CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Pesticide in Agriculture

Modern farming relies on many chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides and crop

preservatives to produce and preserve an abundance of high-quality food.

Pesticides are chemical substances that derive their name from the French word

“Peste”, which means pest or plague and the Latin word “caedere”, to kill

(Akunyili and Ivbijaro, 2006). Pesticide therefore can be defined as any chemical

substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling,

or mitigating the effect of any pest of plants and animals. They include herbicides,

insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides, molluscides, nematicides, avicides,

acaricides, repellents and attractants used in agriculture, public health, horticulture,

food storage or achemical substance used for a similar purpose (NAFDAC:

National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control, 1996). Pesticides

are widely used in most sectors of the agricultural production to prevent or reduce

losses by pests and thus, can improve yield as well as quality of the produce, even

in terms of cosmetic appeal, which is often important to consumers (Oerke and

Dehne, 2004; Cooper and Dobson 2007).

In Nigeria, pesticides have proven to be indispensable tools in both pre-harvest and

post- harvest losses by combating damage from pests and ensuring sustainable

food production with improved yield and greater availability of food throughout

the year. For example, without the use of pesticides in rice and cocoa production,

about 45 percent of total production would be lost to pests and diseases (Tijani,

2006b).However, increasing intensification of agricultural production and food

security in Nigeria have led to increased health and environmental concerns and

the productivity-enhancing effects of pesticides have been valued greatly, as most

studies rarely take into consideration their effects on the environment and on

farmers’ health (Osibanjo, 2001; Konya, 2005; Adeniran et al., 2006).According to

Dey et al., (2013), pesticides are applied to the environment with the aim of

suppressing the impact of plant and animal pests and to protect agricultural and

industrial products. For sustainable agriculture and protection of the environment

and human health, the importance of using safe pesticides has assumed global

importance subsequent to the ‘Earth Summit’ in 1992.

Pesticides can also improve the nutritional value of food and sometimes its safety

(Boxall, 2001; Narayanasamy, 2006). There are also many other kinds of benefits

that may be attributed to pesticides, but these benefits are often unnoticed by the

general public (Cooper and Dobson 2007; Damalas, 2009). Thus, from this point of

view, pesticides can be referred to as an economic, laborsaving and efficient tool of

pest management with great popularity in most sectors of the agricultural

production (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011).

Crop farmers use a wide range of pesticides at different levels to reduce losses

from pests and diseases. However, despite the popularity and extensive use of

pesticides by farm households, serious concerns about the health risks arising from

the exposure when mixing and applying pesticides or working in treated fields and

residues on food and in drinking water for the general population have been raised

(Maroni, 2006; Soares and Porto, 2009). These activities have caused a number of

accidental occupational poisonings, and even the use of pesticides routinely can

pose serious health risks to farmers both in the short and the long run and can

degrade the environment. In developing countries, however, farmers face great

risks of exposure due to the use of toxic chemicals that are banned and/or restricted

in other countries, incorrect application techniques, poorly maintained or totally

inappropriate spraying equipment, inadequate storage practices, and often the reuse

of old pesticide containers for food and water storage (Ibitayo, 2006; Asogwa and

Dongo, 2009).

1.2 Environmental and Health Concerns of Agricultural Pesticides

Mortality and morbidity rates in agricultural production have remained consistently

high throughout the world in the last decade in contrast to other dangerous
occupations (International Labour Organization ILO, 1997). Agricultural farm

workers are at a very high risk of occupational diseases due to exposure to

agrochemicals resulting from inadequate education, training and safety systems. In

developed countries such as the US, farmers and farm workers comprise only 3

percent of the workforce, but they account for as much as 8% of all work-related

accidents (Médecins Sans Frontières: MSF, 2005). However, in developing

countries, less than 20 percent of the world production of agrochemicals are

consume, which are responsible for as much as 1.1 million (70 percent) of the total

cases of acute poisoning in the working population (United States Environmental

Protection Agency: US EPA, 2005).

