Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Magma-driven thermal convection dolomitization of the Lower-Middle

Ordovician strata caused by Mg sourced from underlying Cambrian
dolomites in the Tarim Basin, China
Haofu Zheng a, c, Feifan Lu b, c, *, Yixin Dong d, Bo Liu e, Xuefeng Zhang e, Kaibo Shi c, Jiajun He a,
Hairuo Qing f
a
College of River and Ocean Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing, 400074, China
b
Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China
c
School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
d
State Key Laboratory of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and Exploitation, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, 610059, China
e
Institute of Oil and Gas, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
f
Department of Geology, University of Regina, Regina, SK, S4S0A2, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Thermal convection arises due to a density gradient between geothermally heated formation water within the
Thermal convection underlying strata and the water in the overlying strata. The thermal convection model has long been accepted as
Dolomitization a stable and long-lived flow mechanism for dolomitization, which can affect large volumes of rock. This study
Mg2+ flux
investigates the dolomitization of the Lower-Middle Ordovician strata in the Tarim Basin using petrological
Ordovician
Tarim basin
evidence, geochemical data, and the Calculation of Mg2+ flux. The Ordovician dolomites occurred in several
types, including 1) individual dolomite crystals; 2) patchy dolomites; 3) layered-massive dolomites; 4) cement
dolomites in pores and fractures. The dolomite content decreases vertically with decreasing burial depth.
Geochemically, the dolomitizing fluids of the Ordovician carbonates are suggested as deep-formation water
slightly influenced by hydrothermal fluids, with an obvious genetic connection with the underlying Cambrian
dolomites. In addition, mass balance calculations were conducted to help identify the Mg2+ sources, supporting
that the Mg-rich dolomitizing fluids were derived largely from the underlying strata. Large volumes of Mg-rich
fluids were released when the underlying contemporaneous Cambrian dolomites were physically and chemically
compacted. The released fluids were driven by heat from a high-temperature Early Ordovician magma chamber
and migrated upward through fractures and/or permeable strata due to hydrothermal convection. These pro­
cesses caused thermal convection dolomitization of the overlying Ordovician limestones from bottom to top. This
study explains how these widespread dolomites developed in the Ordovician strata of the Tarim Basin, which can
help identify the locations of the oil-gas reservoir rocks. In addition, this revised thermal convection model
highlights the contribution of Mg-rich fluids derived from the underlying dolomites, and the circulation of fluids
may have been driven by the heat from a magmatic source. This model is believed to be of significance to areas
affected by abnormal geothermal activities.

1. Introduction
Thermal convection occurs when a density gradient generates be­
tween the geothermally heated formation water within the underlying
strata and that within the overlying strata. The thermal convection
model has long been accepted as a typical dolomitization model for use
in an atoll or platform (Fanning et al., 1981; Saller, 1984; Aharon et al.,
1987; Hein et al., 1992; Kaufman, 1994). This model has been proven
effective by numerical methods and is believed to be a stable and
long-lived flow mechanism for dolomitization, which can affect large
volumes of rock (Sanford et al., 1999; Jones et al., 2003; Whitaker et al.,
2004).

