Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Integration of stable isotopes, radiometric dating and microthermometry of

saddle dolomite and host dolostones (Cretaceous carbonates, Kurdistan,
Iraq): New insights into hydrothermal dolomitization
Howri Mansurbeg a, b, *, Mohammad Alsuwaidi c, Namam Salih d, Salahadin Shahrokhi e,
Sadoon Morad c
a
General Directorate of Scientific Research Center, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
b
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada
c
Department of Earth Sciences, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
d
Department of Petroleum Geoscience, Soran University, Soran, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
e
URGA, s.r.o., Hydrogeologie, Geologie a životní Prostředí, Sanace, Olomouc, Czech Republic

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper integrates Mg-, C-, O-, Sr-isotopes, fluid-inclusions microthermometry, and radiometric dating of
Mg isotopes dolostones and vug-filling saddle dolomite and calcite of the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation, the Kurdistan
Hydrothermal dolomitization Region of Iraq, provide new insights into the origin, timing and geochemical evolution of hydrothermal dolo­
Hydrothermal dolomite cement
mitizing fluids. Similar isotopic compositions and fluid-inclusion microthermometry of the dolostones and saddle
U–Pb dating
Fluid flow
dolomite suggest formation by similar fluids. The U–Pb ages of dolostones and saddle dolomite suggest that
dolomitization (74.8 Ma) was accomplished in 300 Ka at near Earth’s surface by flow of hydrothermal fluids
followed by dolostone dissolution and precipitation of vug-filling saddle dolomite (73.8 Ma). Mg isotopic
compositions of the dolomites (26MgDSM3=− 0.81‰ to − 0.76‰) are interpreted to indicate derivation of Mg from
marine connate waters entrapped in overpressured basinal mudstones. Relatively high Sr-isotope ratios of the
dolomites precludes the role of ophiolites as an important source of Mg in the basin.

1. Introduction microthermometry (Land, 1980; Budd, 1997; Al-Aasm, 2003; Wright

Dolomitization of shallow marine limestones is an important and
enigmatic diagenetic process in sedimentary basins, which commonly
causes considerable improvement to porosity and permeability of hy­
drocarbon reservoirs (Kocurko, 1979; Allan and Wiggins, 1993; Sun,
1995; Warren, 2000). Therefore, a major task in the study of dolomiti­
zation is to constrain the origin and circulation of Mg-rich fluids in
carbonate successions (Gregg and Shelton 1990; Gao and Land 1991;
Kupecz and Land, 1991; Machel and Lonnee, 2002). Several dolomiti­
zation models have been suggested ranging from near-surface dolomi­
tization caused by evolved marine waters (Enos, 1988; Whitaker et al.,
1994) to burial dolomitization (Kaufman et al., 1990) and flow of hot
basinal brines (i.e. hydrothermal fluids) (Davies and Smith, 2006).
Conventionally, conditions of dolomitization and origin of dolomi­
tizing fluids are constrained using integrated stable and radiogenic
isotopes, elemental compositions, petrography and fluid inclusions
and Wacey, 2004; Azmy et al., 2013). Nevertheless, researchers using
similar data may arrive at different conclusions (Machel and Mountjoy,
1986; Humphrey and Quinn, 1989). Moreover, dolomite evolves during
burial recrystallization, interaction with hydrothermal fluids and
development of thin overgrowths around earlier formed dolomite
crystals, which may induce resetting/alteration of geochemical signa­
tures (Kupecz and Land, 1994; Morad et al., 2012). Recently, many
studies have used Mg isotopic compositions of dolomites of various ages
and geological settings in order to shed more light on the ‘dolomite
problem’ (Teng, 2017). Mg isotopes in dolomite are more robust against
re-setting during deep-burial diagenesis than other stable isotopes
(Geske et al., 2012; Azmy et al., 2013; Hu et al., 2017) and have thus
been suggested to be another valuable tool to constrain the origin of
dolomitizing fluids (Lavoie et al., 2014; Geske et al., 2015b).
The goal of this paper is to provide new and important insights into
the origin, thermo-chemical evolution and depth of the hydrothermal

