cell need bind to receptors
- Signaling strategies
o Autocrine: secret a factor and receive it itself
o Paracrine: to the one beside
o Endocrine: far but still inside the body
- Singnal Transduction Pathway

Human

- Agonist: trigger response

- Antagonist: prevent hormone from binding

What is happening Hormone How Outcome

Blood sugar is↑ Insulin ↓ blood sugar by Blood sugar ↓
stimulating organs to
absorb glucose
 Blood sugar is ↓ Glucagon ↑blood sugar by Blood sugar↑
stimulating glucose
into blood
Na↑ Antidiuretic hormone The Na stimulate the Less water in Urine,
Post-P to secrete more NA go away in
more AH body
Na↑ Atrial natriuretic The Na stimulate the More Na in urine,
peptide heart to produce the more Na go away,
ANP Na↓
Na↑ (stop) aldosterone Stop Adrenal gland More Na in urine,
produce it Na↓

- HPA axis posterior pituitary, anterior pituitary, Hypothalamus

o Stress
 H—(cortiotropic hormone)---- >AP-----(ACTH)----Adreal gland -- > adreline

Nervous system

- Function: Receive, Transmit, intergrate and command/coordinate response

- Central Nervous System: Brain+Nerve chord
o Sensory receptors signal the sensory information from internal/ external
enviromentsensory neuronCNS
o Response:CNSmotor neurons- effector cell
- Peripheral Nervous System: everything else
o Sympathetic: fight or flight
o Parasympathetic: rest/ digest
- Basic structure of neuron
o Cell body (process) +extension
o Cell body
 Ganglion: collection of cell bodies
o Extension
 Dendrites: input
 Axon: output transmit the signals
 Nerve: a bundle of axon
 Gilai: baby sitters
 Myelin sheath: allow the signals to transmit faster as they cause AP to
jump down the axon rather than travel
- Action Potential
- at axon
o Resting
 Voltage: outside more + than inside
 Chem: Outside more Na, inside more K
 Something opens the mechanically gated Na channels, causes the inside more +
o Reach threshold—> depolarization
 Voltage gated Na channel open, the Na rush in since more NA is outside
  Absolute refractory period
o Repolirization beigin
 Since inside voltage to +
 Voltage gated K channels open and Na close
 K rushes out
o Hyperpolarization
 K channel closes too slow the V is –
 Relative refractory period
- Synapses: gap between neuron and another cell
o Presynaptic cell: transmitting cell
o Postsynaptic cell: receiving cell
o When action potential reaches the end of neuron
 AP opens voltage gated Ca channels
 The vesicle open and neuron transmitter release to synapse
 Neuro transmitters bind to receptors and post synaptic neuron
- Integration
o EPSP (Excitory postsynaptic potential)depolirization, V more +
o IPSP( inhibitory) hyperpolarize, V more -
- Long term potentiation
o Two receptors
 AMPA: Na can flow
 NMPA: Ca can flow in, block by Mg
o First time we learn it
 Glutamate opens the AMPA
 Na flowes
 NMPA is closed
o Second time we learn in
 More action potential, more glutamate to open
 Na rushes in, the cell voltage too +,
 Repels the Mg blockage Ca can flow in

Muscular system

- Muscle fibers: a lot of muscles

o Comprised of myofibers
 Comprised of
 Actin (thin)
 Myosin (thick)
o One muscle unit: sarcomere
- Muscular conjunction
o Action potential in the motor neuron causes the Ca channel to open
o The Vesical releases acetylcholine
o The Na channel in the recptor cell open
o AP in the t tubule causes Ca release into cytoplasm form sarcoplasmic reticulum
 o The Ca binds to troponin
o The troponin removes the tropomyosin such the the myosin head can bind to the
binding sites in actin
o The Myosin filament contract (ATP hydrolysis) and attach to the binding site
o The muscle contract
- Types of muscles
o Smooth
 Non sarcomere
o Strained
 Skeletal
 Slow oxidative (long run)
o Type I myosin
o Low ATP
o High Mitochondria and mygolbin to supply oxygen
 Fast Oxidative (middle)
o High ATP+ Mitochodria
 Fast Glycolytic (short run)
o High ATP, low mitochondria
 Cardiac
 Cardiomycoytes intercalated disk