Acute and chronic pesticide poisoning usually results from consumption of

contaminated food, chemical accident in industries and occupational exposure in

agriculture. Pesticides are known to find their way in the blood systems of human

beings through four major routes which are the mouth, nose, intact skin and the

eyes. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007), health effects of

pesticides may be acute or delayed (chronic) in those who are exposed. Several

adverse health effects are known to result from exposure to pesticides including

temporary acute effects like abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea,

vomiting, skin problems, irritation of eyes and excessive salivation as well as

chronic diseases like cancer, reproductive and developmental disorders. Effects on

the Central Nervous System (CNS) like restlessness, loss of memory, convulsions

and coma are also common. In addition, effects on parasympathetic and

sympathetic nervous system have been widely reported including respiratory

paralysis which is fatal (US EPA, 2005).

Poorly regulated and unsafe use of pesticides coupled with the absence of adequate

education has led to increasing pesticide impact on public health and, in particular,

on the health of farm workers (Tijani, 2006a). At the same time, the indiscriminate

use of toxic substances has become a matter of national concern in Nigeria

following revelations about high levels of DDT in the environment and human

breast milk (Osibanjo, 2002). Deyet al., (2013) posited that the public health

effects of pesticides have long been known and the undesired effects of chemical

pesticides have been recognized as a serious public health concern during the past

decades. However, the methods for safe storage, handling and application of

pesticides are not widely used in most developing countries (Dinham, 2003),

particularly in Africa (Williamson et al., 2008) posing serious health threats to

resource-poor rural farmers as they are users of largest proportions of chemical

pesticides (Oluwole and Cheke, 2009).

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Rice is attacked by many insect pests during all stages of growth from

seedling to storage and is responsible for 15-100% and 10-60% of the pre and

post-harvest losses of grains in developing countries (Mihale et al., 2009;

Shiferaw, Prasanna, Hellin, & Bänziger, 2011). Pesticides use all over the

world is considered as the most attractive way of controlling pests which is

less labour intensive and has a higher output per a hectare of land, for the

improvement of crop yield, protection of crop quality and its reliability, as well as

reducing the production cost. Aside from pesticides being used in agriculture,

it is also beneficial to public health in preventing vector-borne disease.

Though the benefits of pesticide use are enormous, research has shown that its use

is associated with some important environmental and health damages (Kumari &

Reddy, 2013; Mahmood et al., 2016). The World Health Organization estimates

that there are three million severe acute poisonings worldwide each year and out of

this, approximately 220,000 deaths are as a result of pesticides use, of

which, 1% of these deaths occur in industrialized countries and 99% happen

in developing countries such as Nigeria. The risks are really high on those

who are exposed to the pesticides occupationally, but the demand for maize

would cause the intensification of pesticide use inevitably due to the invasion

of pest and demand for high-quality yields (Popp et al., 2013; Okoffo et al.,

2016; Danso-Abbeam et al., 2017).

In Nigeria, pesticide use is characterized with non-compliance with the

recommended safety measures such as abuse, misuse, and overuse of pesticides

but unfortunately, there is limited information on pesticides use and what

determines compliance with the recommended safety measures among rice

farmers in Ishiagu. In view of the adverse health consequences of pesticides by

some farmers; it is therefore becomes imperative to examine pesticides uses, safety

practices compliance and hazards among rice farmers in Ishiagu.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of this study is to assess the level of pesticides use, safety practices

compliance and health hazards among rice farmers in Ishiagu.

Specifically, the study seeks to;

i. Describe the socioeconomic characteristics of the rice farmers

ii. Assess the prevalent health symptoms associated with pesticides

iii. Determine the effect of pesticides on the rice farmers’ health in the study

area.

iv. Suggest effective measures that will improve pesticides safety practice

compliance among farmers in the study area.

1.5 Justification of the Study

A major limitation to rice production in Nigeria is the adverse effect of pests both

during cultivation and storage. Achieving sustainable food security for the

burgeoning population can only be achieved through the proper use of pesticides to

combat the problem of pests but to do so in total adherence to safety practices, so

as to avoid health hazards associated with abuse in usage of pesticides. Hence, the

need for this study.