* Corresponding author. Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu,
611756, China.
E-mail address: lufeifanbh@163.com (F. Lu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2024.106740
Received 6 December 2023; Received in revised form 18 January 2024; Accepted 31 January 2024
Available online 9 February 2024
0264-8172/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Zheng et al.
The commonly used thermal convection dolomitization model, or a
variation model called Kohout Convection (Kohout, 1967; Simms,
1984), demonstrates the convection of original or pressurized seawater
after being heated by a normal geothermal gradient at the margin of a
platform or within a platform (Fig. 1; Kaufman, 1994; Whitaker and
Xiao, 2010; Saller and Dickson, 2011). In addition, the stratum brine can
also enter the permeable layer under the control of gravity, and then rise
after being heated by the ground temperature, forming dolomite in the
permeable layer of limestone (Wendte et al., 1998; Saller and Dickson,
2011). Considering the large amount of Mg2+ needed for extensive
dolomitization, it is understandable that a large volume of seawater
from the sea is required. However, there may be other fluids providing
the large volume of Mg2+ needed for dolomitization. Whether they have
the potential to form large-scale thermal convection dolomites under
specific hydrologic conditions is unknown.
The Tarim Basin, situated in northwest China, represents a vast and
intricate sedimentary basin that has undergone numerous phases of
tectonic activity, including volcanism, and deformation (Chen et al.,
1997; Tang et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2019). Dolomite predominantly
manifests in the Lower Paleozoic, notably within deeply buried (>4000
m) Cambrian and Lower Ordovician strata, subjected to a multifaceted,
multi-stage diagenetic evolution. Recent years have witnessed a bur­
geoning interest in exploring deeply buried extensive dolomites as
prospective reservoirs, intensifying curiosity surrounding their origins.
Extensive research has been conducted on Early Paleozoic dolomite
origin in the Tarim Basin, and its origin was once explained as wide­
spread penecontemporaneous dolomitization superimposed on mixed
water dolomitization (Shen et al., 1995; Yang and Wang, 2000). How­
ever, a growing body of scholarly opinion posits that only limited-scale
penecontemporaneous dolomite may exist within the Ordovician Sys­
tem of the Tarim Basin due to the absence of evaporites in this strata
(Zhang et al., 2008; Dong et al., 2013; Qiao et al., 2021). Through the
augmentation of oilfield drilling data, the identification of various hy­
drothermal minerals, marbleization, and silicification (Jin et al., 2006;
Dong et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2010; Du et al., 2018) suggests the for­
mation of dolomite from hydrothermal metasomatic limestone. Addi­
tionally, some conjecture exists regarding the burial recrystallization of
penecontemporaneous dolomite in a thermal background (Zhu et al.,
2010; Guo et al., 2020; Qiao et al., 2021; Qing et al., 2023). Nonetheless,
there remains considerable contention surrounding the specific dolo­
mitization hydrological model (Hu et al., 2019; Guo et al., 2020; Qiao
et al., 2021), and complex geochemical evidence fails to unequivocally
support the assertion that the extensive Lower Ordovician dolomites are
exclusively linked to mantle-derived hydrothermal fluids. Furthermore,
multiple magmatic events contribute to dolomitization, the source, na­
ture, and migration pathways of Mg2+, remain unresolved.
This study introduces a model for the hydrothermal convection of
formation water derived from compaction of the underlying Cambrian
dolomite strata, which was responsible for the dolomitization of the
overlying Ordovician limestones in the Tarim Basin, NW China. In
Fig. 1. Hydrologic model for thermal convection in a carbonate platform with a steep–sided margin (Kaufman, 1994). At the platform’s margin, cold marine waters
are drawn into the platform, heated, and rise to the surface, which is called Kohout convection (Kohout, 1967; Simms, 1984). In the interior of the platform, the heat
flow across the basal boundary in the center of the model, elevated to a value of 170 mW/m2, produces a convection cell in which surficial seawater is drawn into the
platform. A constant basal heat flow of 63 mW/m2 is used.
2
Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
addition, Ordovician magma activity is believed to have provided the
heat source, as evidenced by petrological data, geochemical data, and
the calculation of Mg2+ flux. The effects of special hydrologic models on
thermal convection dolomitization are elucidated in this study,
providing important insights into the impact of abnormal geothermal
features on dolomitization.
2. Geological setting
The Tarim Basin, situated in China, is a vast superimposed basin that
has formed on a continental crust basement, primarily comprising Pro­
terozoic metamorphic rocks. (Fig. 2A; Tuo and Philp, 2003). The
structural framework of the basin is divided into three major episodes of
uplift and four episodes of subsidence based on the complex deformation
and displacement that occurred during its multi-stage tectonic evolution
(Fig. 2B and C; Tang et al., 2012).
During the Caledonian stage (Sinian–Ordovician), the Tarim Basin
was an intra-cratonic extensional basin, with a marine carbonate plat­
form (study area) in the west and an abyssal basin in the east (Li, 1995;
Kang and Kang, 1996; Lin et al., 2012). The western platform of the
Tarim Basin is composed of a succession of several kilometers of marine
carbonates, including the Upper Sinian Qigbulak Formation (Fm.); the
Lower Cambrian Yurtusi, Xiorbrag and Wusongger Fms.; the Middle
Cambrian Awatag and Shayilike Fms.; the Upper Cambrian Qiulitage
Fm.; the Lower Ordovician Penglaiba Fm.; the Lower-Middle Ordovician
Yingshan Fm.; the Middle Ordovician Yijianfang Fm.; and the Upper
Ordovician strata (Fig. 2D; Zhang et al., 2009; Jiang et al., 2016). A
regional unconformity formed between the Yingshan Fm. and the
overlying strata because of the tectonic uplift during the second stage of
the Caledonian movement, which may include the Middle-Ordovician
Yijianfang Fm., the Upper Ordovician Lianglitage Fm., or the
Lower-Carboniferous Bachu Fm. (Lin et al., 2012).
The Cambrian strata are mainly dolomites with Middle Cambrian
evaporitic anhydrites and mudstones. Most of the Cambrian dolomites
are believed to have formed contemporaneously (Fig. 2D; Zhang et al.,
2009). The 2–3 km thick Ordovician carbonate platform is composed of
a completely dolomitized lower unit, a dolomite-limestone interbedded
middle unit, and a limestone-dominated upper unit (Fig. 2D; Zhang
et al., 2008), many of which preserve hydrocarbons (Wang et al., 2014).
Therefore, understanding how these dolomites developed is key to un­
derstanding how the petroleum reservoirs in this area formed and where
they are located (Zhang and Luo, 2010; Zhu et al., 2010). The Wells used
in this study are mainly distributed in the central Tarim Basin (Fig. 2B
and C).
Multiple stages of faultings occurred during the Caledonian, Hercy­
nian, and Himalayan orogenies in the study area (Fig. 2C; Tang et al.,
2012; Zhu et al., 2015; Qiu et al., 2019). Moreover, the basin experi­
enced four periods of magmatic and volcanic activity during the period
of Ediacaran-Cambrian, the Early Ordovician, the Late
Carboniferous-Early Permian, and the Cretaceous (Chen et al., 1997;
H. Zheng et al.
Fig. 2. (A) The location of the Tarim Basin in China. (B) A simplified (or schematic) map of the Tarim Basin, showing the major tectonic features and the locations of
wells sampled for this study (Wei et al., 2021). (C) Sketch map of the fault structure distribution of the study area and Cross-section of the fault movement during the
Middle Caledonian, The strike-slip faults in the Ordovician show positive flower structure (Tang et al., 2012; Qiu et al., 2019). (D) The Cambrian–Ordovician strata of
the Tarim Basin, showing the overall vertical distribution of dolomite.
Zhang et al., 2010; Yu et al., 2011; Dong et al., 2013). During the Early
Paleozoic, a series of EN-trending thrust-faulted-and fault-bend folds
(Fig. 2C) formed in the middle of the Tarim Basin (Tang et al., 2012).
Simultaneously, the Penglaiba Formation and Yingshan Formation have
been truncated by erosion because of the large-scale uplift movement in
this area (Lu et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2019). These EN-trending faults
formed in the Tangguzibasi Depression during the late Early Paleozoic
were reactivated during the Middle Paleozoic, but the intensity and
degree of faulting activity were significantly less than those in the latest
Ordovician (Tang et al., 2012; Hu et al., 2019). However, before the late
Permian, abnormal thermal event also exerts a great influence on the
Ordovician strata. During the Early-Middle Permian, the lithosphere of
basin was broken up and large scale magmatism occurred while the
uplift force exceeded the tortuosity of lithosphere (Tang et al., 2012;
Deng et al., 2019). The basic basalt lavas or intrusive diabases, and in­
termediate acidic magmas distributed extensively in the
central-northern part of basin (Fig. 2C–He et al., 2019), related to the
evolution of Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Chen et al., 1997). Therefore, the
hydrothermal fluids related to the faultings and magmatic episodes may
have caused hydrothermal reworking or alteration of the Cambrian and
Lower Ordovician strata (Zhu et al., 2010, 2015; Dong et al., 2013; Du
et al., 2018; Hu et al., 2019).
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
3. Samples and methods
3.1. Samples and microscopic observation
A total of 271.04 m of cores from 20 wells were analyzed (Fig. 2B–C).
The 321 core samples were collected perpendicular to the bedding
surfaces at 0.2–2.0 m intervals based on changes in lithology, texture,
mineralogy, and porosity. This study primarily focuses on the lime­
stones, dolomites, and siliceous rocks of the Lower to Middle Ordovician
in the study area, specifically targeting the Penglai Formation and the
Yingshan Formation. The limestones encompass argillaceous limestone,
wackestone, packstone, and grain limestone. According to the size of the
crystal, dolomite is divided into cryptocrystalline (<1 μm), microcrys­
talline (1–10 μm), very fine crystalline (10–100 μm), finely crystalline
(100–250 μm), medium crystalline (250–500 μm), coarsely crystalline
(500–4000 μm) and very coarse crystalline (>4 mm) (Bissell and Chi­
lingar, 1967). The distribution patterns of very fine to finely crystalline
and medium to coarsely crystalline dolomites may exhibit characteris­
tics of dispersion, patchiness, or layering. The selected dolomite samples
for analytical testing predominantly manifest as patchy or layered do­
lomites. Dolomite cements commonly occur within cavities or fractures.
Siliceous rocks typically consist of chert or quartz. The chert is often
associated with matrix limestone or dolomite, while the quartz fills
fractures. Two hundred and forty polished and Alizarin Red-S-stained
thin sections were prepared. Some of the thin sections were
H. Zheng et al.
impregnated with blue epoxy for porosity identification. The optical
investigation was conducted conventionally using a microscope. Cath­
odoluminescence microscopy (CL) was carried out on the unstained thin
sections using a RELION cold cathodoluminescence stage with a 5.8 kV
beam and a current intensity of 0.7–0.8 mA.
3.2. Geochemical analysis
Whole rock samples were powdered to less than 200 mesh. The
