1 Coalbearing Compressed

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625
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International Journal of Coal Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/coal
Organic debris and allochthonous coal in Quaternary landforms within a

periglacial setting (Longyearbyen Mining District, Norway) - A
multi-disciplinary study (coal geology-geomorphology-sedimentology)
Dill Harald G.a, *, Kus Jolanta b, Buzatu Andrei c, Balaban Sorin-Ionut d, Kaufhold Stephan b,
Borrego Angeles G.e
a
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University, Welfengarten 1, D-30167 Hannover, Germany
b
Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, P.O Box 510163, D-30631 Hannover, Germany
c
Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geology, 20A, Carol I Boulevard, RO-700505 Iaşi, Romania
d
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Birkbeck, University of London Malet Street, Bloomsbury, London WC1E 7HX, Great Britain, United Kingdom
e
Instituto Nacional del Carbón, CSIC, P.O. Box 73, 33080 Oviedo, Spain
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: High volatile bituminous coal C and B is currently exploited at Spitsbergen-Svalbard, Norway. Several coal seams
High volatile bituminous coal C/B formed during the Palaeocene, of which some were reworked by mass wasting (MW), (glacial)-fluvial (GF) and
Quaternary reworking coastal-marine wave-dominated (WM) processes under periglacial conditions during the Quaternary. This su
Periglacial
pergene alteration resulted in different landforms and deposit bearing four different types of depositional en
Coastal zone
Spitsbergen-Svalbard
vironments in Svalbard: (1) Invisible floral and faunal remains, (2) visible floral remains, (3) drift wood, (4) coal
placers s. The subaerial slow- and fast-moving MW was accompanied by chemical weathering giving rise to
jarosite coatings indicative of acidic meteoric solutions, whereas the remaining subaquatic processes operated
under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. Fast-moving MW and WM are productive processes, whereas GF
ones are destructive with regard to coal accumulation. The most efficient tools to study the origin of the OM-
bearing coarse-grained deposits are the morphology and orientation of bioclasts while the LER/HER (= low
exothermic / high exothermic reaction) ratio is used for finer-grained OM-bearing sediments. The maceral
analysis revealed that the landforms accounted for by GF and WM were emplaced as a result of geogenic and
anthropogenic processes and aged younger than 1900 CE, while MW is Quaternary and true geogenic. Driftwood
is cast in the role of a marker for coal-bearing (fluvial-) marine environments different in age and rank of
coalification. With this in mind it is an excellent tool to drawn the boundary in paralic settings between the
marine and fluvial impact. In conclusion, coal fragments are markers for short-term, periodical and fast
landform-building processes, whereas siliciclasts from the host and bedrock are markers for long-term and
episodical geomorphological and sedimentological supergene alteration.
1. Introduction allochthonous to parautochthonous coal deposition mainly taking a

sedimentary approach (Li et al., 2001; Glasspool, 2003; Zengxue et al.,
Considering reviews and textbooks of coal geology dealing with the 2006; Austin and Sanders, 2018). The current study goes technically
origin of coal-bearing beds and their depositional environments might beyond this geological approach and makes use of a further geoscientific
give the reader the view that coal seams are only of autochthonous tool, geomorphology, which is frequently sidelined in economic geol
origin, what is certainly true for most large economic deposits (Rahmani ogy, in general. Considering the gist of the current investigation, it is not
and Flores, 1984; Scott and Fleet, 1994; Banerjee, 2005; Diessel, 2012). the seam-building process of Palaeogene series in Svalbard that matters
This point of view is, however, not left unchallenged and has been hotly but it is the supergene reworking of this Palaeogene coal under a peri
debated during some period of time (Gastaldo, 1999). But still in the glacial climatic regime far off the primary morpho-climatic depositional
recent past attempts have been held necessary to clarify the origin of environment where mires normally are emplaced and preserved for
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: haralddill@web.de (H.G. Dill).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2020.103625
Received 15 July 2020; Received in revised form 18 October 2020; Accepted 28 October 2020
Available online 2 November 2020
0166-5162/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H.G. Dill et al. International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625
Fig. 1. Study area, sites referred to in the text and their geological setting.
a) Geological overview of Svalbard (slightly modified from the official map of Svalbard issued by Elvevold et al., 2007).
b) Lithostratigraphic column of the Paleogene host rocks of the Spitsbergen coal seams (taken from Marshall et al., 2015). The black vertical bar denotes the
stratigraphic position of the coal seams.
subsequent coalification. Investigation on Palaeogene origin have 2014; Ewertowski, 2014; Jennings et al., 2015; Aradóttir et al., 2019). In
already been performed by coal petrographers and geologists in Sval the current study a tripartite approach has been taken making use of coal
bard, Norway, whereas studies of its reworking have not yet been con petrography, geomorphology, and sedimentology to tackle the issues of
ducted for the most recent parts of geological history when the landforms bearing organic debris and allochthonous coal. The scope of
advancing and receding of glaciers and the constant wave action the current investigation can be described as follows:
sculptured the landscape of Spitsbergen and concurrently contributed to
the geogenic and anthropogenic redeposition of coal (Fig. 1a) (Harland • Which landscape-forming processes are most influential on the su
et al., 1997; Hisdal, 1998; Ćmiel, 1999; Ćmiel and Fabiańska, 2004; pergene chemical alteration and redeposition of coal?
Orheim et al., 2007; Marshall et al., 2015; Uguna et al., 2017). Even if • How does coal in terms of composition and its outward appearance
Svalbard is a deforested region there are different types of organic (granulometry, morphology and situmetry) respond to the varying
matter (OM) from driftwood to invisible humate compounds which have landscape-forming processes?
to be distinguished from fine-grained coalified matter (CM) and • How strong is the anthropogenic and geogenic impact and what is its
constitute a key element of land-forming processes (Table 1). age?
Since decades, Spitsbergen has been in the focus of geomorphologists • The LER/HER (= low exothermic / high exothermic reaction)
conducting geomorphological studies on landforms created by water method as a tool for the classification of OM- and CM-bearing
and ice. One of them was the late Prof. Dr. Julius Büdel, the senior au landforms.
thor’s teacher of glacial and periglacial landforms at Würzburg Uni
versity, who began his work in the 1940s and was honored by naming 2. Geological setting and coal formation
the Büdelfjellet, in Spitzbergen. These geomorphological studies have
been intensified and are still going on with a strong emphasis placed on The study area is situated in the surroundings of the mining town of
glaciology so that only an overview can be given about the research Longyearbyen in a coastal region along the Isfjorden (Fig. 1a). The
results obtained during the most recent decades (Glasser and Hambrey, coastal area is limited seaward by the edge of the foreshore or shoreline
2001; Nuth et al., 2007; Kristensen et al., 2009; Evans et al., 2012; and inland by the nearest change of topography. Its mountainous hin
Mansell et al., 2012; Ewertowski et al., 2012; Stacke et al., 2013; Lønne, derland is covered to a large extent by snow and glaciers.
2
H.G. Dill et al.
Table 1
Geomorphological, sedimentological, coal petrographic, chemical and mineralogical features of coal-bearing sediments and landforms as a function of mass wasting, fluvial (glacial) and marine processes.
3