1.6 Scope and Duration of the Study

The study covers the assessment of the level of pesticide use, safety practice

compliance and health hazards among rice farmers in Ishiagu. The field operations

and analysis will be carried out in Ishiagu, Ivo Local Government Area of Ebonyi

State, so the results obtained are limited to this scope. The estimated time required

to complete the study is 3 months.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Agricultural and Household Pest – their Varieties, Classes and Damages

they do

A pest is any animal or plant harmful to humans or human concerns. The term is

particularly used for creatures that damage crops, livestock, and forestry or cause a

nuisance to people, especially in their homes. Wherever agriculture has been

practiced, pests have attacked, destroying part or even all of the crop. In modern

usage, the term pest includes animals (mostly insects), fungi, plants, bacteria, and

viruses.

From an economic viewpoint, an agricultural pest is an “animal or plant whose

population density exceeds some unacceptable threshold level, resulting in

economic damage” (Horn, 1988).

Pests are known to have negative impact on crop production as well as on human

health (Tinyami et al., 2014). The word “pest” describes an organism that damages

crops, injures or irritates livestock or man. Agricultural pests includes animals,

insects, fungi, and bacteria that lead to a loss of crops or reduction in crop yield

relative to potential yield that would be possible in a world without pests (Sexton

et al., 2007). Pest attack in agriculture is usually observed both on the field and
during period of storage of agricultural crops most especially in cereal production.

Shamser et al. (1976) reported that the attack by various insect pests causes

damage to plant foliate, stems, buds, flowers, fruits and seeds resulting in

substantial crop losses of marketable yield.

Pests are organisms considered harmful or detrimental to humans, his possessions

and other human interest or concerns (Pimental, 2002). Noxious organisms

considered as pests are plants or animals that carry disease, cause disease or

destroy crops. They could be nematodes, insects, viruses, bacteria, molluscus,

rodents, herbs, shrubs, mites and annelids. Pest may also be referred to as

organisms that destroy crops or man-made structures. In its broadest sense, a pest

is a competitor of humanity. In agriculture, pests are detrimental to production

because they cause reduction in yield and quality of output. They also act as vector

of diseases and cause injuries to man and animals (Cotton et al., 2000; Gore and

Schal, 2007). Pest differs by region and what is common in one region of the

country, may not in other regions. The word pest also refers to myriad of

household invading creature including: mice, roaches, termite, bedbug, fleas, wild

bird, spider and snake. Pest constitute nuisance, annoys and transmit epidemic

diseases associated with mortality (Matson et al., 1997)

A large number of insects such as cockroaches, bed bugs, flies, rodents, birds and

mites occur in the human environment. Many of these are considered pest because
of their economic, medical or aesthetic influence on the quality of life (Gore and

Schal, 2007). This group of animals are adapted to the habitat and conditions

created when natural environment are altered or when agricultural environment is

further developed to provide living and recreation space for people and pest. In

some location, human structures and activities may interfere with natural

environment and this will disrupt the natural equilibrium of the environment and

thus make a hitherto non-pest to become a pest, creating pest problem (Samways,

1989). The urban population is expected to increase the importance of urban pest

(Davis, 1978). In the developing countries, the predominant household pests

include mosquitoes, housefly, rodent, flies and termite among others. Mosquito

was reported as most importance and abundance in urban, sub-urban and rural

environment (Yap and Foo, 1984). With the increasing problem caused by the

urban pest, there is a need for their control which is generally archived by chemical

control and integrated control (Tidwell et al., 1994; WHO, 1986; Mars, 1993;

Rozendaal, 1997; Castle et al., 1999). Other convectional measures include surface

residual spray, larviciding inclusive of chemical and microbial agent.

Household insecticide products (HIPS) and repellent, coil and aerosol are major

household insecticide products that are readily used by consumers (Yap and Foo,

1984; Yap 1996, 1999; Yap et al., 2003a). In 2010, the World Health Organization

estimated that there were 216 million cases of malaria; about 660,000 people died
from the disease, most of whom were children under the age of five

(www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/fact.html.) The actual number of deaths may be

significantly higher, as precise statistics are unavailable in many rural areas, and

many cases are undocumented. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty, and

can indeed be a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development.