prepared powder samples were used for major and trace elements
(containing rare earth elements) and isotope analysis. The petrographic
characteristics of the Ordovician carbonate rocks are shown in “4.1.
Petrology and Mineralogy”. All Cambrian dolomites are very fine to
finely crystalline dolomites (50–200 μm), and the specific petrographic
characteristics of the Cambrian dolomites are shown in Du et al. (2018),
Jiang (2022) and Liu et al. (2022). All of the geochemical analysis of
elements were performed at Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and
Crustal Evolution, Peking University, Beijing.
A total of 94 samples were selected and analyzed for oxygen and
carbon isotopes. Oxygen and carbon isotopes were analyzed using
standard analytical techniques and a Finnigan MAT 253 mass spec­
trometer equipped with a Thermo Finnigan Gasbench II. The Oxygen
and carbon isotopic data are reported in per mil (‰) relative to the
Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB) standard. The precision was better
than 0.05‰ for both δ18O and δ13C.
A total of 36 samples were selected and analyzed for strontium iso­
topes. Strontium isotopic ratios were measured using a Finnigan MAT
261 mass spectrometer. For strontium isotope analyses, ~50–100 mg
powders were dissolved in 1 mL HNO3 in a Teflon container at 190 ◦ C for
48 h. Strontium was extracted using conventional ion exchange pro­
cedures utilizing ion exchange resin and then subjected to 87Sr/86Sr
measurement on a Triton Plus thermal ionization mass spectrometer,
which was corrected using the SRM-987 standard, yielding a mean error
of ±0.5 × 10− 5 (2σ) for 87Sr/86Sr ratios.
A total of 34 samples were selected and analyzed for major elements.
Major elements were analyzed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF). After
acid digestion of the samples in Teflon bombs, the trace and rare earth
element (REE) compositions were determined using an HR-ICP-MS
(Element I; Finnigan MAT) at 22 ◦ C in 30% humidity.
A total of 23 samples were selected and analyzed for trace and rare
earth elements. The analysis of trace and rare earth elements required
0.5 mL concentrated HNO3 to dissolve and then dry the 50 mg sample
powders. The dried sample was dissolved in 5 mL of HNO3 with a con­
centration of 1.42 g/mL and was heated for 3 h (at 130 ◦ C). Then, the
heated solution was diluted to 60 mL by adding ultra-pure H2O for trace
element testing. The contents of trace and rare earth elements were
determined by using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer
(ICP-MS, Agilent 7500, USA). For the standardization of REE data, we
used the data of Post-Archean Average Shale (PAAS).
3.3. Fluid inclusion study
A total of 86 samples were selected and analyzed for fluid inclusion
microthermometry. The fluid inclusion microthermometry was per­
formed at the Geofluids Lab, University of Regina. Fluid inclusion ana­
lyses were conducted on double-polished thin sections using a Linkam
THM600 heating-freezing stage, which was calibrated using synthetic
fluid inclusions with known compositions. Prior to the start of the in­
clusions thermometry experiment, we conducted a careful petrological
study of the inclusions and identified the primary and secondary in­
clusion. Inclusion homogenization temperature and freezing tempera­
ture were measured by cyclic thermometry. The heating and/or cycling
intervals are 0.1 ◦ C for ice-melting temperatures (Tm-ice) and hydro­
halite melting temperatures (Tm-HH) and 1 ◦ C for homogenization
temperatures (Th). Therefore, the precision of temperature measure­
ment is 1 ◦ C for Th and 0.1 ◦ C for Tm-ice and Tm-HH (Bodnar, 1993; Chi
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
and Ni, 2007; Steele-MacInnis et al., 2011; Lu et al., 2017).
4. Results
4.1. Petrology and Mineralogy
We have categorized dolomite based on its occurrence into individ­
ual dolomite crystals, patchy dolomites, layered-massive dolomites, and
cement dolomite. These dolomites can be further classified based on the
crystal size into very fine to finely crystalline dolomites and coarsely to
medium crystalline dolomites. Additionally, in the Middle-Lower
Ordovician, there are isolated occurrences of siderite dolomite and
siliceous dolomite. However, their volumes are relatively small (less
than 1% of the total carbonate volume) and are not the focus of our
study.
4.1.1. Individual dolomite crystals – Id
Ids are common but make up a small volume of the Lower-Middle
Ordovician strata, especially in the upper part of this section. They are
featured by turbid finely crystalline planar dolomites (Fig. 3A), a few
thin sections show siliceous rock, and dolomite floating among crystal­
line quartz (Fig. 3B). They are generally formed by replacing calcite
cement and/or grains. Selective dolomitization of grains can be seen in
the thin sections (Fig. 3C). Ids are pink-dull red under cath­
odoluminescence (CL) and calcites (grains and cement) are dull red
(Fig. 3C and D).
4.1.2. Patchy dolomites – Pd
Pds are very common in the Lower-Middle Ordovician formations.
Dolomites are usually patchy and coexist with limestone (Fig. 4A). They
are featured by planar finely crystalline dolomites (Fig. 4B–D). Most of
the crystals are featured by cloudy cores but with no clear rim texture
(Fig. 4F). Typically, Pds are observed along the stylolites (Fig. 4A–E).
Pds are pink-dull red in color under CL (Fig. 4F and G).
4.1.3. Layered-massive dolomites - Ld
The dolomites in the lower unit of the Yingshan and Penglaiba Fms.
are generally layered or massive in texture. Similar to Pds, Lds can be
further subdivided into planar very fine to finely crystalline dolomites
(Ld1, Fig. 5A–C) and non-planar coarsely to medium crystalline dolo­
mites (Ld2, Fig. 5E–G). Some of the dolomites exhibit clear relict tex­
tures (Fig. 5A and B), while others preserve little textural information of
their precursor limestones (Fig. 5C–E, G). We can only infer the original
fabrics from the turbid or cloudy dolomite crystals of these dolomites.
The Ld1s and Ld2s are generally dull red in color under CL (Fig. 5D–F).
4.1.4. Cement dolomites
Cement dolomites occur as fillings in veins or pores, exhibiting an
overall scarce distribution (Fig. 6A and B). The dolomite veins are
mostly located southeast of the Shunnan (SN) area and are nearly ver­
tical in occurrence (Fig. 7). The pore-filling dolomite cements are mainly
found along the edges of large pores (Fig. 6C–E). The crystal sizes of the
vein- or pore-filling dolomites are generally larger than those of the
matrix dolomites, and the crystal faces are much clearer. Besides, the
cement dolomites in the pores are saddle-shaped in units with abnor­
mally coarsely matrix dolomite crystals (Fig. 6D). Cement dolomites
exhibit dull red color under CL (Fig. 6F and G).
4.2. Dolomite distribution
The dolomite content generally decreases vertically with decreasing
burial depth (Fig. 7), along with systematic textural changes. The Middle
Ordovician Yijianfang Fm. contains few Id. The Lower-Middle Ordovi­
cian Yingshan Fm. is the transitional zone between pure limestone and
Lds, with numerous Ids and/or Pd present in those partially-dolomitized
units. The Lower Ordovician Penglaiba Fm. is characterized by Lds and
H. Zheng et al.
Fig. 3. Thin section photomicrographs of individual dolomite crystals. (A) finely crystalline planar–e dolomites in grainy limestone, Well SN1, Shunnan area, O1–2y,
6968.3 m, PPL (PPL = plane-polarized light); (B) finely crystalline planar–e dolomites in silicified grainy limestone, Well YB3–1, Yubei area, O1–2y, 5034.8 m, CPL
(CPL = cross-polarized light); C(PPL) and D(CL): individual rhombic dolomite crystals in limy–packstone, with pink–dull red color under CL; calcite within both
grains and non–luminescent cements, Well Z101, Tazhong area, O1–2y, 5535.74 m.
minor Pds. A general trend is that the grain size of the dolomites in­
creases with increasing burial depth. Coarser-grained dolomites are
more common in the Penglaiba Fm. than in the Yingshan Fm.
Horizontally, the dolomite content is significantly heterogeneous
throughout the Central Uplift area of the Tarim Basin. In the Shunnan
area, the dolomites are weakly developed except for in the eastern re­
gion (i.e., Gulong (GL) Area). While dolomites are more common in the
Tazhong and Yubei (YB) areas (Fig. 7). The scale of dolomite develop­
ment is larger in the position closer to faults of different ages (Fig. 2C).
Notwithstanding the horizontal heterogeneity of the dolomites, the
overall vertical decrease in the dolomite content with decreasing depth
in the Ordovician strata is likely similar throughout the western Tarim
platform (Fig. 6), including outcrops in the northwest area (Dong et al.,
2013), the western Tarim Basin (Zhang et al., 2009), Tazhong (central
Tarim; Liu et al., 2009), Tabei (northern Tarim; Mao et al., 2014), and
the southeastern platform margin (Wang et al., 2014).
4.3. Geochemistry
4.3.1. Stable carbon and oxygen isotopes
The carbon and oxygen isotopic values are plotted in Fig. 8. Most of
the host limestones have a relatively small range of δ18O and δ13C
values, with δ13C ranging from − 2.4 to − 0.9‰VPDB and δ18O ranging
from − 9‰ to − 6.5‰VPDB. The very fine to finely crystalline dolomites
have δ18O values of − 7.8 to − 5.5‰VPDB, δ13C values of − 2.5‰ to
− 0.5‰VPDB. The coarsely to medium crystalline dolomites have a
larger range of δ18O values (− 9.7 to − 4.5‰VPDB) and a more narrow
δ13C range (− 2.1 to − 0.3‰VPDB) close to that of the Cambrian
replacement dolomites. The δ18O of Cement dolomite ranges from − 9.3
to 5.9‰VPDB, and the δ13C ranges from − 1.8 to 0.6‰VPDB. In contrast
to the Ordovician replacement dolomites, the siliceous rocks have
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
similarly positive δ13C values (ranging from 0.5 to − 1.7‰VPDB) and
negative δ18O values (− 14 to − 5.7‰VPDB).
4.3.2. Radiogenic Sr isotopes
The Ordovician limestones have the lowest 87Sr/86Sr ratios
(0.7086–0.7089). These values are similar to those of strontium isotopes
in Ordovician seawater (Fig. 9). In addition, 87Sr/86Sr ratio increases
with increasing dolomite content, the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the Ordovician
dolomites range from 0.7090 to 0.7096, except for 2 samples exhibiting
extraordinarily high 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.7106–0.7110; Fig. 9). The
87
Sr/86Sr ratios of the Ordovician siliceous rocks range from 0.7090 to
0.7095, except for 1 sample exhibiting extraordinarily high 87Sr/86Sr
ratios (0.7105; Fig. 9) The 87Sr/86Sr ratios of several the Middle-Upper
Cambrian dolomite samples are also plotted in Fig. 9. These values are
generally similar to those of the Ordovician dolomites (Fig. 9).
4.3.3. Major and trace elements
The CaO contents of the total Ordovician dolomites range from
22.72% to 33.20%, with an average of 29.01% (Fig. 10A), which is close
to the theoretical CaO content of stoichiometric dolomite (30.44%). The
MgO contents range from 15.05% to 21.61% (average 18.26%)
(Fig. 10A), which is lower than the theoretical MgO content of stoi­
chiometric dolomite (21.74%). The Ca and Mg contents of the Ordovi­
cian limestones and dolomite exhibit a distinctly negative relationship.
The content of Ca and Mg is positively correlated between Cambrian
dolomite and Ordovician dolomite (Fig. 10A).
Generally, the MnO contents of the very fine to finely crystalline
dolomites are relatively low (0.003–0.012%), while the Fe2O3 contents
are relatively high (0.04–0.28%). The MnO contents of the coarsely to
medium crystalline dolomite vary between 0.004 and 0.012%, and
Fe2O3 contents vary between 0.054 and 0.279% (Fig. 10B).
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