n.d. = not determined, boldface = coal data, italics = autochthonous minerals, chemical data are given in wt% for the mean values.
The description of the geological setting is mainly based upon the mineral assemblage. These examinations were supplemented by XRD (=
studies issued by Harland et al. (1997), Dallmann (1999) and Elvevold X-ray diffraction) the patterns of which were recorded using a PAN
et al. (2007) supplemented with regard to the geology of the coal de alytical X’Pert PRO MPD Θ-Θ diffractometer (Co-Kα radiation generated
posits by Orheim et al. (2007) and Marshall et al. (2015). The study sites at 40 kV and 40 mA) from 1◦ to 75◦ 2Θ with a step size of 0.03◦ 2Θ. The
are on Spitsbergen, the largest island of the Svalbard Archipelago which laser-based CAMSIZER technique is the method chosen for grain size and
forms an uplift of the Barents Sea Shelf (Fig. 1a). The basement rocks morphology measurements. Thermo analytical investigations were
formed during the Precambrian through Silurian time. The Early performed by a Netzsch 409 PC thermobalance equipped with a DSC/TG
Palaeozoic Caledonian orogeny had a strong impact on the structural sample holder linked to a Balzers Thermostar quadrupole mass spec
and metamorphic evolution of the archipelago. Its post-orogenic trometer (MS). About 100 mg of powdered material previously equili
erosional products are met in the Devonian siliciclastics of the “Old brated at 53% r.H. is heated from 25 to 1000 ◦ C with a heating rate of
Red” sequence. These molasse sediments denote the onset of a varied 10 K/min. Powdered samples were analyzed using a XRF (X-ray fluo
basin evolution lasting until the Palaeogene where the climatic and rescence) PANalytical Axios device and a PW2400 spectrometer. Sam
palaeogeographic conditions were most favorable for the formation of ples were prepared by mixing with a flux material and melting into glass
coal seams in the Firkanten Fm during the Palaeocene just on top of the beads which were analyzed by wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence
C/P unconformity (Marshall et al., 2015) (Fig. 1b). The coal seams were spectrometry (WD-XRF). To determine the loss on ignition (LOI) 1 g of
emplaced on a vast coastal plain of the Central Tertiary basin and reflect sample material was heated to 1030 ◦ C for 10 min.
different marine-deltaic impacts on the coal formation. The Quaternary The coal samples were air-dried at approximately room temperature,
sediments unconformably rest upon the Eocene, while Late Palaeogene crushed and sieved to 1 mm grain size aliquot. The preparation of pol
and Neogene rocks are missing in the geological record. The youngest ished particulate blocks from coal samples was conducted at LAOP Ltd.,
Cenozoic units show strong imprints of large glaciers and in the areas Tübingen, Germany following the German Standard Methods (DIN
barren as to visible ice-fields are affected by permafrost which reaches a 22020–2, 1998–08) and the guidelines published by Taylor et al. (1998)
thickness of as much as 500 m in higher areas pinching out down to zero by mounting the grains of the dried sample in polyester resin with two-
near the coast (Elvevold et al., 2007). It is the substrate which the coal- component epoxy adhesive system composed of epoxy resin and hard
bearing landforms and sediments under discussion have been derived ener (Araldite 2020 A/B, type AV2020) as well as wet surface grinding
from. The episodical and periodical changes of water from its solid to and polishing with abrasives down to a final alumina finish of 0.05-μm
liquid stage strongly affected these landforms together with their sedi (μm).
ments which are mixed up with reworked coal fragments in the Spits Optical microscopy examination together with random reflectance
bergen Mining District around Longyearbyen. measurements on collotelinite and maceral analysis were carried out at
the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR,
3. Methods Hannover) in accordance to German National Standards, DIN 22020-5
(2005–02) and DIN 22020-3 (1998), and ISO 7404-3 (2009–10),
The 1st order scheme used in the current study is process-oriented respectively. Hundred reflectance measurements on collotelinite, up to
(Table 1): (1) Mass wasting processes, (2) (glacial)-fluvial processes, 30 on collodetrinite, up to 48 on pseudovitrinite, and up to 12 on solid
(3) coastal marine processes. The coastal morphological features are bitumen, and at least 500 points were counted using Leica MPV Meas
treated according to the proposals of Bird (2008), the fluvial ones ac software.The maceral nomenclature applied in this paper follows ICCP
cording to Miall (1977, 1992, 1996), and the mass wasting processes System 1994 adopted by the International Committee for Coal and
follow the terminology of Selby (1993) and Hungr et al. (2013). The 2nd Organic Petrology (ICCP, 1998, 2001; Pickel et al., 2017). Polished
order level describes the various landform types sensu Summerfield particulate blocks of coal were also analyzed by using the Leica Confocal
(1991) resultant from the three principal processes. Scanning System (CLSM), TCS SP5 II at the Federal Institute for Geo
Several studies were conducted in the past to interpret the environ sciences and Natural Resources (BGR, Hannover). For detailed descrip
ment of deposition by means of granulometric, morphological studies tion on the confocal system, please refer to Kus (2015).
and measurements of the clast orientation as stand-alone techniques. All The true and apparent densities of the coals were determined in a
results obtained by these individual attempts are not very promising Helium Picnometer (Accupyc 1330, MICROMERITICS) and a Mercury
(Reineck and Singh, 1980; Pettijohn et al., 1987). Therefore, a detailed Porosimeter (Autopore IV, MICROMERITICS), respectively. The mer
study focusing on the grain size, grain morphology and the mineralog cury intrusion values of the coals were recorded from 0.1 MPa (12 μm
ical and chemical composition of the host sediments has been accom pore width) to 227 MPa (5.5 nm), showing lack of penetration at mod
plished (Table 1). In addition to the coal petrography, a petrophysical erate pressures and compression of the material at the highest pressure.
analysis of coal has also been conducted (Table 1). Prior to analysis, samples were outgassed at 90 ◦ C for 1 h to remove
The gravel-size material is subjected to a visual morphological ex adsorbed water. The petrophysical data are listed in Table 1 and
amination while subdivided into six classes of roundness from very determined as follows.
angular to well-rounded according to Illenberger (1991), whereas the As the volume of a solid is seen differently by He and Hg, as a
sand fraction was passed through a CAMSIZER. Not surprisingly, the consequence of the different penetration powers of these two fluids in
clasts derived from mass wasting show the poorest roundness whereas the pore network of the solid, the specific pore volume can be expressed
fluvial deposits may attain the highest degree denominated as “well as:
rounded”. Coal samples taken from equivalent process categories always
1 1
show a lower roundness than the bulk rock except for the marine realm VP = − (1)
ρHg ρHe
where coal can keep pace with the siliciclasts as to the roundness and, in
places, even surpasses it. The reciprocals of the two densities are the specific volumes of the
Ground studies, including sampling a total of 20 study sites with big- solid as seen by both fluids, expressed as cm3 per gram of solid. The
pack samples, supported by satellite images (source of satellite images: difference between the two reciprocals is the specific volume (Vp, also in
Google Maps) and topographic data from the Norwegian Polar Institute cm3⋅g− 1) of the pores which the Hg includes in the total volume of
(Norsk Polarinstitutt) formed the basis of the geological/sedimentolog sample but which the He sees as not belonging to the solid. The porosity
ical and geomorphological studies and provided the samples for the (%) is therefore expressed as:
coal-petrographic and –petrophysical investigations (Table 1). The
VP
sedimentary composition of the samples was examined firstly under P= 100 (2)
He Hg
binocular and subsequently under the petrographic microscope for their
4
H.G. Dill et al.
5

Fig. 2. Digital terrain models of the study area on Spitsbergen, Norway (data source: Norwegian Polar Data Centre, download: June, 19, 2020 https://data.npolar.no/home/ Scale and projection UTM (Universal
Transversal Mercator).
a) 3-D view of the geological setting.
b) 3-D view (close-up view of Fig. 2a) of the geomorphological setting of the Longyearbyen Coal Mining District. Mass wasting (brown-dotted), glacial-fluvial (gray-ruled), coastal-marine (white-full line). For more detail
see Table 1, LER/HER ratios = low exothermic/ high exothermic reaction for each land-forming process group. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version
of this article.)
Fig. 3. Mass wasting and fluvial landforms.