* Corresponding author. General Directorate of Scientific Research Center, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.
E-mail address: howri.mansurbeg@su.edu.krd (H. Mansurbeg).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.104989
Received 4 January 2021; Received in revised form 17 February 2021; Accepted 19 February 2021
Available online 26 February 2021
0264-8172/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
H. Mansurbeg et al.
system, which resulted in the formation of saddle dolomite and host
dolostones in the Cretaceous carbonates, the Kurdistan Region of Iraq
(Mansurbeg et al., 2016). The study goal is achieved by integrating Mg
isotopes into the O-, C- and Sr isotopes, microthermometric and absolute
U–Pb ages of these dolomites (Mansurbeg et al., 2016; Salih et al., 2019).
Special emphasis is made on the use of Mg-isotopes alongside other
analytical methods to improve our understanding of hydrothermal
dolomitization systems and answering key quations like: is there a
certain global range of Mg-isotopes that is characteristic for hydro­
thermal dolomite? If this is not the case, then what are the parameters
controlling variations in Mg-isotope values of such dolomites?
2. Geological setting
The studied Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation and its equivalents
are prolific reservoirs in several important discoveries in the Kurdistan
region of Iraq such as Benenan, Bastora and Tawke fields (English et al.,
2015). The formation crops out in severals locations in the region and
the type locality is situated in Bekhme gorge in the Zagros Fold and
Thrust Belt in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (Fig. 1A and B; Fig. 2). After
the Hercynian Orogeny (Carboniferous), a thick Palaeozoic succession
has been deposited (Ziegler, 2001). The Permian to Jurassic times were
dominated by rifting phase and the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean
(Muttoni et al., 2009). Marine transgression during the Upper Jurassic
and Lower Cretaceous resulted in the deposition of basinal marine shales
and thin-bedded carbonates of the Chia Gara Formation under anoxic
conditions (Fig. 3) (Mohialdeen et al., 2013). The overlying Garagu
Formation (Hauterivian) comprises a heterogeneous package of
shallow-marine siliciclastics and carbonates and represents the retreat of
the Gotnia Basin (Ghafor and Mohialdeen, 2018). This regressive event
resulted into the deposition of overlying neritic shales and marly lime­
stones of the Sarmord Formation (Aptian) (Fig. 2).
The obduction of ophiolite during Campanian-Maastrichtian halted
the passive margin setting in the region and foreland basinal setting
started to develop (Le Garzic et al., 2019) (Fig. 4). The clastics of the
Tanjero Formation (Campanian) were sourced from the uplifted
ophiolitic and deep-water marine radiolaritic mudstones. This formation
passes laterally into the Shiranish Formation (Le Garzic et al., 2019).
Furtheraway from the disturbances of the detrital influx of siliciclastic
fragments of the Tanjero Formation, rudist-dominated shoal complex of
the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation developed utilizing the
structural highs in the foredeep basin (Fig. 3; English et al., 2015;
Mansurbeg et al., 2016; Le Garzic et al., 2019). The type locality of the
Bekhme Formation (315 m thick) in Bekhma Gorge, which represents
the core of the Bekhme anticline, consists of intensely faulted, fractured
and dolomitized carbonate succession. In flanks of the Safin anticline,
the formation consists of a stratabound dolostones layer overlain by
limestones.
2.1. Samples and methods
Fieldwork was carried out at the type locality in Bekhme Gorge along
the SW limb of the Bekhme anticline and at Sulauk outcrops on the flank
of Safin anticline (Fig. 1A and B). Twenty-eight samples of saddle
dolomite cement and 36 samples of host dolostones were collected from
the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation. Thin sections were prepared
for all samples after impregnation with blue epoxy and examined using
petrographic microscope. Powder samples were obtained by micro­
drilling (1 mm in diameter) for isotope analyses. Six samples of saddle
dolomite and six samples of corresponding host dolostones selected for
the standard bracketing technique and was applied to calculate the