Fig. 4. Core photo and thin section photomicrographs of pds. (A) A photo of typical patchy dolomites (Pds) in a core, Well Z101, Tazhong area, O1–2y,
5551.0–5551.2 m; (B) finely crystalline planar–s dolomites in thin section, separated from the limestone by mud–and–pyrobitumen–filled stylolite, Well Z101,
Tazhong area, O1–2y, 5548.93 m, PPL; (C) finely crystalline planar–s dolomites along mud–and–pyrobitumen–filled stylolite, Well Z19, Tazhong area, O1–2y, 5524.51
m, PPL; (D) finely crystalline planar–e dolomites along mud–and–pyrobitumen–filled stylolite, Well SN1, Shunnan area, O1–2y, 6966.3 m, PPL; (E) finely crystalline
planar–s dolomites developed along mud–and–pyrobitumen–filled stylolite, Well YB3, Yubei area, O1–2y, 5362.3 m, PPL; F(PPL) and G(CL): dolomite with relict
texture, dolomite exhibiting dull red color under CL, and non–luminescent relict limestone, Well YB5, O1–2y, 6839.75 m.

6
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

Fig. 5. Thin section photomicrographs of layered–massive dolomites. (A) fabric–retentive very fine to finely crystalline dolomites showing the texture of its grainy
limestone precursor, Well YB5, Yubei area, O1p, 6841.6 m; (B) very fine to finely crystalline dolomites with parallel bedding, indicating a limy–mudstone precursor,
Well YB5, Yubei area, O1p, 6841.2 m; C(PPL) and D(CL): fabric–destructive dolomite, pyrobitumen developed in the inter–crystalline pores, dolomites exhibit dull
red color under CL, dirty cloudy dolomite crystals and particle morphology indicate the precursor was grainy limestone, Well YB5, Yubei area, O1p, 6605.53 m; E
(PPL) and F(CL): fabric–destructive coarsely crystalline dolomites, original fabrics of precursors have been obliterated, dolomites exhibit dull red color under CL, Well
YB2, Yubei area, O1–2y, 5609.45 m. G(PPL) and H(CPL): coarsely crystalline dolomites, cryptocrystalline quartz is associated with dolomite under cross-polarized
light, Well SN1, Shunnan area, O1–2y, 6966.3 m.