a) Overview of the coal-bearing series (encased by red brackets) and the mass wasting as well as fluvial landforms at Endalen. Debris flow with feeding zone (FZ),
transport channel (TC), depositional fan (DF). Gray/ barren when active, vegetated when abandoned. Solifluction lopes and soil creep (SL + SC). Braided river
channels (active) with longitudinal bars.
b) Transitional mass wasting landforms (rill, gully, alluvial channel with levee). Cableway pylon for scale.
c) Contact between an abandoned /vegetated terrace of braided stream (BS) and mass wasting (MW) see contrast between degrees of roundness.
d) Ventifacts piercing the vegetation on an ancient terrace near its edge to the colluvial deposits where the gravel was aligned with its longer axis parallel to the dip
direction.
e) Litho- and structural control on gravity driven rock fall above a line of alternating buttresses and grooves marking the feeder zone of debris flows. See cable car
pylons for scale. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
4. Results process, while ventifacts may come into existence under the influence of
aeolian processes on these plains laid bare (Fig. 3d). Gullies which
4.1. Landform types and their classification frequently start off from rills are smaller than the transport channels of
debris flows and their shape, dip and strike are controlled by joints and
4.1.1. Mass wasting processes and the resultant coal-bearing landforms fault zones as well as the bedrock lithology (Figs. 2, 3b, e). Incompetent
Mass wasting involves all gravity driven dislodgments from rock fall argillaceous beds such as coal-bearing ones are prone to cavings and
on steeply dipping walls, incorporating soil and rock fragments to favor the destabilization of the slope (Dill et al., 2020a, 2020b) (Fig. 3a,
creeping processes on gently dipping slopes (Figs. 2, 3a, b, c, e). The e). They occupy a transitional position as to the speed of transport
downslope transport may be accelerated by the solid-liquid state (Table 2). These mass wasting processes impact on the dispersion and
transformation of H2O and results into solifluction and gelifluctuation, accumulation as well as on the outward appearance of coal fragments
respectively (Fig. 3a, d). As a reference for the different velocities of (Table 2, Fig. 4a, b). This is particularly true for the shape and
downslope movement, slow-motion talus or soil creep and fast-motion morphology of the CM fragments which can even be traced into foot
debris and earth flows are recorded (Fig. 3, Table 2). On rather flat to slope fluvial deposits and landforms (Fig. 4a, b).
pographies heave may lead to parautochthonous processes such as
putting a flat rock fragment into a subvertical position without lateral 4.1.2. Fluvial processes and their resultant coal-bearing landforms
dislodgment (Fig. 3c, d). In places, the deposits of mass wasting are The arrangement of fluvial drainage systems around Longyearbyen is
unvegetated or sparsely vegetated, dependent upon the activity of the rather simple. There is a trunk drainage system which occupies the
6
Table 2
The “traffic light classification scheme” of coal clasts dispersion and accumulation as a function of mass-
wasting, glacial, fluvial and coastal-marine processes (x-axis) and speed of transport. White: no data avail
able because of lack of physical processes, red: destructive – no accumulation, yellow: conservative – equi
librium between dispersion and concentration, green: productive, separation and accumulation. In addition
to the physical processes chemical supergene alteration is shown in the first line.
Mass-wasng Glacial Fluvial Coastal-

marine
Chemical Strong to Moderate to Minor to no No
Alteraon moderate minor
Vercal slow Heave
Vercal fast Fall
Transional Rilling &
gullying
Lateral slow Creep Creep Flow
Lateral fast Flow Flow Flow
emerged U-shaped valley of the fjord. Near the sea it is a straight funnel- 4.2. The GMS tool- Granulometry-morphology-situmetry
shaped island-forming drainage system which converts into an anab
ranching river towards its catchment area in the glaciated area (Figs. 2, The grain size variation can most conveniently be described in
5a). The channel system stands out by its wide longitudinal bars which process-related way by means of the median (for the grain size inter
develop into lozenge-shaped islands - sensu North et al. (2007). It runs val < 2000 μm) and its sorting coefficient. The median values do not
almost parallel to the Longyearbyen Mining District marked by a cable- differ significantly from each other and plot into the field of coarse-
car line (Fig. 5a). The tributary valleys incised into the coal-bearing grained sand according to Blair and McPherson (1999). The braided-
series and its bedrocks are much smaller in size and different with re stream system shows the highest degree of sorting whereas the de
gard to the channel system. Immediately downstream of the break posits caused by subaerial mass wasting are most poorly sorted
through of the terminal moraine straight channel systems with cascade, (Table 1). As a case history the combined clast-orientation-size treat
step-pools and their flanks blanked with colluvium came into being ment of the coal placer-type along the coast is presented (Fig. 6a). In the
(Figs. 2, 5b). They tend to get braided and eventually end up in wide backshore siliciclastic and coal debris show a wide spread with regard to
braided drainage systems before flowing into the trunk rivers (Figs. 3a, the grain size variation with several 2nd and 3thd order maxima. The
5a, d). Abandoned channel systems have their longitudinal and traverse skewness which is a measure of the asymmetry of the grain size distri
bars covered with herbaceous vegetation or they are raised above the bution is positive, in the backshore zone for both siliciclasts and coal
present talweg (definition: “The line connecting the lowest or deepest (Fig. 6a). Heading towards the shoreline a positive skewness is main
points along a stream bed or valley; whether under water or not; the tained for the siliciclasts opposed to the coal where this positive skew
longitudinal profile of a stream or valley; the median line of a stream” ness gradually disappears. The kurtosis of coal, simply expressed as the
according to Bates and Jackson, 1987, 1997). measure of peakedness of the distribution curve steadily becomes
At the very end they form fluvial deltas which are reshaped by the sharper towards the shoreline. To anticipate, a composite land-forming
coastal longshore drift, attested to by the accretional spit of the barrier process is operative in the coastal marine environment with different
and the recurved inlet of the river channel (Fig. 5c) (Hayes, 1979; Hayes influence on coal and its siliciclastic matrix. This is also mirrored by the
and FitzGerald, 2013). Although widespread in the area and deeply density and porosity variation of the coal fragments (Fig. 6a).
incised into the coal-bearing beds these fluvial processes initiated by the The current paragraph deals with the measurements and their
melt water of the retreating glaciers has not a very positive effect on the follow-up statistical treatment of the clast orientation (situmetry). All
migration of coal debris (Fig. 4c, Table 2). It is more or less a transit zone rose-diagrams are oriented parallel to the shore line which is synony
between the mass wasting operative proximal to the mining sites and the mous with the land-sea boundary (Fig. 6b). There are some situmetric
distal marine depositional sites near the coast (Figs. 4d, e, f, 5c, e). studies mainly devoted to colluvial deposits and to a lesser extent to
fluvial or glacial processes (Nieuwenhuijzen and Van Steijn, 1990;
4.1.3. Coastal-marine processes and their coal-bearing landforms Bertran et al., 1997; Millar and Nelson, 2001). Fig. 6b matches Fig. 6a as
By contrast with the picturesque fjords known from mainland Nor to the study sites and scale. It reveals the response of coal and siliceous
way, that are denominated as high-relief fjords, the ones under study in debris as to their orientation to the different land-forming processes on
Spitsbergen are low-relief fjords, their slopes are more gently dipping, the shore platform. Coal fragments show a conspicuous arrangement of
the hills smoothed and, in places, strandlines are emerged near its mouth their longer axis parallel to the coastline. Only near the shoreline an
where they give host to coal placer deposits (Figs. 2, 4d, e, f). Perpen oblique trend of 40–60◦ can be observed.
dicular to the shoreline, the shore platform shows a conspicuous sepa The most pronounced situmetric maxima are reported from the
ration into backshore and foreshore where the discrete coal placer northern fjords where only organic matter is present as driftwood, e.g.,
streaks are exposed (Fig. 5e). The marine processes are most efficient in wooden beams and logs and as remains of marine vertebrates such as
terms of concentration and separation of minerals as illustrated by the bones of whales and walruses (Figs. 1, 6c). It has to be noted, that the
clear-cut separation of coal fragments and siliciclasts by the wave action amount of organic remains all of which are of marine origin decreases
and longshore drift. Berms and runnels are difficult to distinguish on the landward. Svalbard is today a region with not forests or trees growing
gently-dipping shore platform compared to the bar-and-interbar sedi there. The second result is the angle of orientation relative to the
ments in braided streams (Fig. 5d, e). shoreline. The longer axis of driftwood used to be oriented more or less
parallel to the shoreline in a seaward position, whereas in a landward
7
Fig. 4. Coal-bearing deposits and –landforms.