δ26Mg values (‰). The reproducibility of Mg isotope measurements was
assessed using samples of: (i) the internal carbonate standard RUB
(Solnhofen Plattenkalk, (ii) the mono elemental solution Cambridge1,
(iii) IAPSO seawater, and (iv) a dolomite sample (HDK7). The 2σ
external reproducibility (δ26MgDSM3) for these (standard) materials is:
2
Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989
− 2.02‰ ± 0.02‰ (Dolomite HDK7, n = 5), − 3.66‰ ± 0.06‰ (RUB
limestone, n = 5), 0.81‰ ± 0.06‰ (IAPSO seawater, n = 130), − 2.58‰
± 0.07‰ (Cambridge I, n = 519; Galy et al., 2003; Young and Galy,
2004; Geske et al., 2015b). Mg isotope analysis was performed at the
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
Carbon and oxygen isotopes were obtained for twenty-eight dolomite
samples. Thirty six carbon and oxygen isotopes of stratabound dolomite
samples reported by (Salih et al., 2020) are also integrated in the anal­
ysis. Samples for isotopic analysis were obtained using micro-drill
mounted on a microscope. Samples were reacted with pure H3PO4 at
25 ◦ C for 1hr for calcite and 50 ◦ C for 24 h for dolomite; the equipment
used was a Thermo Finnigan Delta Plus mass spectrometer. The isotopic
values are presented in δ-notation and reported relative to VPDB stan­
dard and acid correction was applied for the data (Rosenbaum and
Sheppard, 1986). C and O isotope analysis was performed at the School
of Environment, University of Windsor, Canada, following the analytical
procedures outlined by Al-Aasm et al. (1990). The ratio of 87Sr/86Sr
isotopes of sixteen samples were obtained using an automated Finnigan
261 mass spectrometer equipped with 9 F collectors at the
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany. Correction for isotopic fraction­
ation during the analyses was made by normalization to 86Sr/88Sr =
0.1194. The mean standard error of mass spectrometer performance was
±0.00003 for standard NBS-987. The ranges of homogenization tem­
peratures (Th) and fluids salinity for dolomite in the host dolostones and
vug-filling saddle dolomite have been reported by Mansurbeg et al.
(2016). Analyses were performed on fluid inclusion assemblages (FIA),
which represent petrographically associated group of fluid inclusions
trapped at about the same time (Goldstein and Reynolds, 1994). These
analyses were carried out at the Pavia university (Italy). Salih et al.
(2020) reported in-situ uranium-lead dating for limestones, vug-filling
saddle dolomite and host dolostones. The analyses were performed in
polished thin sections by laser ablation-inductively coupled
plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) the analyses were carried out at
the Goethe University Frankfurt (Germany).
3. Results
3.1. Field and petrographic observations
The exposed part of the studied Bekhme Formation in Bekhme gorge
is about 35 m thick and 50 m wide massive dolostones (Fig. 5A and B)
whereas the Sulauk outcrop comprises around 15 m thick stratabound
dolostones overlain by slightly dolomitized limestone beds (Fig. 5C and
D). The boundary between the stratabound dolostone and overlying
limestone is irregular. The massive and stratabound dolostones contain
large vugs (up to 15 cm across) that are connected to fractured/brec­
ciated parts (Fig. 5A and D). The vugs and breccia fractures are lined
with saddle dolomite crystals, which are covered by blocky calcite
(Fig. 5B) and, in rare cases, anhydrite. Bitumen is found in most of the
vugs. Despite pervasive dolomitization, large shells of rudist, benthic
foraminifera and echinoderms still recognizable (Fig. 6A). In some cases,
the original texture of the dolomitized limestones their calcite cements
(equant drusy and syntaxial overgrowths) are still preserved (Fig. 6B).
The dolostones are composed of coarse (100–700 μm) anhedral to sub­
hedral dolomite crystals that have inclusion-rich cores and thin limpid
rims (Fig. 6C). Saddle dolomite, which lines vugs increase in size away
from the host dolostones (Fig. 6D). Saddle dolomite (200–400 μm
across) in the dolostones has engulfed and saddlerized subhedral and
euhedral rhombic dolomite crystals (Fig. 6E). Blocky calcite has partly
replaced and filled micro-fractures in vug-filling saddle dolomite
(Fig. 6F). Columnar calcite crystals (3–5 cm long) line the walls of thick,
bitumen filled, bedding-parallel zones.
H. Mansurbeg et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989