7
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

Fig. 6. Core photo and thin section photomicrographs of cement dolomites. (A) handspecimen of fine grained dolomite with coarsely to medium crystalline dolomite
veins, Well GL1, Shunnan area, O1–2y, 6543.8 m; (B) thin section made from the specimen in (A), showing the fine grained dolomite wall rock and a coarsely to
medium crystalline crystalline dolomite–filled vein, CPL; (C) clear, crystalline dolomite partly cemented pore, Well YB6, Yubei area, O1–2y, 6708.00 m, PPL; (D)
saddle shaped dolomite (SD) cementing a large pore, followed by calcite (stained red) filling the rest of the pore space. Well YB3, Yubei area, O1–2y, 5261.37 m, CPL;
(E) coarsely to medium crystalline dolomites and bitumen filling in the moldic pore of a finely crystalline dolomite, Well Z101, Tazhong area, O1–2y, 5535.74 m, PPL.
F(PPL) and G(CL): coarsely to medium crystalline dolomites filling in the moldic pore of finely crystalline dolomites, all dolomites exhibit the same dull red color
under CL, Well GL1, Shunnan area, O1–2y, 6533.1 m.

4.3.4. Rare earth elements
All of the replacement dolomites have flat REE patterns after being
normalized by the Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) (McLennan,
1989) with slight Ce negative anomaly and slight HREE depletion,
which resembles those of the Ordovician limestone and Cambrian very
fine to finely crystalline dolomites (Fig. 11A–C, E). The cement dolo­
mites and quartz primarily exhibit positive Eu anomalies (Fig. 11D–F).
4.3.5. Microthermometry and salinity
The samples for fluid inclusion analysis encompassed all types of
dolomites as well as granular quartz, with a total of 85 valid data from
the examination of 80 thin-section samples. For most of the very fine to
finely crystalline dolomites, fluid inclusions could not be found in the
dolomite crystals. A total of 28 Fluid inclusions (FIs) in the coarsely to
medium crystalline dolomites and the cement dolomites, 23 FIs in the
cement dolomites were measured, 14 FIs in the intercrystalline cement
calcites were measured, and 11 FIs in the intercrystalline Crystalline
quartzs were measured.
The results indicate that coarsely to medium crystalline dolomites
have homogenization temperatures (Th) of 85.7–143.9 ◦ C and salinities
of 2.5–23.1 wt% NaCl equivalent, cement dolomites have homogeni­
zation temperatures (Th) of 97.4–162.3 ◦ C and salinities of 4.9–21.3 wt
% NaCl equivalent, crystalline quartzs have homogenization tempera­
tures (Th) of 156.1–172.3 ◦ C and salinities of 13.3–23.5 wt% NaCl
equivalent, Late calcites s have homogenization temperatures (Th) of
84.9–136.5 ◦ C and salinities of 4–20.9 wt% NaCl equivalent (Fig. 12).

8
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

Fig. 7. A cross section based on well logs and core samples, showing dolomite contents of the Lower–Middle Ordovician strata (see Fig. 2B and C for well locations).
Top of the Yingshan Fm. (O1–2y) was flattened. Note the formations overlying O1–2y may be part of the Yijianfang Fm. (O2yj), the Lianglitag Fm. (O3l), or the Lower
Carboniferous Bachu Fm. (C1b), which contains one of the regional Caledonian unconformities. From bottom to top, the normal stratigraphic sequence should be O1p,
O1–2y, O2yj, O3q (Qiaerbake Fm. or O3t Tumuxiuke Fm.), O3l, and O3s (Sangtamu Fm.).

9
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

Fig. 8. A cross plot of δ13C–PDB (‰) and δ18O–PDB (‰) for the limestones and dolomites from the Middle–Lower Ordovician strata and dolomites from the
Middle–Upper Cambrian strata. Note there is a large overlap in the C–, O–isotopic compositions of the Ordovician dolomites and the Cambrian dolomites (Table S1).
Typical δ18O ranges for estimated Ordoviaian evaporative dolomite (Montañez and Read, 1992), and estimated coeval marine dolomite calculated based on the
equilibrium fractionation value (δ18Odolomite – δ18Ocalcite = + 3‰ VPDB; Land, 1980; Budd, 1997) between dolomite and cogenetic calcite, are given for comparison.

Fig. 9. A cross plot of the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the Ordovician and Cambrian dolomites on the modified curve for seawater 87Sr/86Sr variation through refined geologic
time, seawater 87Sr/86Sr data from Burke et al. (1982), Nicholas (1996), and Ebneth et al. (2001) (Table S1).

5. Discussion
5.1. Evaluation of the fidelity of geochemistry data
The trace elements in marine carbonate rocks are often influenced by
terrestrial siliciclastic minerals (Nothdurft et al., 2004). Hence, prior to
scrutinizing the trace geochemical data in this study, an assessment of
the degree of terrigenous siliciclastic minerals contamination was con­
ducted to ensure the reliability of the data. From a paleogeographic
perspective, the study area was situated in the central Tarim platform
during the Ordovician, surrounded by extensive shallow sea and conti­
nental shelf, which is far away from the source regions (Gao and Fan,
2015). The carbonate rocks in the study area exhibit extremely low total
rare earth element (ΣREE) concentrations (ranging from 2.382 to
25.905 ppm, average 6.759 pmm, Table S3), among them, the average
ΣREE value of limestone is 6.579 ppm, and the average ΣREE content of
dolomite is 6.828 ppm. Furthermore, the concentrations of trace ele­
ments of the samples such as Sc (0.38 ppm), Zr (4.44 ppm), Hf (0.30
ppm), and Th (0.88 ppm) are notably lower than those of the average
crustal abundance (Sc = 14.90 ppm, Zr = 240 ppm, Hf = 5.8 ppm, Th =
2.3 ppm; Taylor and McLennan, 1981). In conjunction with the low
ΣREE, we suggest that the Lower to Middle Ordovician limestones and
dolomites in the study area have not contaminated by terrestrial silici­
clastic minerals, thereby representing the characteristics of the original