a) Angular coal fragment contained in soil creep.
b) Angular to subrounded gravelly coal fragments at the contact where braided streams cut into the distal lobes of debris flows.
c) A single subrounded coal fragment between rounded to well-rounded siliciclastics of braided streams.
d) Isolated polished coal fragment within the backshore zone of a microtidal beach deposit.
e) Rounded coal fragments forming a coal placer streak within the foreshore of a microtidal beach, surrounded by siliciclasts of a lower degree of roundness.
f) Several discrete coal placer streaks each measuring 0.1 to 0.2 m in size at outcrop. The blue arrowhead points to the sea. See also the sharp landward contact and
the seaward lobes of the coal placer (white arrowheads) caused by the ebb-current. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
position is run perpendicular to the shoreline. Gravels deposited prox 4.4. Coal petrography
imal to the shoreline follow suit with the organic debris (Fig. 6c).
The petrographic composition of the examined coal samples as
4.3. Mineralogical and chemical composition of coal-bearing sediments determined by maceral analysis of the vitrinite maceral group and as a
function of landform type are shown in the bar diagram of Fig. 7.
The chemical composition of the three sedimentary series is rather The studied coals as displayed in Fig. 8 are vitrinite-rich and in part,
homogeneous. Only the mass wasting deposits are significantly lower in mineral-rich coals characterized by abundant framboidal aggregates and
silica (Table 1). This is supported by the assemblage of allochthonous fine-grained disseminated diagenetic pyrite. In addition to the dominant
minerals which are only mixed up with some epidote s.s.s. (solid solu macerals of the vitrinite group, also sporinite, cutinite, and liptodetrinite
tion series) and amphibole (richterite) (Hawthorne et al., 2012). Both are likewise observed. Analogous petrographic characteristics are re
minerals alien to the remaining samples have derived from magmatic ported by Ćmiel (1999), Ćmiel and Fabiańska (2004), Orheim et al.
rocks, probably pertaining to the alkali-magmatic clan and were mixed (2007), and Marshall et al. (2015) for coals of the Palaeocene Firekanten
up with nearby sedimentary detritus in the marine coal placer (Maly Formation in the Longyearbyen region of Spitsbergen and by Uguna
shonok Yu et al., 1986). Albeit present only in minor amounts, the et al. (2017) in the Bassen region, also of Spitsbergen.
autochthonous minerals pyrite, jarosite, “limonite” and hematite play a Macerals of the vitrinite group are represented by collotelinite,
more important part when it comes to the discussion of the physical- vitrodetrinite, and corpogelinite (Fig. 8). Collotelinite forms bands and
chemical regime in the various depositional environments. layers in a similar way as reported by Orheim et al. (2007), displaying
both (1) micropores (Fig. 2B) and (2) discrete internal iridescent re
flections under incident white light. Micropores (< 2 μm) are developed
8
Fig. 5. Coal-bearing deposits and –landforms originating from fluvial, glacio-fluvial and marine processes.
a) Overview of the principal stream systems in the study area (1) braided streams with longitudinal bars prevailing over transverse bars and abandoned channel
system at elevated vegetated terraces, (2) Straight to anabranching fluvial system. The blue arrowhead points towards the mouth of the Adventfjorden which is
tributary to the Isfjorden (Fig. 1a). The cable-car line in the middle of the image can be used as scale and demarcation of the coal-mining district towards the NW.
SL + SC = Solifluction plus soil creep.
b) Straight channel showing a downstream tendency to get braided. Immediately outside the terminal moraine of a glacier.
c) Fluvial delta (white dashed line) with channel (blue) and outlet (in its upper reaches artificially channeled), overprinted by wave action/ longshore drift forming a
recurved spit.
d) Longitudinal gravel bar with fine-grained sediment accumulated within small pools. In the background a 1.0 to 1.5 m terrace which still preserved the sharp
contact of which with the colluvial part of the valley.
e) Foreshore and backshore with mini berms (red dashed lines) made up of coarse-grained gravelly sediments and fine-grained sediments filling the runnels in
between. The ridges of the berms run at acute angle with the boundary terminating the backshore to the foreshore due to a westward longshore drift. (For inter
pretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
as dark, circular to oval shaped pores, which frequently reveal coales either perpendicular to sub-perpendicular or parallel to sub-parallel to
cence of pores along microlayering. The observed micropores were not bedding. Characteristic normal microfaults and shear zones as well as
reported in the examined Palaeocene coals by Ćmiel (1999), Ćmiel and distinct microfolds were not observed. Orheim et al. (2007) likewise
Fabiańska (2004), Orheim et al. (2007), Marshall et al. (2015), and confirmed the distinguishing and distinctive presence of microfracturing
Uguna et al. (2017) in the corresponding samples of the Firekanten and microfissuring with a presence of the observed secondary cleats,
Formation of the Van Mijenfjorden Group, neither in the Longyearbyen cracks and fissures parallel to the bedding.
region nor in the Bassen region. Among the examined coal components, pseudovitrinite is charac
On the opposite, the appearance of fine and distinct iridescent in terized by a distinct presence of slits, lack of pyrite grains, and a ho
ternal reflections scattered homogenously throughout the collotelinite mogenous appearance (Fig. 8e). The presence of pseudovitrinite is
may be related to the presence of finely distributed micrinite and/or apparent and very characteristic for the Longyear Bed Member of the
mineral matter. This appears to confirm the description of micrinite and Firekanten Formation, cropping out in the close neighborhood of the
syngenetic minerals, intimately disseminated in the coal as observed by examined coal seam. Orheim et al. (2007) confirms the occurrence of
Orheim et al. (2007). pseudovitrinite forming regular bands in Longyear coal seams.
The examined coals revealed clearly the presence of non-inherent Among the secondary products, the examined coals reveal relatively
and non-thermal microfracturing and microfissuring, being oriented numerous solid bitumen observed to occur as fine dispersed and
9
Fig. 6. Grain size and clast orientation in the coastal marine coal- and driftwood-bearing deposits.
a) Histograms showing the grain-size variation of coal and siliciclasts along a transect from the backshore to the foreshore in Svalbard (see Figs. 2, 4f, 5e).
b) Semi-circle rose diagrams showing the orientation of coal fragments and siliciclasts along a transect from the backshore to the foreshore in Svalbard (see Figs. 2, 4f,
5e, 6a).
c) Driftwood (drift lumber) and gravel oriented in beach landforms of a wave-dominated coast. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
10
Fig. 6. (continued).
intergranular particles in the groundmass as well as pore filling of Apart from solid bitumen and pseudovitrinite, the examined coals
fusinite and semifusinite macerals and as vein, microfracture, and reveal the presence of coal ash particles with various textural and
microfissure fillings (Figs. 8a; 9c, 9f). The observed solid bitumen is low- morphological features (Fig. 10 a - f). In addition to anisotropic carbon
reflecting, pale gray, generally homogenous to slightly granular in its with tenuinetwork and crassinetwork textures, also anisotropic ceno
appearance in white reflected light. spheres, inertinitoids in thermally degraded rock particles, fine spinel
11
Fig. 6. (continued).
Fig. 7. Petrographic composition of the examined coal samples as determined by maceral analyses of the vitrinite maceral group. SPIT 5a: Fluvial-deltaic, SPIT 5b:
Coastal-marine/ backshore, SPIT 5c Coastal-marine/ foreshore.
12
Fig. 8. Photomicrographs of macerals in the coal seam. All photos in white reflected light and oil immersion. (A) Collotelinite and solid bitumen in sample SPIT5a;
Collotelinite and corpogelinite in sample SPIT5a; (c) Collotelinite and vitrodetrinite in sample SPIT5b; (d) Vitrodetrinite and fusinite in sample SPIT5b; (e) pseu
dovitrinite in sample SPIT5c; (f) Vitrodetrinite in sample SPIT5c; B-Solid bitumen; CD- Vitrodetrinite; CG-Corpogellinite; CT-Collotelinite; F-Fusinite; PV-
Pseudovitrinite. For abbreviation of sample ID see Fig. 7.
dendrites and vitrified particles are observed (Fig. 10). The applied Results of the reflectance measurements are summarized in Table 3.
terminology for the observed coal ash follows the texture-based classi Reflectance measurements were carried out on collotelinite and other
fication of fly ash as defined by Hower and Mastalerz (2001). The organic particles such as vitrodetrinite, pseudovitrinite, and solid
observed carbon residues are indicator of coal combustion and different bitumen. Vitrinite reflectance measurements performed on collotelinite
volatilization of certain coal macerals during thermal degradation. yielded well-defined reflectance with values ranging from 0.64 to 0.67%
There is no transition being observed from thermally unaltered back Rr and with a standard deviation of 0.04 to 0.05, pointing towards high
ground coal to coal ash. Based on the observations both entire vitrinite- volatile bituminous coal C and B (ASTM D388-15) or Flammkohlen (DIN
rich coal grains as well as carbonaceous particles were subjected to coal 22005-2: 1997–09).
combustion processes, yielding dominantly different burnt carbon In contrast to collotelinite derived mean reflectance, reflectance
morphologies and textures. measurements performed on vitrodetrinite showed a relatively large
13
Table 3 ranging from 5 vol% to 22 vol%.