Fig. 1. (A) Geological map of the study area, Bekhme and Safin anticlines, and the distribution of the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme and the associated formations
(Modified after László et al., 2012). (B) A regional cross-section through the central part of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq in the Zagros Fold and Thrust Belt, which
captures the main structural and tectonostratigraphic features of the study area (Modified after Le Garzic et al., 2019).

3
H. Mansurbeg et al.
Fig. 2. Chronostratigraphic chart of the Ordovician to Paleocene sedimentary
succession in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (Modified after PGS, 2007 and
Mansurbeg et al., 2016).
3.2. C-, O-, Sr- and Mg-isotopic composition and radiometric ages of
dolomite
The vug-filling saddle dolomite and their host dolostones have fairly
similar Mg-, O-, C- and Sr-isotopic compositions (Fig. 7; Table 1). The
saddle dolomite in the massive dolostones has relatively narrow ranges
of 26MgDSM3 (− 0.81‰ to − 0.76‰), δ18OVPDB (− 11.0‰ to − 7.4‰) and
Sr isotope (0.70772–0.70780) but variable δ13CVPDB values (+0.5‰ to
+2.6‰). The host massive dolostones have also narrow δ26Mg values
(− 0.79‰ to − 0.76‰), but relatively more variable δ13CVPDB (+0.4‰ to
+2.3‰), δ18OVPDB (− 11.5‰ to − 6.3‰) and Sr isotope
(0.70773–0.70791) values (Fig. 8). Saddle dolomite in the stratabound
dolostone has overall higher δ18OVPDB (− 8.4‰ to − 6.2‰) and lower
4
Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989
δ13CVPDB (− 0.5‰ to +1.8‰) values than saddle dolomites in the
massive dolostone. The stratabound dolostone has δ18OVPDB (− 8.0‰ to
− 6.5‰) and δ13CVPDB (− 0.2‰ to +2.3‰) values, which are similar to
the saddle dolomite. The vug-filling blocky calcite that covers the saddle
dolomite is characterized by δ18OVPDB, δ13CVPDB and Sr isotope are
− 19.1‰ to − 4.8‰, − 7.3‰ to +2.6‰ and 0.70772–0.70796‰,
respectively (Fig. 8; Fig. 9). The columnar calcite has δ13CVPDB of − 8.5‰
to − 3.9‰ and δ18OVPDB values of − 22.9‰ to − 15.1‰.
The saddle dolomite has fluid-inclusion homogenization tempera­
tures (Th) of 80–120 ◦ C and salinity range of 17–22 wt% NaCl eq, while
the host dolostones have lower range of Th (80–100 ◦ C) and similar to
marginally lower salinity (Fig. 9; 15–21 wt% NaCl eq; Mansurbeg et al.,
2016). Some of the vug-filling blocky calcites have considerably lower
Th and salinity than the dolomites (60–100 ◦ C; 14–18 wt% NaCl eq;
Mansurbeg et al., 2016). The U–Pb dating shows that saddle dolomite
(73.8 Ma) is younger than the host dolostone (74.8 Ma), which has, in
turn, similar age as the host limestone (75.1 Ma) (Salih et al., 2019).
Conversely, the blocky calcite is much younger (30 Ma) than both types
of dolomite (Fig. 9). Stable isotopic, Th and radiometric ages are not
available for anhydrite crystals. Fluid inclusions in the columnar calcite
are all liquid with average salinity of 0.5 wt% NaCl eq. (Mansurbeg
et al., 2016).
4. Discussion
Integrating field and petrographic observations, Mg-, O-, C- and Sr-
isotopes, U–Pb dating, and fluid-inclusion (FI) microthermometry of
the Upper Cretaceous carbonates provides adequate ground to: (i) refine
the paragenetic sequence and conditions of dolomitization within the
context of Zagros Orogeny (Fig. 9; Fig. 10A), (ii) origin and timing of
flow of the dolomitizing fluids, and (iii) constrain the composition and
narrow ranges of δ26Mg values of the saddle dolomite and host
dolostones.
4.1. Paragenesis and conditions of dolomitization
The high homogenization temperatures (Th = 80–120 ◦ C), low
18
δ OVPDB values (− 11‰ to − 6.2‰) of saddle-shaped dolomite corrob­
orate dolomitization by flow of hydrothermal fluids. Moreover, the
uppermost FI homogenization temperatures reached are higher than
temperatures reached during burial assuming a geothermal gradient of
25 ◦ C/km (Fig. 10B). The ages of vug-filling saddle dolomite (73.8 Ma)
and of host dolostones (74.8 Ma) indicate that the formation of vugs by
brecciation and dissolution of the dolostones and infilling with saddle
dolomite occurred about one Ma later than dolomitization of the lime­
stones. The ages of precursor limestones and dolostones (75.1 Ma, 74.8
Ma, respectively) (Salih et al., 2019) indicate that dolomitization of the
limestone was accomplished within about 300 Ka, i.e. during early
diagenesis at very shallow depths below the seafloor (Fig. 10A and B).
These ages coupled with restriction of massive dolostone bodies (Fig. 5A
and B) to the heavily faulted and fractured core of the anticline suggests
that dolomitization occurred by upward, syn-depositional flow of
Mg-rich fluids along faults (MaNsurbeg et al., 2016; Kareem et al.,
2019). Such faults were presumably connected to deeply-rooted normal
faults that underwent episodic reactivation (Sibson, 2000), (Fig. 1B;
Fig. 3; Fig. 4). Similar syndepositional dolomitization by flow of hot
(hydrothermal) basinal brines was suggested by a number of authors for
carbonate successions elsewhere (e.g. Lavoie et al., 2005; Hollis et al.,
2017; Baral et al., 2019; Jang et al., 2020). However, it is uncertain
whether or not the hydrothermal dolomitization was pre-dated by ma­
rine dolomitization as it was suggested for other hydrothermal dolo­
stones (Fig. 11; cf. Al-Aasm, 2000; Lavoie et al., 2005; Fontana et al.,
2014). The lateral contact between this massive dolostone (up to 50 m
wide) and the precursor limestones are not exposed. Accordingly, the
characteristics of dolomitization front along contact between the lime­
stones and dolostones cannot be constrained. Conversely, the
H. Mansurbeg et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989

Fig. 3. Schematic view of the Bekhme anticline in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (in the Zagros Fold and Thrust Belt) showing various folds and faults (modified after
Fogarasi, 2012; Mansurbeg et al., 2016).

