CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The most important sources of animal protein in the world is poultry meat and

therefore, contributing significantly in maintaining the health status of the people,

especially in developing countries like Nigeria. Poultry meat alone contributes

37% of the total meat production in Nigeria (Hamid et al., 2017). Overall poultry

contributes about 22-27% of the total animal protein supply in the country (DLS.,

2015). However, fast augment in human population of the country is demanding

more efforts to increase meat production for food security. Besides the risk of ever

increasing population, expand of diseases, high feed price and nonavailability of

quality ingredients for balanced feed formulation are some of the factors, which

limit the production performance of broilers.

Supplementing the diet with plant material that is rich in active substances with

beneficial effects for the immune system can be used as an alternative to antibiotic

growth promoters. Beneficial effects of herbal extracts or active substances in

animal nutrition may include the stimulation of appetite and feed intake, the

improvement of endogenous digestive enzyme secretion, activation of immune

response, antibacterial, anti-viral, antioxdant and antihelminthic actions. Generally

plant extracts have no problem of resistance (Tipu et al., 2006) and broilers fed on

herbal feed additives were accepted well by the consumers (Hernandez et al.,

2004). It is conceivable that herbal agents could serve as safer alternatives as

growth promoters due to their suitability and preference, lower cost of production,

reduced risks toxicity and minimum health hazards. Scientists are again

concentrating on the use of our ancient medicinal system to find beneficial herbs

and plants, which can be safely used to increase the production. One of such plants,

neem (Azadirachta indica) is an indigenous plant of Asian subcontinent known for

its useful medicinal properties like antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal,

antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, immunomodulator and various other properties

without showing any adverse affects (Kale et al., 2003; Sadekar et al., 1998).

Lemongrass is an aromatic perennial tropical plant that can grow as high as 3.5

meters with long thin leaves. Lemon grass was originally found growing wild in

India. It produces a network of roots and rootless that rapidly exhausts the soil. In

human medicine, Lemongrass has the following therapeutic properties: analgesic,

antidepressant, antimicrobial, antipyretic, antiseptic, bactericidal, diuretic,

fungicidal, insecticidal and nervous system sedative tonic (Mmereole 2010).

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) contains flavonoids, phenolic compounds,

terpenoids and essential oils (such as citral α, citral β, nerol geraniol, citronellal,

terpinolene, geranyl acetate, myrecene and terpinol methylheptenone) which may

be responsible for its different biological activities such as anti-bacterial, anti-

diarrheal, anti-fungal antioxidants, and as a growth promoter (Sariozkhan et al.,

2016).

Black plum (Vitex doniana) is among plant leaves with potential for improving

animal productive performance, haematology and serum parameters. It is an

indigenous tropical plant distributed across tropical sub-saharan, Africa’s coastal

savannas and savanna woodland. The tree is none domesticated, but it is often

found at the centre of West African villages. There is little scientific information

on the tree but African horticulturist and livestock stand to benefit from output of

research and commercial development in Nigeria. Vitex doniana is commonly

known as Black plum (English), ‘Dinya’ (Hausa), ‘Oriri’ (Yoruba) and ‘Uchakoro’

(Igbo) where the bark, leaves and roots of the plant are used in ethnomedicine for

the management and treatment of numerous disorders such as microbial infection,

cancer, rheumatism, hypertension and inflammatory diseases (Atawodi, 2005).

The successful use of herbal growth promoter will fetch more profit to poultry

farmers by efficient conversion of feed consumed to body constituents. Lemon

grass and black plum leaf meal may also improve feed conversion ratio and so help

reduce feed costs in broiler production especially as it is quite inexpensive and it is

abundantly available (Mmereole 2010).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The poultry industry in the developing countries is facing some challenges, one of

which is increase in the cost of feed because of high prices of protein and energy

sources (Abbas, 2013). Livestock feed costs in developing countries are a

continuing challenge. The high and increasing prices for animal feeds have

compelled researchers to direct their attention to non-conventional feed sources,

with particular emphasis on protein substitutes.