Summary of mean random reflectance data. SPIT 5a: Fluvial-deltaic, SPIT 5b:
Coastal-marine/ backshore, SPIT 5c Coastal-marine/ foreshore. 4.5. The LER/HER ratio as a function of landforms
Vitrinite (Collotelinitea) Vitrinite (Collodetrinite)
Rr (%) N SD Q Rr (%) N SD Q
Thermo-analytical methods conducted in accordance with the in
vestigations of Friedrich et al. (1996) reveal the presence of OM besides
SPIT 5a 0.64 100 0.05 5 0.59 30 0.04 5
clay minerals. Consequently, the OM has been analyzed for its easily
SPIT 5b 0.66 100 0.04 5 0.55 16 0.03 5
SPIT 5c 0.67 100 0.04 5 0.62 17 0.02 5 oxidizable organics (LER) such as plant remains from lichen, moos and
grass and organic compounds and compared with components more
difficult to oxidize (HER) such as coal particles (Fig. 11, Table 1). The
Pseudovitrintie Solid bitumen
highest amount of LER in relation to HER exists in the subaerial mass
Rr (%) N SD Q Rr (%) N SD Q
wasting deposits, whereas the aquatic fluvial and marine depositional
SPIT 5a 0.73 37 0.04 5 0.30 5 0.02 5 environments only differ from each other by a small margin (Table 1).
SPIT 5b 0.75 48 0.04 5 0.38 12 0.06 5 The highest amount of HER has been determined in samples from the
SPIT 5c 0.72 21 0.03 5 NA
marine coal placers where small coal grains may be observed even with
– – –
Legend: Rr (%) – Random reflectance; N – Number of individual measurements; the unarmed eye in the siliciclastic beach sediments. The LER proportion
SD – Standard deviation; Q – Qualifier regarding the reliableness of reflectance in these CM samples consists of floral remains of seaweed giving rise to a
measurements derived from particle quality (size, surface quality) and statistical minimum LER/HER ratio of 19% (Fig. 11).
significance; 5 = very high;4 = high; 3 = middle; 2 = poor; 1 = very poor;
0 = indeterminable or non-derivable; NA – Non available data.
5. Discussion
Table 4 5.1. The physical-chemical regime of the coal-bearing geomorphological