10
H. Zheng et al.
Fig. 10. (A) A cross plot of CaO vs. MgO of the Ordovician limestones and dolomites; the Cambrian dolomite and cherts are plotted for comparison. (B) A cross plot
of Fe2O3 vs. MnO of different limestones and dolomites (Table S2).
diagenetic fluids.
5.2. Relative timing of dolomitization
The relationship between the formation time of the dolomite and the
timing of the other stages of diagenesis can be determined based on
macroscopic and microscopic observations. It can be seen from the
microscopic observations that macrocrystalline dolomite occurred at the
moldic pores, indicating that the dolomite formed after the moldic pores
formed (Fig. 6E and F). Selective dissolution is the main cause of moldic
pore formation, which generally occurs during the early diagenesis of
carbonate minerals before stabilization (Gregg et al., 2015). In the Tarim
Basin, this may be related to meteoric waters (Fu et al., 2020; Jiu et al.,
2022; Wang et al., 2022). Therefore, the dolomite formation occurred
later than dissolution by the penecontemporaneous-early invasion of
fresh water. The stylolite has a strong correlation with the distribution of
dolomite, indicating that the dolomite formed simultaneously with the
stylolite (Fig. 4A–E; Paganoni et al., 2016; Gomez–Rivas et al., 2022).
Pressure dissolution in the clay-poor carbonates generally begins to in­
crease at around 550 m (1800 ft). In addition, many stylolites would
form at 830 m (2723 ft) (Dutton and Diggs, 1992; Nicolaides and
11
Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
Wallace, 1997; Fabricius and Borre, 2010). Therefore, dolomitization
should begin around the same time (i.e., shallow burial stage at a burial
depth of 500–800 m) with the pressure dissolution.
The crystalline quartz was found to have cut through dolomites,
leaving behind residual rhombohedral dolomite crystals. (Fig. 5G and
H). The genesis of heterogeneous quartz in the central region of the
Tarim Basin is believed to be related to magmatic hydrothermal activ­
ities (Chen et al., 2015; He et al., 2019; Wei et al., 2021), and the for­
mation time could be from the Late Devonian to the Permian (Lu et al.,
2017; Lu et al., 2017). This may be related to the activation of Devonian
strike-slip faults and Permian volcanic activity during the Late Caledo­
nian–Hercynian period (Chen et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2017; Lu et al.,
2017). In addition, a large amount of bitumen developed on the surface
of or between the dolomite crystals on the pores (Fig. 4C and 5C). This
indicates that the charging of crude oil and postdated dolomite forma­
tion. The first episode of oil and gas charging occurred in the Late
Caledonian–Early Hercynian. The burial depth of the Middle-Lower
Ordovician strata was about 2300 m at that time (Zhang et al., 2002).
Therefore, the dolomite formed before it was buried at 2300 m. It is
consistent with the conclusion of fluid inclusion analysis by predecessors
(Wang et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019).
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

Fig. 11. Histogram of the PAAS normalized REE contents (McLennan, 1989) of the Ordovician limestones and dolomites with the Cambrian dolomites plotted for
comparison (Table S3).

Fig. 12. A cross plot of inclusion homogenization temperature and salinity. The center of the cross-shaped symbol is the average value of temperature and salinity
values, and the end of the cross-shaped symbol is the maximum and minimum value of temperature and salinity values, the color of the cross-shaped symbol is
consistent with the lithology symbol (Table S4).

12
H. Zheng et al.
In summary, the primary dolomitization process began during
pressure dissolution and continued to develop after pressure dissolution
ended. Recrystallization of dolomites ended during the first phase of oil
and gas charging but before the influence of siliceous fluids. The depth
was approximately 500–2300 m when the dolomite was formed.
5.3. Dolomitizing fluids
5.3.1. Dolomitizing fluids in the study area
Several evidences suggest the primary dolomitizing fluids are deep-
formation water with some input of hydrothermal fluids. The overall
flattened REE patterns of the dolomites resemble those of the Ordovician
limestone (Fig. 11A–C), suggesting that they were dolomitized from the
original limestone. In addition, the Ordovician dolomites have similar
REE patterns to the Cambrian dolomites, implying that the diagenetic
fluid is also related (Fig. 11B–C, E). The low values of MnO and Fe2O3
(Fig. 10B) also indicate that it was formed in an anoxic burial diagenetic
system (Jin et al., 2006).
Most of the non-evaporite-related Ordovician dolomites show
slightly negative δ13C values and moderately negative δ18O values
(Fig. 8), which is the typical feature of dolomite of burial origin (Warren,
2000; Swart, 2015). It is noteworthy that the δ13C and δ18O composi­
tions of nearly all the Ordovician dolomite samples overlap with those of
the Cambrian dolomite samples, especially the Upper Cambrian dolo­
mite samples (Fig. 8) (Gao and Fan, 2015), which were experienced
contemporaneous dolomitization in an evaporative-restricted platform
(Zhang et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2012). The overlap of the δ13C and δ18O
values of the Ordovician dolomites and the Cambrian dolomites (Fig. 8)
suggests that the dolomitizing fluids derived from the Cambrian strata
overprinted the geochemical features of the Ordovician dolomites.
The Ordovician dolomites have much higher 87Sr/86Sr ratios relative
to those of coeval seawater (0.7078–0.7096) (Veizer et al., 1999)
(Fig. 9). However, the 87Sr/86Sr of seawater decreased from 0.7091 to
0.7090 from the beginning of the Late Cambrian to the Early Ordovician
and the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of Ordovician seawater were typically less than
0.7091 (Fig. 9; Burke et al., 1982; Allen and Wiggins, 1993; Veizer et al.,
1999; Ebneth et al., 2001). The 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the Ordovician do­
lomites plot higher than those of the coeval seawater, but close to those
of the Middle-Upper Cambrian seawater (Fig. 9). It is highly unlikely
that the 87Sr/86Sr of the dolomites is directly derived from mantle fluids
nor the mixture of mantle fluids and Ordovician formation water,
because the average 87Sr/86Sr ratio of mantle-sourced fluids is ~0.7037
(Banner, 2004) and the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the igneous rocks (diabase and
gabbro) in the Tarim Basin are generally less than 0.7075 (Dong et al.,
2013). Therefore, the higher 87Sr/86Sr values suggest that the dolomi­
tizing fluids were a mixture of Middle-Upper Cambrian and Ordovician
seawater because of the upward migration of Middle-Upper Cambrian
formation water (with high 87Sr/86Sr values). The magma-related hy­
drothermal fluids provided the energy for migration to a large extent.
Because 87Sr in clastic rocks is enriched in fluids (Winter et al., 1997;
Duggan et al., 2001), so there are very high 87Sr/86Sr values in a few
Ordovician dolomites (Fig. 9), which may be caused by the pollution of
Precambrian silicic fault gouge developed along fractures (Wu et al.,
2020; Lu et al., 2023).
However, part of the cement dolomites are characterized by coarsely
crystalline, wavy extinction (Fig. 6C and D), more negative δ18O isotope
values than those of the other dolomites (Fig. 8), high homogenization
temperatures (Fig. 12), and positive Eu anomalies (Fig. 11D), which
were probably related to the influence of mantle-derived hydrothermal
fluids (Bau, 1991; Davies and Smith, 2006; Du et al., 2018; Guo et al.,
2020). But these cement dolomites make up a tiny fraction of the for­
mation, roughly less than 1%.
In conclusion, most of the Ordovician dolomites are interpreted to be
dolomitized by deep-formation water but have been slightly influenced
by hydrothermal fluids. Moreover, the dolomitizing fluids of the Ordo­
vician carbonates have a certain degree of genetic connection to those of
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
the underlying Cambrian dolomites.
5.3.2. Comparison of dolomitizing fluids in the Tarim Basin
Through a comprehensive regional comparison, both consistency
and difference in dolomite composition and origin across diverse regions
of the Tarim Basin have been identified.
The geochemical attributes of the majority of Lower and Middle
Ordovician matrix dolomites within the Tarim Basin exhibit a flat rare
earth element (REE) pattern. The carbon-oxygen strontium isotope
values observed in matrix dolomites are also generally consistent (Dong
et al., 2017; Du et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2020; Wei et al., 2021). The
prevailing interpretation attributes the observed phenomenon to burial
dolomitization induced by altered seawater. This investigation eluci­
dates a robust correlation between the fluids emanating from matrix
dolomite and contemporaneous Cambrian dolomite formations in the
Central Tarim Basin. Anticipating further validation in subsequent in­
vestigations across different locales within the Tarim Basin constitutes a
promising avenue for future research.
Widespread involvement of ultramafic-derived or magmatic fluids
associated with Permian volcanism is observed in the central, northwest,
northern, and northeastern peripheries of the basin, caused by Hercy­
nian tectonic activity. This results in the substantial formation of cement
dolomite associated with mantle-derived hydrothermal fluids (Dong
et al., 2013; Du et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2020; Wei et al., 2021). In both
the study area and the aforementioned regions, a portion of the
cemented dolomite, along with nearly all saddle dolomite, exhibits
MREE enrichment characteristics akin to mid-acid magma. Further­
more, these dolomite formations display oxygen isotope values lower
than those observed in the matrix dolomite (Qiao et al., 2021; Guo et al.,
2016; Dong et al., 2017; Wei et al., 2021). In addition, we also paid
attention to the geochemical differences between different regions. The
δ18O values of very fine to finely crystalline dolomites in the northwest
and north of the Tarim Basin are more enriched than other dolomites.
The origin of this dolomite variant is likely linked to the processes of
evaporation concentration and reflux seepage dolomitization during the
penecontemporaneous stage (Du et al., 2018; Qiao et al., 2021, Fig. 8).
This shows that there are differences in ancient sedimentary environ­
ments in different areas within the Tarim Basin.
5.4. Calculation of Mg2+ flux
Sufficient Mg2+ has always been a constraint factor for the formation
of massive dolomites (Machel, 2004). Conversely, the amount of Mg2+
required for dolomitization can be estimated from the amount of dolo­
mites and dolomitic limestones. Thus, it could serve to determine the
formation mechanism of dolomite formation by comparing the amount
of Mg2+ needed with the amount of Mg2+ derived from various sources
(Gresens, 1967; Compton and Siever, 1986; Grant, 1986; MacLean,
1990; Gomez-Rivas et al., 2014; Centrella et al., 2023).
5.4.1. Mg2+ needed for dolomitization
The Middle-Lower Ordovician dolomite content decreases with
decreasing depth, and the overall distribution pattern of dolomite in the
western platform of the Tarim Basin is consistent. The Mg2+ content
required for the formation of the amount of dolomite per unit area is
calculated in this study based on the dolomite content in Well Zhong 4, a
well with representative discution of dolomite.
Without considering compaction and pressure dissolution, the
thickness of the O1-2 dolomite was calculated based on the cores from
Well Zhong 4. The thicknesses of the dolomite (>90% dolomite), calcitic
dolomite (>60% dolomite), and dolomitic limestone (<45% dolomite)
are 79 m, 112 m, and 181 m, respectively. The volume of pure dolomite
was also calculated, and the mass was calculated according to the den­
sity of the dolomite. The number of moles was then calculated from the
mole fraction of dolomite, which is the number of moles of Mg ions
required. The results show that the amount of Mg2+ required per unit
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