Fig. 4. Conceptual cross section along the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian–Maastrichtian) showing the Bekhme and the equivalent formations in a regional context.
Reef complexes of the Bekhme Formation were deposited on the structural and stratigraphic highs in a newly formed foredeep basin (modified after Aqrawi et al.,
2010; English et al., 2015).

stratabound dolostone (Fig. 5C and D) in the flanks of Safin anticline
(Fig. 1A) is interpreted to be related to lateral fluid flows along
permeable beds. Similar interpretation of these two styles of dolomiti­
zation were made for hydrothermal dolomitization of Cretaceous car­
bonates in Spain by Martin-Martin et al. (2013). The irregular upper
boundary of this stratabound dolostone layer suggests that the overlying
limestone was subjected to partial dolomitization along a reaction front.
Partial dolomitization of the overlying limestone, which is
calcite-cemented matrix-rich packstone, is attributed to its low
permeability.
The significantly overlapping yet somewhat higher Th (80–120 ◦ C),
lower δ18OVPDB values (− 11.0‰ to − 7.4‰) and higher salinity (17–22
wt% NaCl eq) of saddle dolomite than host dolostones (Th = 80–100 ◦ C;
salinity 15–21 wt % NaCl eq) are attributed to smaller extent of cooling
and lowering of salinity (by mixing with marine fluids) (Fig. 11). The
elevated salinity in dolomite suggests that the hydrothermal fluids un­
derwent considerable interaction with the Triassic and Jurassic salt
rocks in the basin (Fig. 2; Fig. 3). Halite deposits, in particular, occur in
the Triassic Kurra Chine Formation (Fig. 2). Although no FI micro­
thermometry was made for stratabound saddle dolomite and host

5
H. Mansurbeg et al.
dolostones, their overall higher δ18OVPDB values (− 8.4‰ to − 6.1‰)
suggested formation at lower temperatures than massive dolostones.
The lower temperatures are attributed to cooling during lateral flow of
the hydrothermal fluids away from the faulted and fractured zones at
Safin Anticline (Fig. 1A and B). The commonly somewhat lower
δ13CVPDB values (− 0.50‰ to +2.3‰) in the stratabound than massive
dolostones indicates greater input of 12C to the hydrothermal fluids due
to the oxidation of organic matter.
The paragenetic sequence of diagenetic minerals and FI micro­
thermometry record cooling and dramatic changes in the chemical
composition of hydrothermal fluids to become non-dolomitizing after
the episode of dolomitization and dolomite cementation. Such changes
include the formation of small amounts of quartz followed by precipi­
tation of blocky calcite, both of which engulf and thus postdate saddle
dolomite. This paragenetic sequence of saddle dolomite post-dated by
blocky calcite has been reported in many other hydrothermal dolostones
(e.g. Qing et al., 1992; Lonnee and Machel, 2006; Sirat et al., 2016;
Kareem et al., 2019). However, the lack of radiometric dating prevented
adequate interpretation of evolution of the hydrothermal fluids
involved. The 30 Ma age of the blocky calcite cement indicates precip­
itation from Mg-poor fluids that circulated in the Upper Cretaceous
carbonates. In other words, contrary to earlier studies (e.g. Merino and
Canals, 2011; Mansurbeg et al., 2016; Sirat et al., 2016; Kareem et al.,
2019), the blocky calcite was not solely formed upon cooling and
geochemical evolution of the hydrothermal dolomitizing fluid. Instead,
the slight to moderate decrease in salinity (14–19 wt% NaCl eq.) and Th
(as low as 60 ◦ C) and enrichment of some of the blocky calcites with 87Sr
suggest the incursion of meteoric waters and mixing with the hot basinal
fluids. Incursion of meteoric waters was important too. Such fluid mix­
ing has probably occurred during early phases of the Zagros Orogeny in
the Oligocene (ca 30 Ma; Agard et al., 2011; Farahpour and Hessami,
2012; Sirat et al., 2016; Koshnaw et al., 2020), is further evidenced by
the input of 12C in blacky calcite by oxidation of hydrocarbons (Man­
surbeg et al., 2016). The low precipitation temperatures (≤50 ◦ C) of
columnar calcite, which is suggested by all-liquid fluid inclusion
composition, combined with its low salinity (0.5 wt% NaCl eq.) and low
6
Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989
Fig. 5. Field images showing: (A) massive dolostones
in the heavily faulted and fractured zone. The dolo­
stones are brecciated and contain large vugs filled
with saddle dolomite that are covered by blocky
calcite. Bitumen (black) in the vugs engulfs the calcite
and saddle dolomite cements. (B) Vug lined by saddle
dolomite (black arrow) that is engulfed by blocky
calcite (Ca). (C) Stratabound dolostone bed overlain
by slightly dolomitized limestone beds (mud matrix-
rich packstone). Note the irregular boundary be­
tween these carbonate lithologies. The dolostone
contains large vugs that are linked to fractured/
brecciated part. (D) A close-up view of (C) shows
interconnected network of vugs filled by saddle
dolomite and blocky calcite.
δ13CVPDB (− 8.5‰ to − 3.9‰) suggest precipitation by incursion of
meteoric waters, which has presumably occurred during late uplift and
erosion phae of the Zagros Orogeny (ca. 12 Ma; Mansurbeg et al., 2016).
4.2. Source of dolomitizing fluids
Further insights into the source of Mg-rich, hydrothermal fluids can
be obtained by constraining the Mg isotopes of the dolostones and saddle
dolomite. Nevertheless, the parameters imposing prime controls on
δ26MgDSM3 values in dolomite cement are uncertain because of diverse
potential sources of Mg and the poorly constrained Mg isotope frac­
tionation between dolomite and fluids. Potential sources of Mg for the
dolomitizing fluids that invaded the Upper Cretaceous rocks in the basin
include: (1) marine pore waters (δ26MgDSM3 = − 0.45‰; Li et al., 2019),
(2) mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks in ophiolites (δ26Mg DSM3 =
− 0.28‰ to +0.05‰; Su et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2018), (3) basinal
mudstone successions (global average of δ26Mg = − 0.49‰ to − 0.27‰;
Wombacher et al., 2009; Li et al., 2010, Zhang et al., 2018). The
δ26MgDSM3 values reported in the literature for hydrothermal dolomites
vary widely and are considerably lower than the values expected from
these three sources (δ26Mg = − 3.50‰ to − 0.45‰; Fig. 12; Fig. 13)
(Young and Galy, 2004; Teng et al., 2010; Azmy et al., 2013; Lavoie
et al., 2014; Geske et al., 2015a). These published values might pri­
marily reflect variable Mg-isotope fractionation between dolomite and
the fluid under various diagenetic conditions (Wombacher et al., 2009;
Lavoie et al., 2014). The δ26MgDSM3 values of the studied dolomites are
slightly lower than the average value inferred for Upper Cretaceous
seawater (δ26MgDSM3 = − 0.45‰; Li et al., 2019). The source of light Mg
isotope (24Mg), which is poorly constrained in the literature, is uncer­
tain. However, several studies have demonstrated that dolomites are
enriched in 24Mg relative to the starting solution (e.g. Pearce et al.,
2012; Mavromatis et al., 2013; Schott et al., 2016; Oelkers et al., 2018).
Likewise, the reason for the higher δ26Mg values in the Bekhme dolo­
mites (− 0.76‰ to − 0.81‰; Fig. 12) compared to many other hydro­
thermal dolomites reported in the literature (Lavoie et al., 2014; Honlet
et al., 2018) is not immediately clear.
H. Mansurbeg et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989