Summary of maceral analysis data. In addition, a non-maceral component, i.e., zones
pseudovitrinite was also considered. For abbreviation of sample ID see Table 3..
From the physical point of view the subaerial mass wasting has a
Sample ID SPIT 5a SPIT 5b SPIT 5c
conservative effect on the coal, whereas among the aquatic systems the
MM MMF % MM MMF % MM MMF %
fluvial process is dissipative and the coastal marine one productive
% % %
(Table 2). Ice has no separating effect with regard to different specific
Telovitrinite 40 46 33 47 45 55 gravities; it is conservative and as such can be used as “pathfinder”.
(Collotelinite)
From the chemical point of view subaquatic systems are conservative
Detrovitrinite 31 35 24 35 24 29
(Collodetrinite) and subaerial mass wasting products and landform dependent on the
Gelovitrinite 4 4 1 2 1 2 duration of exposure suffer mostly from supergene chemical alteration.
(Corpogelinite) The critical minerals which enable us to describe these process-
Pseudovitrinite 5 5 6 8 3 4
related geomorphological zones as to their pH and Eh are pyrite, jar
Vitrinite 80 90 64 92 73 90
Liptinite 5 6 2 3 3 4 osite, “limonite”, a mixture of poorly-crystallized Fe–Mn oxide-hy
Inertinite 4 4 3 5 5 6 drates, and to a lesser extent hematite(Table 1). The detrital silicates and
Mineral matter 5 0 22 0 9 0 oxides may in parts contribute to the Fe budget when decomposed.
Coke 6 0 9 0 10 0 According to Brookins (1988) and Arslan and Arslan (2003) the for
Sum 100 100 100 100 100 100
mation of jarosite can be described as follows: M+ + 3Fe 3+ +2SO2− 4 + 6
Legend: MM – mineral matter basis, vol%; MMF – Mineral matter-free basis, vol (OH) − ⇒ MFe3(SO4)2(OH)6. The monovalent cations to achieve charge
%. balance are Na+ or K+ that have been derived from ubiquitous mica
These are the important macerals with specific importance. ceous and feldspar minerals. Sulfur and trivalent iron have been released
during decomposition of pyritiferous coal which is of widespread
variation of mean reflectance, pointing to values between 0.55 and occurrence. Under near ambient-conditions, the stability region of K
0.62% Rr and SD between 0.02 and 0.04. The reflectance analysis per jarosite, the most common variety of the jarosite s.s.s. (solid solution
formed on a non-maceral coal component, i.e., pseudovitrinite displays series), when associated with trivalent Fe-bearing oxide – hydrates is
a relatively low scatter of relatively higher values between 0.72 and below pH 3 and spans the redox potential Eh 0.7 to 1.1 Volt. Not sur
0.75% Rr. The examined coal samples also contain solid bitumen with a prisingly this fully oxidized sulfate is the most common coating in the
mean random reflectance ranging from 0.30 to 0.38%. The reflectance zone dominated by mass-wasting processes, it is extremely rare in the
data obtained for bitumen in veins are matching those determined for fluvial zone and absent in the coastal coal placers. The yellow sulfate
bitumen in matrix, indicating in general one precipitation or migration staining turns into brown “limonite” upon increasing Eh while S is
phase of hydrocarbon. washed out. The marine landforms mostly subaquatic in the foreshore
Maceral analysis was carried out on all coal samples showing minor environment attest to largely reducing conditions owing to the preser
variations in the three maceral groups (Table 4). The vitrinite content vation of pyrite which is stable under neutral and slightly alkaline hy
ranges from 90 to 93 vol% (mmf basis). The variation in distribution of drous conditions.
vitrinite macerals is documented in Fig. 7 and shows vitrinite macerals
on a mineral matter-free basis. Whereas telovitrinite (collotelinite) and 5.2. Geogenic and anthropogenic impacts on the detrital coal
detrovitrintie (vitrodetrinite) are most abundant, only subordinate
proportion of gelovitrinite (corpogelinite) can be reported (Table 4). In Our microscopic examinations and coal petrological analyses per
contrast, pseudovitrinite, as a non-maceral component of the examined formed on coal fragments collected in the Longyearbyen Mining District
coals displays only a slightly higher content from 4 to 8% (mmf basis) reveal the vitrinite-rich coals to containing various constituents, the
than gelovitrinite. The liptinite content ranges from 3 to 6 vol%. Simi most abundant being macerals of the vitrinite group. The vitrinite
larly, the inertinite content varies from 4 to 6 vol% (Table 4). In the reflectance performed on collotelinite for the examined coals ranges
inertinite group semifusinite, fusinite, and inertodetrinite are the most between 0.64 and 0.67% Rr and with a SD of 0.04 to 0.05 and indicate
common macerals (Fig. 9). The mineral matter determined optically in high volatile bituminous coal C and B (ASTM D388-15) or Flammkohle
the current study is relatively low in most coal samples (Table 5), (DIN 22005–2: 1997–09).The observed solid bitumen occurs in
14
Fig. 9. Photomicrographs of macerals in the coal seam. All photos in UV fluorescence mode and oil immersion. (a) Sporinite and cutinite in sample SPIT5a; (b)
Resinite and liptodetrinite in sample SPIT5a; (c) Tar and coke (C) in sample SPIT5c; (d) Solid bitumen in sample SPIT5b; (e) Sporinite in sample SPIT5c; (f) Tar in
sample SPIT5c; B-Solid bitumen; C-Cutinite; Co-Coke; L-Liptodetrinite; S-Sporinite; T-Tar. For abbreviation of sample ID see Fig. 7.
microfractures, microfissures, veins as well as in the groundmass. The are younger than 1906 when miners settled there in search and mining
reflectance data obtained for bitumen in veins are matching those of Spitsbergen’s coal deposits (Umbreit, 2004).
determined for bitumen in the matrix, indicating in general a single
precipitation or migration phase of hydrocarbons. The reflectance of
pseudovitrinite is up to 0.11% Rr higher than the reflectance of collo 5.3. Heavy mineral- and light-compound placer-type deposits
telinite. The data are in accordance with the data published by Ćmiel
and Fabiańska (2004), Orheim et al. (2007) and Marshall et al. (2015) By definition, heavy minerals are minerals with a specific gravity of
and mark the geogenic part of the coal placers, whereas the presence of higher than 2.9 g / cm3. The majority of rock-forming minerals in clastic
coal ash solids in the examined coals are indicator of combustion of and calcareous sedimentary rocks such as quartz, feldspar s.s.s., car
medium to high rank coals and reflect the anthropogenic influence. The bonate minerals and Fe-poor mica have specific gravities lower than that
current placers and their chemical alteration are Holocene in age; they and ranked as trash or gangue minerals in placer-type deposits. This is
also the case of the coal-particles under consideration and their
15
Table 5
Comparison of maceral analysis data with literature records. In addition, a non-maceral component, i.e., pseudovitrinite was also considered. For abbreviation of
sample ID see Table 3.
Sample ID SPIT 5a SPIT 5b SPIT 5c Ćmiel and Fabiańska, 2004; Orheim Marshall
et al., 2007 et al., 2015a
MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF %
Pseudovitrinite 5 8 4 0 0.6–1.4 0
Vitrinite 90 92 90 68.7–83.7 39.2–85.0 50.4–96.8
Liptinite 6 3 4 3.5–10.4 2.8–7.0 0.0–13.6
Inertinite 4 5 6 4.5–18.1 2.4–51.0 6.0–68.4
Natural coke 0 0 0 0 0 0
Legend: MMF – Mineral matter-free basis, vol%.