area (1 m2) of the strata is about 3.46 × 106 mol (see the detailed steps in Table 2
Table 1). If the effects of compaction and pressure-dissolution are The Mg2+ content the Lower–Middle Ordovician formations in the Tarim Basin
considered, the amount of Mg2+ required should be much higher. can provide.
Example Wells Zhong–4 BT5
5.4.2. Mg2+ supply from multiple sources ① Thickness of Lower–Middle Ordovician (O1–2) strata 372 998
There may be three potential sources of Mg2+ for dolomitizing a (m)
certain stratum: 1) Mg2+ from water bodies above the stratum, including ② Volume of rock per unit (m3) 372 998
concentrated seawater and/or seawater mixed with other water reser­ ③ Present average porosity of the O1–2 <5% <5%
Present formation water volume (m3) = ② × ③
voirs (e.g., fluids flowing downward from the overlying strata); 2) pore ④ <18.6 <49.9
⑤ Thickness of the O1–2 before about 40% of the 620 1663
water in the same stratum; and 3) fluids moving upwards from the un­ original strata was pressure–dissolved (m) = ①/(1 −
derlying strata, including the fluids from the underlying strata and hy­ 40%)
drothermal fluids from the mantle (Davies and Smith Jr, 2006; Whitaker ⑥ Maximum historic porosity of the O1–2 40% 40%
and Xiao, 2010; Koeshidayatullah et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2023). ⑦ Formation water volume decreased by compaction 217 582
(m3) = ⑤ × (40%–5%)
The amount of Mg2+ that the Middle-Lower Ordovician strata could ⑧ Total maximum formation water volume (m3) = ④ 235 632
supply is limited. The current fluid volume per unit stratum area (1 m2) +⑦
does not exceed 50 m3 based on the thickness of the strata and its current ⑨ 3
Mg content of the O1–2 formation water (mol/m ): 2.68–452.09, 87.76 on
porosity. During the burial process, the porosity could have been average
Maximum Mg molar volume of the O1–2 formation 1.06 × 2.86 ×
reduced by approximately 1/3, i.e., by 13%, due to compaction (Hey­ ⑩
water (mol) = ⑧ × 452.09 105 105
dari, 2000). The thickness of the stratum lost due to pressure dissolution
is highly debatable, such as (1) 5%–34% thickness lost for limestone or
marble (Stockdale, 1922); (2) 13% for a platform margin reef and 24%
for lagoonal sediments (Mossop, 1972); (3) >20% for organic-rich car­ Table 3
The Mg2+ content the Middle–Upper Cambrian semi–contemporaneous dolo­
bonates (Di Primio and Leythaeuser, 1995), (4) 43% for grainstones
stone strata of the Tarim Basin can provide.
(Finkel and Wilkinson, 1990); (5) 40%–50% in general (Ramos, 2000);
and (6) 50%–60% for chalk (Safaricz and Davison, 2005). In this study, a Example Wells Zhong–4 TC1 BT5