Despite a clear need, no vaccine offering a high level of protection currently exists.

Likewise, House flies are considered to be polyphagous species, which means that

they can feed on a wide variety of food material (West, 1951). They acquire their

nutrients mostly from animal dung, human food and garbage (Bernard, 2003).

House flies, can act as very effective disease vectors because of their behavior and

biology (Service, 2000).

2.2 Control and Management of Agricultural Pest

Pest management is an essential component of any effort to increase food

production and 90 thus ensure food security. Traditional techniques had been used

in the past. These included 91 crop rotation, intercropping, strategic flooding,

manipulation of planting dates, the setting of 92 traps and the selection of resistant

varieties.

93 In the 19th century, pest control was revolutionized by the introduction of

synthetic 94 pesticides. This has been found to provide means of reducing pest
populations massively in a 95 more effective and large-scale manner than had ever

been possible before. However, this has 96 not brought an end to the pest problem.

The future of crop pest-management based 97 predominantly on pesticides and the

dangers of pesticide use which is becoming more evident and the high cost and

non-availability to the resource-poor farmers has been of great concern to Crop

Protectionists. There is also a much greater long-term problem of loss of

effectiveness through the evolutionary process by which resistant strains of pests

develop within a relatively short period of time. These strains have been

developing in alarming numbers among arthropods, plant pathogens, vertebrates

and weeds. Thus complete reliance on pesticides for crop pest management does

not appear to be a promising strategy for food security. This led to studies on

alternative approaches which are not totally new but integrate all available

technology as an important component of crop production system.

Cultural control

The use of cultural control in pest management involves changes in the cultural

practices for the crop production in such a way that creates unfavourable

conditions for the development of pest populations (Taylor 1976). They are usually

the most economical of all pest control measures and are widely applicable and

compatible with other control methods. They are numerous and varied and a few
that have been used successfully in the control of pests of some major crops in

Nigeria are outlined.

Crop rotation

Soil-borne pathogens that infect plants of one or few species can sometimes be

reduced in the soil by planting for 2–4 years crops belonging to species not

attacked by the particular pathogen. The losses due to Sclerotia rolfsii on tomato

can be reduced when cereals are planted after tomato in a rotation (Wokocha

1988). Crop rotation with other non-host crops causes reduction in soil seed bank

of Striga (Lagoke et al. 1991). Rotation of sorghum with soyabeans assists in

managing root-knot nematode population densities.

Time of planting

Early sowing of groundnut reduces the incidence and severity of groundnut rosette

virus infection. Maize and sorghum can escape stem borer (Busseola fusca) attack

if sown early. Sesame planted early at the onset of rains had low incidence of gall

midge (Asphondylia sesami) (Chadha 1975). The severity of bacterial pustule of

soybean induced by Xanthomonas phaseoli var. sojense was found to be higher in

late sown than early sown crops (Nweke 1978). Early planting reduces the severity

of Cercospora leaf spot of egg plant.

Sanitation
Partial burning of sorghum stalks immediately after grain harvest was found to kill

95% of the Busseola fusca larvae without damage to the stalks (Adesiyun & Ajayi

1980). Sanitation practices have been recommended as a means of reducing

spoilage of vegetables, fruits, tubers etc. (Erinle & Karikari 1988). The Cotton

‘close season’ law ensures that all cotton plants and debris are destroyed by

burning by 31 March and further sowing of cotton is prohibited until June/July.

Tillage

This is an important cultural subcomponent for integrated management of weeds

such as Cynodon dactylon, Imperata cylindrica and Cyperus esculentus that

possess penetrating structures which makes eradication measures ineffective

(Akobundu 1987). Ploughing after harvest also 148 destroys stubble, weeds and

other alternative hosts of Stem-borer. Tilling soils infested with 149 grasshopper

eggs exposes them to desiccation and predation by insects and birds. This has 150

been found to be effective in controlling different species of grasshoppers in the

Sudan 151 savanna of Nigeria (Amatobi 1991).