These are the important macerals with specific importance.
predecessors, organic remains of different kinds, all of which can be 5.4.1. Landforms bearing invisible and visible floral and faunal remains
enriched in the three process-related geomorphological zones provided Both types cover a wide range from anthropogenic remains normally
the morphoclimatic regimes is favorable for their emplacement and met in sewage treatment plants to natural seaweed washed onto the
preservation (Table 1). The “traffic-light classification scheme” mani shore platform where it is incorporated into siliciclastic beach sands.
fests that the coastal-marine environment even under periglacial con Increased light oxidable material mixed up with coaly matter are
ditions and far apart from its original tropical environment of formation accountable for elevated LER/HER ratios particularly in mass wasting
is capable of accumulating and preserving coal (Table 2). There are two deposits (Table 1). For comparison, the most elevated values ever found
principal types of placer-type deposits, namely: (1) heavy mineral in northern Norway were attained in samples near Leknes of the Lofoten
placers (HMP) and (2) Light compound placers (LCP). The HMP is a Archipelago where samples taken along a transect from the beach up to
separate entity in economic geology and thus dealt with in many papers, the top of the mountainous hinderland yielded LER/HER ratios of as
of which only an overview can be given here (Nechaev and Isphording, much as 96% (mean: 85%). The samples of unconsolidated deposits
1993; Gent et al., 2005; Okay and Ergün, 2005; Hegde et al., 2006; Dill, evolved under a Cfb climate according to the Koeppen-Geiger Climate
2007; Dill and Ludwig, 2008; Lalomov et al., 2015; Sitdikova et al., Classification Scheme (Peel et al., 2007). Its average annual temperature
2016; Hou et al., 2011, 2017; Dill et al., 2018; Garzanti et al., 2018) lies around 5 ◦ C and the mean annual precipitation is also much higher
Although the majority of low density compounds are organic in origin – than at Spitsbergen, attaining 1354 mm. In the Longyearbyen Mining
LER/HER ratio- the term has not been used because seldom light min District, the highest LER/HER value of 50% is found in the sparsely
erals may also be selectively concentrated and can also be mined for a vegetated creep and talus sediments mixed up with coal fragments and
profit such as rock crystal (quartz modification) and beryl s.s.s. related to freezing and thawing all of which offer good decay conditions
(gemstone) (Dill, 2010, 2015, 2018). The present mining site is a for the OM. This value resembles the average LER/HER ratio of 53%
modern-day laboratory to study the hydrodynamic conditions of obtained in rather warm and dry regions categorized as “dry-summer
allochthonous coal deposition in nature and also to shed some light on subtropical” or Mediterranean climate with little precipitation of
the post-mining mineralization of coal when continental and/or marine 409 mm per year and a mean annual T value of 17.8 ◦ C. (Dill et al., 2019;
land-forming processes strike active or abandoned mining sites where an Weatherbase, 2020). The major factor is not the geomorphological but
artificial relief of mining subsidences, waste dumps and tailing ponds the climatological impact, particularly the humidity as demonstrated by
occur. Tables 1 and 2 in this study have been designed so as to be the comparison of two sites in northern Norway and abroad (Fig. 2).
applicable for the landforms and processes (as it stands) in nature as well
as equivalent landforms and processes made or triggered by men (Dill 5.4.2. Landforms hosting drift wood
et al., 2002). Driftwood is a generic term covering the spectrum from plant re
mains dislodged from their root zones by water, ice or wind to man-
made wooden remains, called drift lumber, which can be encountered
5.4. The origin of landforms bearing detrital organic debris and in all depositional environments excluding those above the tree line and
allochthonous coal in the periglacial environment those regions permanently glaciated (Fig. 12f, g, h). From the coal
petrographic point view tree trunks are found under physical-chemical
The climate regime of Svalbard is categorized as ET or tundra climate conditions typical of the lignite to subbituminous stage of coalification
with a wide annual T range (max. T during summer 18 ◦ C) and sub- (Dill et al., 2004). In deltaic sediments of Baganuur. Mongolia, all phases
freezing mean annual temperatures accompanied by low precipitation from autochthonous, through Parautochthonous to allochthonous coal,
(annual totals are less than 350 mm) according to the Koeppen-Geiger from tree trunks in vertical growth position to true driftwood are
Climate Classification Scheme (Peel et al., 2007). Based on their tidal recognized (Fig. 12 a, b). In northern Spitsbergen three coastal zones
range between 1.64 and 0.33 m, these terrigenous linear coastal envi have been investigated for their driftwood accumulation as a reference
ronments on Spitsbergen are denominated as microtidal or wave- for allochthonous tree trunks in and around coal seams and to constrain
dominated coasts following some comprehensive studies (Boyd et al., the depositional environment of coal placers in the Longyearbyen
1992; Hayes and FitzGerald, 2013). Mining District (Figs. 1, 2, 6c, 12b, f, g, h). Although different with re
There are four different types of depositional environments in Sval gard to their morphology, the bay-type and valley-fjord-type wave-
bard bearing OM: (1) Invisible floral and faunal remains, (2) visible dominated/ microtidal coastal environments show identical patterns as
floral remains, (3) drift wood, (4) coal placers. The tie line between the to the orientation of driftwood (Fig. 6c). The term bay depicts a beach
four host environments is the LER/HER ratio which decreases from type terminated on both sides by headlands protruding into the open sea,
1 through 4. The most efficient tools when it comes to a discussion of the whereas the valley-fjord-type morphology resembles the landforms
Palaeogeography and the origin of these OM-bearing environments in shown in the DTM of Fig. 2. It is a transitional zone between an
this periglacial morpho-climatic zone are the morphology and orienta embayment called fjord, equivalent to the lower reaches of a drowned U-
tion of bioclasts which can only be applied to the types 3 and 4 owing to shaped valley and its upper reaches on the landward part endowed with
the presence of solid figurative OM and coaly matter at measurable size an anabranching drainage system (Figs. 6c,12h). The trend of drift wood
(Fig. 6, Table 1).
16
Fig. 10. Photomicrographs of ashes present in the coal seam. All photos in white, non-polarized reflected light and oil immersion. (a) Anisotropic carbon with
tenuinetwork texture in SPIT5a; (b) Vitrified particle in sample SPIT5a; (c), (d) Anisotropic carbon with crassinetwork texture in sample SPIT5b; (e) Anisotropic
carbon with tenuinetwork texture in SPIT5c; (f) Fine spinel dendrites in sample SPIT5c; Co-Coke; the applied terminology of ashes followed the texture-based
classification of fly ashes (Hower and Mastalerz, 2001). For abbreviation of sample ID see Fig. 7.
orientation changes from coastal parallel with wooden beams along the trunks aligned parallel by the fluvial current and the elongation of the
shoreline and washed into the depressions of the ridge-and-runnel longitudinal gravel bars (Fig. 12e). The trees are unaltered and deprived
topography towards a talweg-parallel orientation of trunks and of its branches. They originate from the soft wood forests along the river
wooden beams at a more landward position. This trend is perfectly well and decrease in amount downstream quite the opposite what has been
matched by the arrangement of siliciclasts (Fig. 6c). To bridge the gap reported from the marine drift lumber deposits of Spitsbergen. Tree
between driftwood in coal deposits and the “natural hydrodynamic trunks (xylite) aligned parallel to the channels of coarse-grained
laboratories” referred to above some examples are discussed in detail meandering streams yielded a 14C age of 3820 ± 30 BP in channels of
(Fig. 12 c, d, e). Immediately downstream of the terminal moraine of a a large river of SE Germany. These black driftwood trunks mark the
cirque glacier in the Canadian Rocky Mts. near Calgary braided streams incipient lignite stages and they are devoid of sulfides (Fig. 12c). Xylite-
evolved from sanders and glacier lakes. The braided streams host tree bearing trunks similar in their outward appearance to the afore-
17
Fig. 11. Determination of the LER/HER ratio based on differential thermal analysis to assess the quantity of easily and difficultly oxidizable organic matter by means
of measuring the maxima of the low (LER) and high (HER) exothermic reactions in the temperature interval from 180 to 600 ◦ C.
mentioned example were embedded into arenaceous sediments in SE whereas the distribution of grain size spectrum improves significantly
Thailand parallel to the strike of the fluvial channel system and dated seaward as a consequence of the wash out of the light organic compound
24,660 ± 1260/1495 BP. Due to their higher age and stronger diagenetic by wave action. The siliciclasts reflect the original mass wasting pro
overprinting they are rife with framboidal pyrite (Fig. 12d). Driftwood cesses leading to the cliff retreat, whereas the coal reflects the periodical
can be used as a marker for a great variety of coal-bearing (fluvial-) marine overprinting of these landforms and its deposits.
marine environments different in age and rank of coalification and an The orientation of the coal clasts lends support to this idea (Fig. 6c).
excellent tool to drawn the boundary in paralic settings between the The rose diagrams show a rather uniform distribution of the siliceous
marine and fluvial influence of coal and its host rocks. clast orientation with no pronounced maximum standing out of it. This
is typical of fast-moving mass wasting processes leaving behind talus
5.4.3. Landforms hosting coal placers scree on footslope of steep cliffs and bluffs (Dill et al., 2020a, 2020b).
One way of emplacing coal placers involves the comminution of Only proximal to the sea a characteristic trend subparallel to shoreline
driftwood (Fig. 12). Other land-forming and depositional processes can be observed resembling the general trend known from Woodfjorden
efficacious and also conducive to coal placers are marine or fluvial (Fig. 6b, c). The latter denotes the periodical wave action. The poorly
erosion cutting into existing coal seams. Man-made soils (technosols) elongated coal fragments get adjusted to the characteristic trend sub
such as coal dumps, tailing ponds or residues of coal combustion can be parallel to the shoreline all the way down from the backshore towards
attributed to the same sort of processes. Owing to its deforested peri the sea. Only the zone nearest to the sea shows a pronounced single
glacial landscape the first type is only of “laboratory scale and signifi maximum within the sector 20–80 ◦ C (Fig. 6b). It is sparked by the ebb
cance” on Spitsbergen but nonetheless it is particularly valuable as a current which can also be noticed with the unarmed eye on the beach
reference for allochthonous coal seams and seat earth deposits (Diessel, (Fig. 4f). The coal placer seams have sharp landward contacts and
2012; Driese and Ober, 2005). The placer under consideration resulted irregular lobes extending towards the sea which may slightly be diverted
from joint geogenic-anthropogenic actions. The anthropogenic influence from the dip direction resultant from the marine longshore drift. Coal
has been proven coal-petrographically. The observed carbon residues fragments respond much faster to the marine hydrodynamic regime than
are indicators of coal combustion and different volatilization of certain the sluggish siliciclasts; it allows for a fine-tuning of facies changes and a
coal macerals during thermal degradation. The precise argumentation distinction of periodical and episodical land forming processes (Fig. 6a,
for a geogenic coal-placer origin in the Longyearbyen Mining District b).
can be achieved by means of geomorphology and sedimentology using
the lessons learnt from section 5.4.2 on driftwood/ lumber and 6. Conclusions
numerous situmetric measurements worldwide targeting upon silici
clasts (Fig. 6a, b) (Dill et al., 2020a, 2020b). The grain size distribution • Coal is reworked by mass wasting (MW), (glacial)-fluvial (GF) and
of coal fragments in the placer is not the result of a simple land-forming coastal-marine wave-dominated (WM) processes within the peri
process but the consequence of a complex interaction of two principal glacial zone of the Longyearbyen Mining District.
processes: mass wasting and wave-dominated marine geomorphological • The subaerial slow and fast-moving MW was accompanied by
processes. The grain size of the siliciclasts is controlled by gullying and chemical weathering processes leading to mineral coatings indica
rock fall along a plunging cliff sensu Granja (2009) with a narrow shore tive of acidic meteoric solutions, whereas the remaining subaquatic
platform developing seaward and widening towards the mouth of the processes operated under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions
fjord (Fig. 2) (Castillo and Gómez, 2016). The cliffed coast with steep U- • Fast-moving MW and WM are productive, whereas GF marks a
shaped valleys are the common response to bulldozing ice masses during transitory zone that is destructive
the Pleistocene. The siliciclasts maintained their grain size spectrum as • There are four different types of depositional environments in Sval
well as their angular morphology down to the shoreline of the sea, bard bearing OM: (1) Invisible floral and faunal remains, (2) visible
18
H.G. Dill et al.
19