Fig. 6. Optical photomicrographs (XPL) showing: (A)

saddle dolomites (SD) filling a moldic/intragranular
pore in a dolopackstone (M). Note the presence of
dolomitized calcite cements and micritized forami­
nifera fragment (B). (B) Dolostone composed of partly
saddlerized rhombic dolomite and dolomitized syn­
taxial calcite overgrowth and its echinoderm core
(arrow). (C) Dolomite crystals with some of the
inclusion-free rims might represent dolomitized syn­
taxial calcite overgrowths (arrows) around rhombic
dolomite crystals. (D) Dolostone characterized by
rhombic to saddlerized rhombic dolomite with the
inclusion-rich core and nearly inclusion-free rim. The
large crystals to the left are saddle dolomite filling
vugs that showing a progressive increase in crystal
size away from the vug wall. Saddle dolomite is
showing the typical sweeping extinction. (E) Dolo­
stone in which the zoned rhombic dolomite crystals
have been saddlerized. Extensive dolomite cementa­
tion (Cem, i.e. overdolomitization) caused complete
destruction of porosity. (F) BSEi showing calcite
(bright) filling microfractures and partly replacing
saddle dolomite (gray).

Table 1
Mg, O, C and Sr-isotope data of massive dolostones and corresponding saddle
dolomites of the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation.
Sample Sample δ13CVPDB δ18OVPDB 87
Sr/86Sr δ26MgDSM3
(
numbers (‰) (‰) ‰)