According to our socioeconomic situation, the knowledge of farmer is very little

because most of them are not properly trained for broilers production, but

unemployed young generation is coming in this business for short return of value

and profit. Pharmaceutical companies take this advantage. They are convincing

farmers for using antibiotic as a growth promoter for chicken. As a result, each and

every broiler is a depot of antibiotic. When these broilers are consumed by human

this antibiotic residue enters into human body and causing serious human health

hazards with drug residues. Due to the prohibition of most of antimicrobial growth

promoters (AGP), plant extracts have gained interest in animal feed strategies

(Charis, 2000). The risk of the presence of antibiotic residues in milk and meat and

their harmful effects on human health have led to their prohibition for use in

animal feed in the European Union (Cardozo et al., 2004). The poultry industry is

currently moving towards a reduction in use of synthetic antibiotics due to this

reason (Barton, 1998). As an alternative to antibiotic growth promoters, medicinal

plants are the most popular options (Durrani et al., 2008).

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of this project work is to determine the growth and cost benefit

analysis of finisher broilers fed different levels of lemon grass and black plum leaf

meal.

Specific Objectives

Considering the biological and pharmacological activities of lemon grass and black

plum leaf powder this experiment was designed to use these products in broiler

chicken feeds as a replacement for the antibiotic growth promoters, with the

following specific objectives:

i. To determine the growth performance and serum biochemistry of finisher

broiler fed different levels of lemon grass leaf (LGL) diet.

ii. To determine the growth performance and serum biochemistry of finisher

broiler fed different levels of black plum leaf (BPL) diet.

iii. To compare the difference in growth performance and serum biochemistry

of starter broilers fed with a combination of the two leaf diets

iv. To study the effect of these herbal leaves meal on haematological properties

of broiler chicken.
1.4 Significance of the Study

This project work reviews the use of conventional feedstuff supplements for

broilers and ways that could increase the use of these feed sources for animal

production and thus will be of immense benefit to poultry farmers. The findings

will also add to the body of existing literatures in the field of herbal poultry feed

supplements and will serve as a reference material to students, lecturers and other

researchers who intend to carry any further research in this line.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Poultry Production

Poultry are chickens, ducks, geese, guinea fowls, turkeys and other related birds

kept for meat and egg. In Nigeria, the poultry population is estimated to be 140

million (Ocholi et al; 2006). They are the most commonly kept livestock and over

70% of those keeping livestock are reported to keep chickens (Amar-Klemesu and

Maxwell, 2000). Chickens have its scientific name to be Gallus domestics and it is

one type of poultry. It belongs to the family phasiendae and it is estimated to be

about 69% of the total number of birds kept in Nigeria (Sonaiya, 1990). Broilers

are a type of chicken (apart from cockerels and layers) kept for meat production

and by implication a source of protein (FOA 2006). They are young chickens

suitable for boiling or roosting, at about 10 weeks old.

2.1.1 Feeds/Nutrition

Obioha (1992) noted that since poultry was kept by man for the purpose of

providing edible animal products which could be exchanged for cash. It was

therefore worthwhile to remember and furnish both the maintenance and

production requirements of the animal, which ensured that the animal stayed alive,
grew and reproduced. According to him, balanced diet or good nutrition was

primarily used:

 to maintain and perform such normal physiological functions of life such as

mobility, respiration, metabolism and muscular activities;

 to store up excess materials as meat, egg and energy which may be used for

production work; and

 to increase the resistance of poultry to diseases.

On the account of feed costs, Oluyemi and Roberts (1979) observed that the most

important limiting factor in the expansion of the poultry industry in Nigeria was

high cost of feed ingredients particularly grains. According to them, the

importation of feeds into a country usually increases the cost of feeds. They went

further to say that because there were no feed quality controls in Nigeria, the

quality of feeds commercially available could not be guaranteed. The low quality

feeds undoubtedly contributed to the low performance of poultry in Nigeria, which

in turn was a factor in the high cost of poultry products (Kekeocha, 1984).

Abdulrahim and Salem (1996) ranked the cost of feed as the highest in terms of

production cost while chick cost, medicine and vaccine were ranked second and

third respectively. Therefore, the cost of feed accounts for 70-80 percent of the

total production cost.

Feed is said to be the most important input for profitable poultry production,

however it has continued to be a problem to most poultry farmers. The main

obstacle to livestock improvement apart from the incidence of ectoparasite and

disease in the country is that of inadequate and unbalanced feeding (oyenuga 1996

and Eruvbetine, Aiyedum, & Kusumo, 1999).