Intercropping

Mixed cropping and intercropping are known to reduce insect pest infestations. A

sorghum intercrop with pigeon pea markedly reduces the incidence of the soil-

borne wilt disease (Fusarium udum) of pigeon pea, even at high pathogen levels in
the soil. Intercropping cowpea 164 with cereals lowers the population of insects on

cowpea.

Trap cropping

Trap cropping uses a mixture of dwarf pigeon pea and sunn hemp (Crotolaria

juncea) planted all around the cowpea field in advance so that they flower long

before the cowpeas and attract thrips which cause 60% damage to cowpea. In a

sorghum and millet intercrop, the inability of Busseola fusca adults to effectively

utilize millet for oviposition reduces larval infestation of sorghum stems. Soybean,

cowpea, cotton and bambarra groundnut, when grown in rotation with a host

susceptible to Striga as an intercrop, have been reported to induce abortive 186

germination of Striga seeds with consequent reduction in infestation (Kureh et al.

1999). Garden egg (Solanum gilo) acts as trap crop when planted around a desired

crop in order to control grasshoppers (Zonocerus variegatus) since the nymphs like

to congregate on garden egg 189 (Ozolua 1989). The insects can then be controlled

by spraying the trap crop.

Mechanical barriers

In Nigeria, trenching by digging a 45-cm deep furrow or ditch with straight or

vertical sides in front of advancing larvae of army worm, Spodoptera exempta, has
been found to be effective in preventing their movement into unifested areas

(Anonymous 1984). Hermatic or air tight storage reduces the degree of infestation

and emergence of the cowpea bruchid Callosobruchus

Biological control

One of the success stories of a biocontrol approach in Nigeria is that against the

cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti) which can cause yield loss of up to

84%. Apoanagyrus lopezi was found to be the most effective natural enemy of

cassava mealy bug. Ajayi (1985) identified insect pests of pearl millet, Pennisetum

americanum, in Nigeria and found some of them to be the natural enemies

including six predators and 32 parasitoids. The control of gall midge by natural

enemies has also been reported (Chadha 1975). The development and use of fungi

as microbial insecticides have increased considerably, and stable commercial

products are now available for the control of various insect pests including thrips

(Butt & Brownbridge 1977). Laboratory testing of Nigerian isolates of Metarhizum

anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana indicated good activity against apterous adults

of cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) (Ekesi & Maniania 2000).

Resistant and early maturing varieties

This is the least expensive of the known pest control measures. In Nigeria,

resistances to several pests have been developed for many crops. This has been a

combined effort of all National and International Agricultural Research Institutes,

e.g., IITA and ICRISAT. For example, groundnut breeding work at IAR and

ICRISAT focused attention on producing disease-resistant cultivars: six varieties,

SAMNUT 10, 11, 14, 16, 17 and 18 were released. SAMNUT 10, 11 and 16 are

resistant to both chlorotic and green rosette virus diseases and are moderately

resistant to early and late leafspot diseases. In a multiple disease-resistance study,

cultivars MDR8-15 and MDR8-19 were resistant to virus diseases, rust and

leafspots (Salako 1987). Host plant resistance is an important method for the

control of root knot nematodes. In Nigeria, Babatola and Idowu (1990) identified

sorghum varieties with some resistance to Meloidogyne incognita. Seed is seen as

a very important input and so the incorporation of resistance to disease which

provides protection of the crop is a very valuable gift to the resource-poor farmers.

2.3 Pesticides – Types, Classification and Formulations

The most common and useful method of classifying pesticide is based on their

chemical composition and nature of active ingredients. It is such kind of

classification that gives the clue about the efficacy, physical and chemical

properties of the respective pesticides. The information on chemical and physical

characteristics of pesticides is very useful in determining the mode of application,

precautions that need to be taken during application and the application rates.

Based on chemical composition, pesticides are classified into four main groups

namely; organochlorines, organophosphorus, carbamates and pyrethrin and

pyrethroids. The chemical based classification of pesticides is rather complex. In

general, modern pesticides are organic chemicals. They include pesticides of both

synthetic and plant origin. However, some inorganic compound is also used as

pesticides. Insecticides are important pesticides that can be further classified into

several sub-classes

Grouped by Types of Pests They Kill

1. Insecticides – insects

2. Herbicides – plants

3. Rodenticides – rodents (rats & mice)

4. Bactericides – bacteria

5. Fungicides – fungi

6. Larvicides – larvae

Based on how biodegradable they are:

 Biodegradable:
  The biodegradable kind is those which can be broken down by microbes and

other living beings into harmless compounds.