1 D +0.43 − 11.52 nd − 0.77

S +0.52 − 8.68 0.707765 − 0.79
2 D +1.98 − 8.41 nd − 0.78
S +1.72 − 8.16 nd − 0.80
3 D +2.01 − 8.76 0.707736 − 0.76
S +1.68 − 10.03 0.707747 − 0.81
4 D +2.26 − 8.59 0.707764 − 0.79
S +2.41 − 8.25 0.707741 − 0.76
5 D +2.07 − 6.99 0.707793 − 0.78
S +0.95 − 9.02 nd − 0.78
6 D +1.84 − 9.72 nd − 0.79
S +1.07 − 11.01 nd − 0.79

limited isotopic fractionation with dolomite (Lavoie et al., 2014). The

Fig. 7. Plot of δ13C, δ26Mg and δ18O showing close similarities between values
for saddle dolomite and corresponding host dolostone samples in the
Bekhme Formation.
The narrow range (− 0.81‰ to − 0.76‰; Fig. 12) and similar
δ26MgDSM3 values of the vug-filling saddle dolomites and host dolostones
corroborate the formation from the same hydrothermal fluids. Thus,
these fluids had similar sources of Mg+2, which eventually underwent
lack of correlation between O- and Mg-isotopes of the studied dolomites
(Fig. 13) and those reported in the literature (Lavoie et al., 2014; Geske
et al., 2015b) suggests limited temperature control on Mg-isotope frac­
tionation (Geske et al., 2012; Azmy et al., 2013) in rock buffered isotopic
systems (Lavoie et al., 2014). The latter postulation is attested by the
dominantly marine δ13CVPDB values of saddle dolomite and dolostone
(Fig. 8) (+0.4‰ to +2.6‰). The relatively significant positive correla­
tion (r2 = +0.60) between δ13CVPDB and δ18OVPDB of host dolostone and
saddle dolomites (Fig. 8) suggest slight input of light carbon derived

7
H. Mansurbeg et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989

likely because: (i) the higher Sr isotopic ratios (0.707721–0.707912) in

dolomite than in mafic igneous rocks, which suggests input of Sr from
felsic (K-rich) rocks, and (ii) the lower δ26MgDSM3 values of Bekhme
dolomites (− 0.81‰ to − 0.76‰) than those of ophiolites (− 0.28‰ to
+0.05‰; Su et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2018). Upper Cretaceous granitoid
intrusions have been suggested to be a potential heat source for hy­
drothermal fluids in NE Turkey (Kırmacı et al., 2018). Similar intrusions
have been reported in suture zone of the studied basin in the Upper
Cretaceous by Braud (1987), Ali et al. (2014) and Ismail et al. (2020).
The presence of magmatic activities in the region during the Upper
Cretaceous suggests high heat flux and hence the establishment of hy­
drothermal systems in the basin.

5. Conclusions

Fig. 8. Cross plot showing negative correlation trend between carbon and
Integration of Mg isotope into O- and Sr-isotopes, radiometric dating
oxygen isotopes attributed to the input 12C possibly derived from the oxidation
and fluid-inclusion microthermometry has provided important insights
of hydrocarbon by incursion of meteoric waters.
into paragenesis and petrogenesis of hydrothermal dolomite in the
Upper Cretaceous carbonates. The main conclusions derived from this
from the oxidation of hydrocarbon with increasing temperature (Roll­
integrated approach include:
inson, 1994; Morad, 1998). Evidence for the presence of hydrocarbon is
manifested by the ubiquitous bitumen in the dolostones (Fig. 5A).
● Dating of the Upper Cretaceous carbonates indicates that: (i) dolo­
The source of Mg2+-rich hydrothermal brines (CaCl2–MgCl2–NaCl)
mitization of the limestones (74.8 Ma), breciation and dissolution of
was suggested by Mansurbeg et al. (2016) to be overpressured mud­
the dolostones, and precipitation of vug-filling saddle dolomite
stones (Fig. 3). Clay minerals (typically Mg smectite) in mudstones have
(73.8 Ma) occurred by the same hydrothermal fluids at or near the
δ26MgDSM3 values − 0.49‰ to − 0.39‰ (Zhang et al., 2018). The Zagros
seafloor. Thus, fluid flow has occurred during tectonic compression
orogeny during the Upper Cretaceous (Koyi, 1998) might have breached
phase of the basin along syn-depositional faults connected to reac­
regional seals and formed syndepositional faults and fractures thus
tivated deep-rooted normal faults. (ii) Dolomitization of the lime­
mobilization of Mg-rich, deep connate marine waters (Horbury, 2013).
stones was accomplished in about 300 Ka). (iii) The high salinity of
The influx of Mg-rich detrital grains derived from the erosion of
the fluid inclusions entrapped in the dolomites (up to 22 wt% NaCl
uplifted ophiolites and deposited as important component of the Tanjero
eq.) indicates limited mixing, if any, of the hydrothermal dolomi­
Formation in the basin (Al-Naqib and Al-Juboury, 2014; Jones et al.,
tizing fluids with near-surface marine pore waters.
2020) is potential source of Mg for the formation of hydrothermal as was
● The occurrence of massive dolostone bodies in the intensely faulted
suggested by Lavoie and Morin (2004) for the Lower Silurian Sayabec
and fractured anticline core and of stratabound dolostone in the
Formation in Québec. However, this potential Mg source is not very
anticline flank indicate that dolomitization by upward and lateral

Fig. 9. Cartoon displaying the isotopic data and ages of vug-filling hydrothermal cements and host carbonates in the studied formation. Dol = dolostone; SD = saddle
dolomite; Q = Quartz; Ca = blocky calcite; An = anhydrite.