It is found that most poultry farmers in Nigeria compound poultry feed themselves

but according to Saleh (1995), domestic production of feed resources do not still

meet consumption needs. Therefore, the high percentage of feed in the cost of

production as earlier mentioned shows that, the importance of feed in poultry

production cannot be overemphasized.

2.2 Black Plum

2.2.1 Taxonomy and structure

Vitex doniana Sweet (Black plum) belongs to Vitex L. genus. The genus Vitex has

been considered in Verbenaceae family by different authors but in recent works it

has been transferred into Lamiaceae based on different evidences (Wagstaff et al.,

1998). Vitex doniana Sweet (syn. Vitex cuneata Thonn.) is the most widespread

Vitex species in Africa. V. doniana is a diploid species, with basic chromosome

number of (2n = 32). V. doniana is a medium-sized deciduous tree, 8-18 m high

occasionally 25m, with a heavy rounded crown and a clear bole up to 5 m. Its bark
is rough, pale brown or greyish-white, rather smooth with narrow vertical fissures.

The bases of old trees have oblong scales.

2.2.2 Leaves

Leaves are opposite, glabrous and are 14-34 cm long. They are usually with 5

leaflets on stalks of 6-14 cm long. Leaflets distinctly stalked, ovate, obovate-

elliptic or oblong, entire, are 8-22 cm long, and 2-9 cm wide.

Plate 2.1 Vitex doniana leaves

2.2.3 Uses and nutritional value of V. doniana

1. Food uses

The fruits and leaves are the edible part of the trees. They are either eaten raw or

after processing. The blackish pulp of the fruit is edible and sweet. It is eaten raw
and tastes like prunes; (Dadjo et al. 2012; Orwa et al. 2009; Louppe et al.2008). It

is also used for juice, syrup, wine, liquor and jam production (Orwa et al. 2009;

Louppe et al. 2008). Jam prepared from the fruits showed no significant difference

in flavour, colour, and overall acceptability from commercial plum jam. The black

plum jam is even preferred for consistency and spreadability. The syrup made from

the pulp can be used instead of other syrups as a nutritive sweetener. The seed

inside the fruits stone is edible (Louppe et al. 2008). Cooked young leaves are used

as vegetable or in sauces (Dadjo et al. 2012). The pounded leaves can be added to

warm filtered grain beer and then drunk (Louppe et al.2008).

2. Medicinal uses

Vitex doniana is widely used in traditional system of medicine. The leaves, fruits,

roots, barks and seed of the plant have been used as medication for liver disease,

anodyne, stiffness, leprosy, backache, hemiplegia, conjunctivity, rash, measles,

rachitis, febrifuge, as tonic galactagogue to aid milk production in lactating

mothers, sedative, digestive regulator and treatment of eye troubles, kidney

troubles. It has also been used for treatment of disease conditions such as

infertility, anaemia, jaundice, dysentery, gonorrhea, headaches, diabetes,

chickenpox, rash and fever (Dadjo et al. 2012; Orwa et al. 2009, Louppe et al.

2008; Iwueke 2006). Leaf sap is used as an eye drop to treat conjunctivitis and

other eye complaints (Dadjo et al. 2012; Orwa et al. 2009; Louppe et al. 2008).
The leaf is used against headache, stiffness, measles, rash fever chickenpox,

hemiplegia, febrifuge, and to treat respiratory diseases. Paste and pounded leaves

are applied to wound and burns. Leaves infusions are added to alcoholic drink to

make them stronger. Dried and fresh fruits are eaten against diarrhea, dysentery,

jaunice, anaemia, leprosy (Orwa et al. 2009). The bark is used against leprosy,

bleeding after child birth, liver diseases. The powdered bark is added to water and

taken to treat colic. The bark extract is used to treat kidney diseases and

stomachache. A root decoction is administered orally to treat ankylostomiasis,

rachitis, gastro-intestinal disorders, jaundice and as anodyne (Louppe et al. 2008).