 Persistent:

 While the persistent ones are those which may take months or years to break

down.

Another way to classify these is to consider those that are chemical forms or are

derived from a common source or production method.

Chemically-related pesticides:

 Organophosphate:

Most organophosphates are insecticides, they affect the nervous system by

disrupting the enzyme that regulates a neurotransmitter.

 Carbamate:

Similar to the organophosphorus pesticides, the carbamate pesticides also affect the

nervous system by disrupting an enzyme that regulates the neurotransmitter.

However, the enzyme effects are usually reversible.

 Organochlorine insecticides:
They were commonly used earlier, but now many countries have been removed

Organochlorine insecticides from their market due to their health and

environmental effects and their persistence (e.g., DDT, chlordane, and toxaphene).

 Pyrethroid:

These are a synthetic version of pyrethrin, a naturally occurring pesticide, found in

chrysanthemums(Flower). They were developed in such a way as to maximise

their stability in the environment.

 Sulfonylurea herbicides:

The sulfonylureas herbicides have been commercialized for weed control such as

pyrithiobac-sodium, cyclosulfamuron, bispyribac-sodium, terbacil, sulfometuron-

methyl Sulfosulfuron, rimsulfuron, pyrazosulfuron-ethyl, imazosulfuron,

nicosulfuron, oxasulfuron, nicosulfuron, flazasulfuron, primisulfuron-methyl,

halosulfuron-methyl, flupyrsulfuron-methyl-sodium, ethoxysulfuron, chlorimuron-

ethyl, bensulfuron-methyl, azimsulfuron, and amidosulfuron.

 Biopesticides:

The biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural

materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals.

2.4 Safety Measures in Handling and Use of Agricultural Pesticides

Consumers’ behaviour

Great care should be taken during storage, transportation and pesticide use.

Minimum and judicious use of insecticides, incorporating integrated pest

management can suppress pests (Damalas, 2016; Farrar et al., 2018). Health belief

model (HBD) can be the right choice regarding farmer’s behaviour (Sharifzadeh et

al., 2019). Such problems can be solved by following means of external and

internal stimuli, and launching of new policies and monitoring strategies for safe

use of pesticides (Bhandari et al., 2018; Rezaei et al., 2018). External stimuli

include the provision of required knowledge, guidance and proper training can help

farmers to understand the healthy use of pesticides. Internal stimuli, including

itching and headache, can modify the farmer’s choice of pesticide use.

Additionally, safety culture, i.e. provision of proper clothing or personal protection

equipment, can enhance the confidence and satisfaction of farmers.

Pesticide Storage

Pesticides are critical for crop production enhancement, but they can be dangerous

if mishandled. Specific precautionary measures or procedures are suggested to

avoid safety issues during their storage (Saleem and Haq, 2002; Tariq et al., 2007).

Pesticide storage place must be isolated from the populated and sensitive areas like
water bodies and residential areas. Pesticides store must not be accessible by

children or unauthorized persons. Pesticide storehouse must not be mistaken for

food or beverage storehouse. Stored pesticides must be kept dry, in the shade and

distant from chances of fire. Do not carry them in a vehicle that is also used to

transport food.

i Stores should be constructed away from sensitive areas like residential and

water supply areas.

ii Stores should be fire resistant and capable to endure extremes temperatures

and various chemical changes.

iii Design of the stores should be sound that it can contain spillage and leakage.

Adequate light should be present in stores.

iv Store should be adequately ventilated, with suitable entrance and exits.

v Use of any kind of flame and smoking should be prohibited in the area.

vi Pesticides should be stored accurately and securely that children,

unauthorized people and animals should not approach them.

vii Proper warning signs should be present in stores.

viii Make sure that stores have appropriate first aid facilities, clothing place,

washing facilities, fire extinguishers and place for empty containers.