Fig. 12. A succession from autochthonous stumps in coal seams through fluvial- and coastal marine driftwood of geogenic and anthropogenic origin. The arrangement of images was done for reasons of visibility and the
numbering in order of the age of formation.
floral remains, (3) drift wood, (4) coal placers. The most efficient
a) Autochthonous coalified matter represented by a tree trunk in vertical growth position in a sequence of dark gray siltstones within delta-plain sediments of the lacustrine delta underneath a coal seam of Early
e) Tree trunks oriented along the downstream flow direction while being embedded into coarse-grained sediments of a longitudinal bar of a braided-river drainage system of the Rocky Mts. near Calgary, Canada. Blue
g) Different orientation of elongated and isometric organic remains and driftwood. Elongated wooden beams are arranged parallel to the shoreline of wave-dominated beach and within the runnels parallel to the channel
h) Transitional zone between the sea lower reaches of the drowned U-shaped valley and upper reaches filled with an anabranching drainage system, drift wood orientation changes from coastal parallel along the beach
and within the ridge-and-runnel topography to a talweg-parallel orientation at a more landward position (see also Figs. 2, 6c). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
c) Tree trunks (xylite) devoid of branches protruding out of the wall in a sand open pit about 300 km N of Bangkok, Thailand. The Late Pleistocene tree trunks are aligned parallel to the fluvial paleocurrent within the tools when it comes to a discussion of origin of these OM-bearing
environments are the morphology and orientation of bioclasts
which is applied to the coarse-grained deposits (3) + (4) while the
LER/HER ratio is applicable to finer-grained sediments of (1), (2),
and (4).
d) Tree trunks (xylite), devoid of branches, in the lowermost valley sediments of the upper reaches of the Main River N of Bamberg, Germany, a coarse-grained meandering stream drainage system.
• Based upon the maceral analysis coaly matter in landforms GF and

WM are definitely emplaced as a result of geogenic and anthropo
genic processes, whereas MW is geogenic outside the mining sites.
• Driftwood is a marker for coal-bearing (fluvial-)marine environ
ments different in age and rank of coalification and an excellent tool
to drawn the boundary in paralic settings between the marine and
fluvial impact.
axis, while isometric wooden remains and whale vertebras are encountered on top of the berm. Wooden beams run at acute angel to the ridge axis at Woodfjord Mushamna.
• Coal fragments are markers for short-term, periodical and fast

landform-building processes, whereas siliciclasts are markers for
long-term and episodical ones.
Author statement
f) Fan-shaped seaward arrangement of drifted wooden beams and log on a wave-dominated gravel coast at Sjuoyane Phipps∅ya, northern Svalbard (Fig. 1).
All authors have made a significant contribution to the submitted

paper and will take public responsibility for the content, including
participation in the concept, design, analysis, writing, or revision of the
b) Transition from parautochthonous tree trunks into allochthonous reworked remnants of trees in the open pit colliery of Baganuur, Mongolia.
manuscript.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The senior author expresses his gratitude to U. Dill and M. Scharn

horst for their assistance in the field.
We thank two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments
and extend our gratitude also to Deolinda Flores, editor-in-chief of the
International Journal of Coal Geology, for her editorial handling of our
manuscript.
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22

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International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Coal Geology

Organic debris and allochthonous coal in Quaternary landforms within a

1. Introduction allochthonous to parautochthonous coal deposition mainly taking a

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

Fig. 3. Mass wasting and fluvial landforms.

Mass-wasng Glacial Fluvial Coastal-

Fig. 4. Coal-bearing deposits and –landforms.

Table 3 ranging from 5 vol% to 22 vol%.

Table 4 5.1. The physical-chemical regime of the coal-bearing geomorphological

MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF %

Legend: MMF – Mineral matter-free basis, vol%.

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

• Based upon the maceral analysis coaly matter in landforms GF and

• Coal fragments are markers for short-term, periodical and fast

All authors have made a significant contribution to the submitted

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

The senior author expresses his gratitude to U. Dill and M. Scharn

You might also like

1 Coalbearing Compressed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

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1 Coalbearing Compressed

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Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Coal Geology

Organic debris and allochthonous coal in Quaternary landforms within a

1. Introduction allochthonous to parautochthonous coal deposition mainly taking a

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

Fig. 3. Mass wasting and fluvial landforms.

Mass-wasng Glacial Fluvial Coastal-

Fig. 4. Coal-bearing deposits and –landforms.

Table 3 ranging from 5 vol% to 22 vol%.

Table 4 5.1. The physical-chemical regime of the coal-bearing geomorphological

MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF % MMF %

Legend: MMF – Mineral matter-free basis, vol%.

International Journal of Coal Geology 233 (2021) 103625

• Based upon the maceral analysis coaly matter in landforms GF and

• Coal fragments are markers for short-term, periodical and fast

All authors have made a significant contribution to the submitted

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

The senior author expresses his gratitude to U. Dill and M. Scharn­

You might also like

The senior author expresses his gratitude to U. Dill and M. Scharn