2.2.4 Nutritional composition of V. doniana leaves

Olusola (1992) found that all the essential amino acids were present in the leave of

V. doniana and their levels compared favourably with the FAO reference protein

except for methionine and tryptophan where the level was lower. All the amino

acids in the leave were found to be biologically available and were of sufficient

quality to sustain normal growth (Olulosa, 1992). Adejumo et al., (2013) found

that the moisture content in V. doniana young leaves was high. Vitex doniana

young leaf is very rich in carbohydrates. Minerals such as sodium, calcium, iron,

Magnesium, Zinc, Copper were reported to be present in V. doniana young leaves

(Adejumo et al., 2013; Osum et al., 2013). The result on the analysis of mineral
content of the V. doniana young leaves revealed that Calcium (Ca) content is very

high and Magnesium was moderate.

Sodium was low in V. doniana young leaf but rich in potassium (Adejumo et al.,

2013).

2.2.5 Phytochemical Composition and Properties

The medicinal value of a plant depends on its bioactive phytochemical constituents

that produce definite physiological action in the body. Several authors have

evaluated the phytochemical composition of V. doniana. They showed the

presence of flavonoids, tannins, saponins, anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, and

resin in methanol, ethanol, aqueous root, stem bark and leaf extract of V. doniana

(Iwueke, 2006). Different extracts of the leaves, stem bark and roots have been

used to demonstrate the pharmacological activities of V. doniana. In general, the

species shows good anti-oxidant property, antimicrobial, antidiarrhoeal effect,

local anesthetic effect, antinociceptive activity (muscle relaxant), effect on

pentobarbitone sleeping time, antidiabetic and hepatoprotective effect,

anticonvulsant and antipyretic properties.

2.2.6 The Utilization of Black Plum Leave in Broiler Rations

The inclusion of leaves in diet of poultry is becoming adaptable due to its

availability and phytochemical constituents responsible for medicinal

or organoleptic properties of the plant (Ugwu  et al. 2013). Profitable livestock

enterprise depends on availability and affordability of feedstuff (Adeyina et al.

2014). Surprisingly, the cost of producing conventional feed that supports

improved performance, haematology and serum biochemistry of animal has been

on the increase in Nigeria over the last three decades. This is attributable to

inadequate production of grains coupled with competition between man, industry

and livestock over the available feed materials. With increasing interest in foliage

plant as feed ingredient, several plants have been assessed with respect to their

effects on performance and blood parameters in poultry. Some of which

are Napoleon imperialis, Ipomea asorfolia and Ipomea purpurea (Adeyina et

al.  2014). With the current emphasis on improvement of livestock production in

Nigeria, foliage plants have found an application without compromising nutritional

standard. In the list of possible alternatives are Leucaena leucocephala, Lablab

purpureus, Tithonia diversifolia, to mention but a few (Ekenyem et al.

2003). Vitex doniana is among plant leaves with potential for improving animal

productive performance, haematology and serum parameters. It is an indigenous

tropical plant distributed across tropical sub-saharan, Africa’s coastal savannas and

savanna woodland. The tree is none domesticated, but it is often found at the centre

of West African villages. There is little scientific information on the tree but

African horticulturist and livestock stand to benefit from output of research and
commercial development in Nigeria. Vitex doniana is commonly known as Black

plum (English), ‘Dinya’ (Hausa), ‘Oriri’ (Yoruba) and ‘Uchakoro’ (Igbo) where

the bark, leaves and roots of the plant are used in ethno-medicine for the

management and treatment of numerous disorders such as microbial infection,

cancer, rheumatism, hypertension and inflammatory diseases (Atawodi, 2005).

2.3 Lemongrass Composition and Utilization

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) is an aromatic herb, notable within the North

and West tropical Africa, in Peninsula and in Egypt (Khadri et al., 2010).

Lemongrass a tall perennial grass comprising of concerning fifty-five species, is

native to heat region and grows in the majority tropical and subtropical countries

(Cheel et al., 2005). The biologically active constituent of lemon grass is citral

constituting over 75 % (w/w) of its essential oil (Huynh et al., 2008). It is wide

used as an herb in Asian preparation, contains a delicate citrus flavor and may be

dried and fine, or used as contemporary. It is usually employed in teas, soups, and

curries, is also appropriate for poultry, fish, beef, and food. Moreover, lemongrass

is employed as a preservative (Shadab et al., 1992). Also, lemongrass essential oil

is applied for its healthful price to cure skin problem, oily skin, flatulence,

headaches, and blood circulation issues (Pearson, 2010).