During transportation
Pesticides should be transported with great care because any leakage may lead to

serious environmental and health hazards in addition to the pesticide wastage. Such

problems can be avoided by the adoption of following precautionary measures,

during the transportation of pesticides

i Packing material and containers should be sound enough to avoid any kind

of rupture or leakage.

ii Pesticides should be packed in a way that can tolerate variations in

temperature and humidity.

iii During transport, different kinds of pesticides should not be mixed or other

agricultural inputs like weedicides should not be transported with

insecticides or fertilizers.

iv Fire extinguishers should be present in vehicles.

v Pesticides should be appropriately sealed that they cannot reach to the

passengers, foodstuff and livestock .

vi Use protective gloves and proper clothing during the loading and unloading

of pesticides. Moreover, container drop off form height should be prevented

that may harm the packing of pesticides.

vii Traces of pesticides should not be present on the outer surface of the

container.

viii During transportation, ensure that lids of the container are tightly closed.
 ix Avoid fire, smoking, eating and drinking during pesticide handling

During pesticides use

Specific principles should be followed during pesticide applications to make sure

the safe use. These principles have been listed below, which may help to get

efficient results without harming the environment, humans and livestock.

i Staff employed for pesticide application must have adequate training.

ii Do not allow children to make contact with pesticides and keep them away

from treated areas.

iii Keep irrelevant people away from the area where pesticides are being

applied.

iv Follow the precautionary measures or seek advice for pesticide doses,

application techniques, self-equipment, application timing, re-entry timing in

the field and gap between successive applications etc.

v Observe the weather conditions that may affect the pesticide applications,

especially wind velocity, which may cause drift. This may blow away the

pesticides making it useless for the field as well as harmful for the areas

(crops, water, animals).

vi Rain is also an important factor that can wash out pesticides from the field,

making application ineffective.

 vii Wash clothes and hands with soap after spray applications and do not drink,

eat or smoke during or right after the application of pesticides.

viii Do not siphon with mouth even from an empty container. Use clean water to

blow the closed nozzles.

ix Never leave pesticide and application equipment unattended, instead place

them on their specific locations carefully after washing.

x In case of poisoning, take antidote and consult the physician immediately.

xi Use self-protecting equipment.

xii Do not use restricted use compounds.

xiii Do not use pesticides without training and children (under 18) are prohibited

from pesticides’ use

Disposal of pesticides wastes

After pesticide application, make sure that the treated area is clean and does not

contain any pesticide waste, container or envelope and equipment is empty and

clean. Never reuse empty envelops, pesticide packing and containers for drinking

and eating purposes for animals or people. All empty containers should be

disposed of with proper care.

The recommendations for this purpose are as follows:

i Wash and puncture metal canes and drums and bury them.
ii Wash and puncture plastic containers, burn them and bury.

iii Cardboard packaging should be burnt or dumped carefully.

iv Plastic bags should be burnt in the areas away from dwellings, crops and

stores etc.

v Use mask during burning and keep children away from its smoke.
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Location of the Study

The area of the researchers study is within the geographical location of Ishiagu in

Ivo Local Government Area of Ebonyi State. Ishiagu town is located in Ivo LGA

of Ebonyi State between latitude 5° 54’ – 5° 59’ N and longitudes 7° 30’ – 7° 35’

E. The area (about 25 sq.km), is situated in the SW tip of the Abakaliki Basin on

the Lower-Benue Trough geologic complex, SE Nigeria and is composed of a low-

lying sedimentary terrain with some intrusions of different episodes. The Ishiagu

area of the Abakaliki Basin is delineated by geology of the Abakaliki Basin as

shown in Figure 1. Evolution of this generally low-lying to gently undulating shaly

terrain is correlated to basement fragmentation, block faulting, subsidence and

rifting of the Lower Benue Trough during the early Cretaceous separation of

Africa and America [6]. The Pb-Zn deposits in Ishiagu area appear to be the

southern limit of mineralization in the Benue Trough and the Pb-Zn mineralized

zone extends over a distance of 500 km in a narrow belt from Ishiagu in the lower

Benue Trough to Zurak in the upper Benue Trough, likewise the extent of igneous

intrusions in the Benue Trough. Majority of the geologic and topographic features
of the area align in the NW-SE direction, and conform to orientation of the folds

from the Santonian orogenic deformation.