8
H. Mansurbeg et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989

Fig. 10. (A) Paragenetic sequence of the Bekhme

Formation based on the integration of radio­
metric dating of carbonates into the petrographic
data, diagenetic regimes and orogenic events.
The latter events were accompanied by flux of
hot basinal/hydrothermal brines and oil migra­
tion; uplift owing to the Zagros Orogeny resulted
in oil degradations by the percolation of meteoric
waters. Ages and homogenization temperatures
are not to scale. (B) Burial-thermal history curve
of the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation
(modified after English and Davies, 2013; Gor­
don, 2014).

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram showing the sequence of

diagenetic events in the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme
Formation. Diagenesis of the limestones resulted
mainly in micritization of allochems and cementation
by drusy equant calcite and syntaxial calcite over­
growths. Dolomitization occurred 300 Ka after the
deposition and eogenesis of the host limestone.
Brecciation and dissolution of the dolostones and
infilling of the resulted vugs with saddle dolomite
occurred about one Ma after dolomitization of the
limestones. Blocky calcite is about 43 Ma younger
than both types of dolomite.

9
H. Mansurbeg et al.
Fig. 12. Magnesium isotopic composition (δ 26MgDSM3) of the studied Upper
Cretaceous dolomites compared to values of various types of dolomite and of
different sources of Mg are compiled by Geske et al. (2015a) and the ophiolite
data are from Su et al. (2015).
Fig. 13. Cross plot showing lack of correlation between oxygen and magnesium
isotopes of the studied hydrothermal dolomites as well as of those reported in
the literature. Note the narrow range of δ26MgDSM3 values of the studied do­
lomites compared to those in the literature.
flow of the hydrothermal fluids along permeable limestone layer,
respectively. The higher δ18OVPDB values of stratabound dolomite
(− 8‰ to − 6‰) than massive dolomite (− 11‰ to − 7.5‰) is attrib­
uted to cooling of the hydrothermal fluids during lateral flows away
from the faulted and fractured zones.
● Uniform and narrow-range of Mg isotopic composition of dolostones
and vug-filling saddle dolomites (δ26MgDSM3 = − 0.81‰ to − 0.76‰)
suggest that the dolomites were formed by Mg-rich hydrothermal
fluids with similar chemical compositions that suffered limited
dolomite-fluid Mg-isotopic fractionation.
● The wide ranges of oxygen isotopes versus relatively narrow ho­
mogenization temperature ranges of the dolomites reflect limited
role of temperature on dolomite-fluid Mg-isotope fractionation.
● Despite the abundance of ophiolitic clasts in the basin, their role as
important source of Mg can be precluded due to the greater enrich­
ment of the dolomites with 87Sr. The Mg isotopes suggest that the
most likely source of hydrothermal fluids enrich in 87Sr is thus ma­
rine connate waters in overpressured mud-dominated lithologies in
the basin.
● The considerable age gap (>43 Ma)coupled with isotopic and ther­
mometric between vug-filling saddle dolomite and blocky calcite
10
Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104989
suggests that calcite has not solely precipitated during thermo-
chemical evolution of the dolomitizing hydrothermal fluids. The
lower homogenization temperatures (as low as 60 ◦ C), lower salinity
(14–19 wt% NaCl eq.) and enrichment in 87Sr and 12C of some of the
vug-filling blocky calcite suggest precipitation during meteoric-
water incursion and mixing with the hot basinal fluids. This
episode of meteoric-water incursion is linked to early phases
(Oligocene) of the Zagros orogeny. The fully meteoric-water cement
is represented by the columnar calcite, which has precipitated at
temperatures <50 ◦ C during a later phase of Zagros Orogeny. This
phase of meteoric-water incursion caused degradation of oil and
concomitant enrichment of this calcite with 12C (δ13CVPDB = − 8.5‰
to − 3.9‰).
Authorship contribution statement
Howri Mansurbeg: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft,
Formal analysis and Methodology. Mohammad Al Suwaidi: Writing –
review & editing, Namam Salih: Writing – review & editing, Salahadin
Shahrokhi: Writing - review, editing, Visualization, Sadoon Morad:
Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the two anonymous journal referees for the
numerous comments and suggestions, which helped improving the
paper considerably. We are grateful to the associate editor Dr. Marco
Brandano for handling the manuscript. Financial support by Khalifa
University of Science and Technology in the United Arab Emirates and
the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, the Kurdistan
Region of Iraq, is highly appreciated.
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