Lemongrass, in general, grows in dense clumps up to 2 meters in diameter and has

leaves up to one meter long. Lemongrass is a very pungent herb and is normally
used in small amounts. Entire stalk of the grass can be used. Lemongrass is widely

used in herbal teas, non-alcoholic beverages, baked goods, and confectionary

products. Oil from lemongrass is widely used as a fragrance in perfumes and

cosmetics products such as soaps and creams. Citral, (Figure 2-1), extracted from

lemongrass, is used in flavoring soft drinks, in scenting soaps and detergents, as a

fragrance in perfumes and cosmetics, and as a mask for disagreeable odors in

several industrial products (Simon and others 1984). Citral is a mixture of two

geometric isomers of compounds in lemongrass oil. Geranial is the trans isomer of

citral in lemongrass, which accounts for 40-62%, and neral is the cis isomer of

citral in lemongrass, which accounts for 25-38% (Simon and others 1984).

2.3.1 Phytochemistry

The chemical composition of the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus varies

according to the geographical origin, the compounds as hydrocarbon terpenes,

alcohols, ketones, esters and mainly aldehydes have constantly been registered

(Abegaz et al., 2013). The essential oil (0.2–0.5%, West Indian lemon grass oil)

consists of, mainly, citral (Ming et ali., 2016). Citral is a mixture of two

stereoisomeric monterpene aldehydes; the trans isomer geranial (40–62%)

dominates over the cis isomer neral (25–38%) (Sarer, Scheff er and Baerheim,

2013).

2.3.2 Pharmacology
Although a lot of pharmacological investigations have been carried out based on

the ingredients present, but a lot more can still be explored, exploited and utilized.

A summary of the findings of these studies is presented below.

1. Antibacterial Activity

The chromatographic fraction of the essential oil in agar plate was active on

Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococus aureus and Salmonella paratyphi

and Shigella fl exneri (Syed, Khalid and Chaudhary, 2010). These activities are

shown in two of the three main components of the oil identifi ed through

chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods. While the α-citral (geranial)

and β-citral (neral) components individually elicit an antibacterial action on gram-

negative and gram-positive organisms, the third component, myrcene, did not show

any observable antibacterial activity on its own (Onawunmia, Yisak and Ogunlana,

2014). The extract was also active when the volatile oil extract was oxidized via

the active oxygen method.

2. Antifungal Activity

Lemon grass oil is active against such dermatophytes such as Trichophyton

mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, Epidermophyton fl occosum and Microsporum

gypseum, and is among the most active agents against human dermatophytes
(Wannissorn, Jarikasem and Soontorntanasart, 2016). Other studies reported that

lemon grass oil is active against keratinophilic fungi, 32 ringworm fungi and food

storage fungi (Misrha and Dubey, 2014). Lemongrass oil is also effective as a

herbicide and as an insecticide because of these naturally occurring antimicrobial

effects.

2.3.3 The Use of Lemongrass in Poultry

Lemon grass it is believed that some of these advantages can be harnessed and

brought to bear generally in livestock production and particularly in broiler

production to enhance growth and the overall production performance and thus

replace the antibiotic growth promoters. There are numerous feed additives of

plant origin that are used in broiler feeds to improve the performance by enhancing

growth rate, better feed conversion efficiency and lower mortality. Recently, the

use of antibiotics as feed additives is contra-indicated due to health concern about

their residues in animal tissues and the production of drug resistant bacteria

(Zomrawi et al., 2012).

 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

5.2 Conclusion

The result obtained in this study confirms the aim of alternative feed stuffs in

ration formulation, which is to reduce the cost of production and benefits accruable

to farmers without compromising the carcass characteristics and meat quality. It is

therefore concluded that inclusion of lemongrass and black plum leaf meal in the

diet of broiler up to7.5% have no negative effect on the profitability of raising

birds.

5.3 Recommendation

It is therefore recommended that lemongrass and black plum leaf meal should be

included in the diet of broiler birds for more economic benefits.