3.2 Questionnaire about Pesticides

The instrument used for data collection was the questionnaires which is close

ended questions that was submitted and gained approval of the researcher’s

supervisor.

Copies of these questionnaires were administered to the sampled population and

collected in the same manner. The relevant variables of the study were effectively

measured by the items contained in the questionnaire which is made up of

questions relating to safety standard practices and hazards incidence of pesticides

in Ishiagu.

3.3 Sampling Technique

Multi-stage sampling technique was used to collect the data involving a four -

stage sampling procedure. Three (3) wards were selected from the rural wards in

the Ishiagu in stage one. In the second stage, two (2) communities were randomly

selected from each of the selected wards, adding it up to 6 communities. In the

third stage, twenty (20) residential buildings were randomly selected in each of the

communities making a total of 120 residential buildings. One farm household was

selected each of the residential building making a total of 120 respondents. Data
used for the study were collected with the aid questionnaire. Data were collected

on socioeconomic characteristics, commonly used pesticides and practices and

hazards related to pesticide exposure.

3.4 Data Collection and Analysis

The researcher collected the data from the respondent’s one on one. The researcher

utilized the two effective method of data collection; these are the oral interview

and the questionnaire. Oral interview because of its advantages of giving more in

depth information.

However, the questionnaires were personally distributed and the researcher made

the collection. This is to enable their opinion without been bias on the role of

public relations in crisis management.

Simple table, frequency and percentages were adopted in the presentation and

analysis of data generated for the study. These statistical tools were used because

they were suitable means of breaking down and analyzing the generated data. The

testing of hypothesis was done using the chi-square.

X2 = ∑(O-E)2

Where O = Observed
 frequency

Expected
E =
frequency

∑ = Summation
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

This study assessed the level of pesticides use, safety practices compliance and

health hazards among rice farmers in Ishiagu. Results from the study revealed

much misuse and abuse of pesticides, which may have contributed to their health

problems and contaminated their environment. Farmers reported suffering from

discomforts ranging from skin irritation, headache, vomiting, eye irritation and

nausea after using pesticides. This was attributed to the low level of education of

users coupled with a lack of formal training in pesticide use, poor extension

services, inadequate education and safety systems. The Tobit model results showed

that exposure, frequency of exposure and pesticide cocktails were the most

significant pesticides application factors influencing farmers’ health in the study

area.

5.2 Conclusion

There are several pests that affect the food crops in Nigeria, some of which have

been 294 described in this paper. Their effect is a major constraint to crop

production which then affects food security. There are hazards, high cost,

development of resistance by pest etc. associated with the use of pesticides. There
is a need to focus more on several cultural practices, use of biopesticides and IKS

which have been shown to be technically reliable, safe, cost-effective and

environmentally friendly when used solely or as part of a package of other pest

control options in an integrated management scheme. To ensure food security,

Crop Protectionists should be active partners in any efforts to modify agricultural

practices; they should be involved in the formative stages rather than after major

crises have developed.

5.3 Recommendations

The study indicates that the rice farmers of Ishiagu are not more conscious about

the proper use of pesticide, so this kind of injudicious use of pesticide causes

serious occupational health hazard and environmental pollution.

So, to protect the aquatic environment as well as reduce the occupational health

hazard of the rice farmers, the DAE (Department of Agricultural Extension), DoF

(Department of Fisheries) and NGOs should take specific type of extension

programs for providing effective training on use and adverse effects of pesticides.

It is also suggested that the adoption of IPM (Integrated Pest Management)

practices may provide an alternative, which is a popular method of sustainable and

eco-friendly crop production in many countries.

Government should improve the dissemination campaigns to the rural population

by the use of different print and electronic media. If possible then amend “The

Pesticide Act” and include the environmental protection issue as well as proper

guideline to the pesticide user. After all, this study was confined in three villages in

a single union. More studies are needed throughout the country to elucidate the

situation on this issue.

REFERENCES