Digestive system

- Tasks
o Ingestion: eat
o Digestion
 Carbohydrates starts in mouth and ends in small intestine
 Protein starts in mouth and finishes in small intestine
o Absorption
o Elimination
- Evolution
o Intracellular digestion
 Phagocytosis: efuge the food to the
 The immune system remove the toxin
 So they always get infected
o Extracellular digestion
 Secrete enzyme to environment and only absorb the nutrients
o Blind sacs
 The poo and the nutrients are in the same box
o Gut complexity
 Mouth
 Stomach
 Partial cell: secrete acid
 Pepsinogen: enzyme digest protein
  Gastric Juice: HCl+pepsin
 Small intestine
 Villia increase surface area
 Large lipid dropletbile saltbicellesmonoglycerides/fatty acid
o Ruminants
 The animals spill out the food form the stomach to the mouth
 Usually mammals that eat grass (eg. Cow)
 Animals do not have the enzyme to digest cellulose in the plant need micobial
enzymeEnterosymbionts
 Lysozyme: break down the cell wall of the endosymbionts
 Four chambers
 Rumen: mechanical process and has the bacteria can break down the
cellulose
 Reticulum: to spill the things back to the mouth
 Omasum: mechanical processing
 Abomasum: actual stomach
o Gut microbes
 Tight junction: prevent material form leaking to cell wall
 Mucus: make sure right balance of micrboes
- Hormones

Hormones Where is it When What Oppoiste

secreted
Leptin Produce by fat When we are full Suppress appite When body fat↓,
tissue leptin↓,appitite↑
Insulin Pancreas secrete Blood Suppress appitie,
it surgar↑,when ↓blood sugar
we are full
PYY Small intestine When we are full Counters the
ghrelin
Ghrelin Stomach wall Make us hungry

Internal Transport

- Organs
o Open circulatory system: no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid
 Ostia: the heart
o Close circulatory system: have distinction between blood and interstitial fluid
 Pulmonary: right side
 Systemic: left side
 Heart
 Atria: chamber that receive the blood
 Ventricles: chamber that pump blood out of heart
 Vessels
  Artieries: blood heart tissue
o Thick walls with elastic layers to resist high pressure
o Blood at high pressure
 Veins: tissue heart
o Thin walls, low blood pressure
 Capillaries
o Allow exchange between blood and tissues
 Capillary beds: infiltrate tissue and exchange fluid
 Lymph vessel: return leak interstitial fluid to blood
o Fishes
 1 Atria + 1 Ventricle= 2 chambers
o Reptiles
 2 Atria + 1 partially divided Ventricle= 3 chambers
o Humans
 2 Atria+ 2 Ventricle= 4 chambers
- Blood cells
o Erythrocytes: red blood cells
 Hemoglobin: the proteins that binds oxygen
 Cooperative binding: first oxygen hardest to leave, second is easier
 CO2↑Ph↓Temp↑
o Leukocytes: white blood cells
 Basophils
 Lymphocytes
 Eosinophils
 Neutrophils
 Monocytes
o Platelets: blood vessels

Immunology

- Innate immunity
o Physical Barrier
 Skin epithelium
 Digestive and Respiratory tracks: Mucous membrane
o Soluble Factors
 Cytokines: alarm
o Phagocytosis
 Necrophiles and macrophages
 Recognize the PRR and detect the PAMPS
o Inflammtion
 Cytokeins: recrute phagocytosis
 Localize them
- Adaptive Immunity
o APC
  Talk to helper T
o T cell infected cells
 Killer T: directly destroy it
 Helper T: find more Killer T
 Regltory:
 MMeory
o B cell
 Produce antibody

Kidney

Goal: set up a salt concentration for water retaining by collecting duct

- Bowman’s capsule
o Filtration of non cellular fraction of blood
- Loop of Henle
o Ascending
 Permeable to salt but not water
o Descending
 Permeable to water but not salt
- Distal tubule
o Permeable to water but not salt
- Collecting duct
o Can response to ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)
o Allow water to enter the body