total of 40% rock loss was assumed (Toussaint et al., 2018). Thus, the ① Thickness of the underlying Upper 1200 1800 994
thickness of the original strata was calculated, and the reduced amount Cambrian Qiulitage Fm. (m)
Volume of rock per unit (m3) 1200 1800 994
of strata fluid due to compaction and pressure dissolution was deter­ ②
Present average porosity of the Qiulitage 3.80% 1.65%
mined (Table 2). Although the Mg2+ concentration of the original
③ <5%
Fm.
Middle-Lower Ordovician limestone is unknown, it can be inferred that ④ Present formation water volume = ② × ③ 45.6 29.7 49.7
its Mg2+ concentration was lower than that of the current dolomite (m3)
strata. Therefore, the maximum amount of Mg2+ that could be provided ⑤ Thickness of the Qiulitage Fm. before 2000 3000 1657
about 40% of the original strata was
per unit area of the strata was only 2.86 × 105 mol based on Mg2+
pressure–dissolved = ①/(1 − 40%) (m)
concentration of the current strata as a reference which is an order of ⑥ Maximum historic porosity of the 40% 40% 40%
magnitude lower than the amount of Mg2+ required (Table 2). Qiulitage Fm. (%)
Similarly, the amount of Mg2+ that could be provided by the several ⑦ Formation water volume decreased by 724 1151 580
compaction = ⑤ × (40%–5%) (m3)
kilometers of underlying Upper Cambrian (∈3) dolomite can also be 3
⑧ Mg content of the Upper Cambrian formation water (mol/m ): 8.07–43.06,
calculated. Taking the Upper Cambrian Qiulitage group (∈3q) of Well 27.81 on average
Zhong4, Well TC1, and Well BT5 as examples, the calculated amount of ⑨ Minimum Mg content provided by the 6.21 × 9.53 × 5.08
minimum Mg2+ that could be provided by the Upper Cambrian strata Qiulitage Fm. water (mol) 103 103 × 103
due to physical compaction was only 5.08 × 103 mol per unit stratum ⑩ Rock loss of the Upper Cambrian 800 1200 663
dolostone due to pressure dissolution = ⑤
area (1 m2) based on the aforementioned method. However, a large
× 40%
amount of Mg2+ could have been released during pressure dissolution of ⑪ Mg provided by pressure dissolution of the 12.6 × 18.9 × 10.4
the underlying strata. This pattern was discovered by Hu et al. (2019) in Upper Cambrian dolostone = ⑩ × 106 106 × 106
their study of dolomite related to stylolite in the Cambrian Tarim Basin. 2900000/184
On average, we are estimated to range between 10.4 × 106–18.9 × 106 ⑫ Total Mg provided by the underlying 12.6 × 18.9 × 10.4
Upper Cambrian dolostone due to 106 106 × 106
mol per unit stratum area (1 m2) (Table 3). Although the fluids dis­ compaction and pressure dissolution = ⑨
charged due to pressure dissolution would precipitate as cements in the +⑪
Cambrian strata (Vandeginste and John, 2013), the Mg2+ consumed by ⑬ Mg consumed by cementation of the 3.78 × 5.67 × 3.13
this cementation constitutes only a small portion of the available Mg2+ Upper Cambrian, assuming 20% dolostone 106 106 × 106
cement = ② × 20% × 2900000/184

Table 1 even if the cement content was as high as 40% (40% is the pore volume
The Mg2+ content needed to form the amount of Ordovician dolostone per unit in the early stage of carbonate deposition, refer to Schomker and Halley,
(1 m2) area, Tarim Basin, using Well Zhong–4 as an example.
1982). Therefore, most of the fluids from the underlying Cambrian strata
Calculation Steps Dolostone Limy–dolostone Dolomitic would be discharged into Middle-Lower Ordovician strata, satisfying the
limestone amount of Mg2+ required for dolomitization of the target strata.
① Thickness (m) 79 112 181 In summary, the Mg2+ needed for the dolomitizing fluids of the
② Percentage of 90 60 45 Ordovician strata should be sufficiently supplied by the underlying
dolostone (%)
Cambrian dolomite through physical compaction and pressure
③ Dolostone volume (m3) 71.1 67.2 81.45
④ Density (g/m3) 2900000 2900000 2900000 dissolution.
⑤ Mass of dolostone (g) 206190000 194880000 236205000
⑥ Molar content of 11.2 × 105 10.6 × 105 12.83 × 105
dolostone (mol) 5.5. Thermal convection dolomitization model
⑦ Mg2+ needed (mol) 11.2 × 105 10.6 × 105 12.83 × 105

Total Mg2+ needed to dolomitize 1 m2 limestone: 3.46 × 106 mol. Three essential elements are required when developing a

14
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

dolomitization model (Warren, 2000): (1) a source of Mg and usually
CO3; (2) a fluid flow mechanism; and (3) kinetic and thermodynamic
conditions favorable to dolomitization.
5.5.1. Mg2+ sources
The Mg2+ source for dolomitization can be inferred first from the
distribution of the dolomite bodies. The upward migration of Mg-
containing fluids is speculated as the dolomitization capacity weakens
upward, evidenced by the decreased amount of Middle-Lower Ordovi­
cian dolomite from bottom to top (Fig. 7). Furthermore, the above
geochemical evidence (e.g., δ13C, δ18O, and 87Sr/86Sr; Section 5.2)
suggest that the dolomitizing fluids derived from the underlying Upper
Cambrian strata rather than from the Ordovician strata. Furthermore,
the Mg mass balance calculations (Section 5.3) suggest that the under­
lying Upper Cambrian dolomite strata provided most of the Mg2+
required for the dolomitization of the overlying Middle-Lower Ordovi­
cian strata.
The fluid inclusion data show that the Middle-Lower Ordovician
coarsely to medium-crystalline dolomites and cement dolomites were
formed by a relatively high formation temperature (100–160 ◦ C), which

Fig. 13. Photographs of the outcrop showing pathways for the migration of Mg–rich fluids. (A) grey limestone with red–grey bedding–parallel dolomite. (B) locally
enlarged photo of image (A), showing red ferrous dolomite and grey dolomite, both developed parallel to the bedding; C and D: a picture of the entire outcrop and its
sketch map, showing how the Mg–rich fluids migrated upward through the faults and fractures and horizontally through the bedding. Upper section of the Lower
Ordovician Penglaiba Fm., Kamatikan outcrop, NW Tarim Basin (location is shown in Fig. 2B).

15
H. Zheng et al.
is higher than the formation temperature of the Ca-rich fluids (i.e.,
forming late calcite cement), but significantly lower than that of crys­
talline quartz (Fig. 12). However, these Mg2+-rich high-temperature
fluids are significantly different from the silicon-containing hydrother­
mal fluids in this area because only hydrothermal lithology and mineral
association (i.e., Fe-dolomite and quartz) but no dolomite is observed in
some areas (Fig. 13). It is speculated that the silicon-containing hydro­
thermal fluids provided large amounts of Si and Ca and low amounts of
Mg. Additionally, as described in section 5.2, only a few cement dolo­
mites are affected by the geochemical signal of the hydrothermal fluid,
and most dolomites lack the geochemical signal of the mantle-derived
fluid, suggesting that this hydrothermal activity did affect the pre-
existing dolomite, but not directly cause the large-scale hydrothermal
dolomitization of the Middle-Lower Ordovician limestone (Jin et al.,
2006; Zhu et al., 2010; Dong et al., 2013). Therefore, the hydrothermal
fluids appear to suggest a minor contribution to the formation of
Middle-Lower Ordovician dolomite.
5.5.2. Mg2+-rich fluid flow mechanism
For the dolomitization of the Middle-Lower Ordovician strata, large
volumes of Mg2+-rich fluids were released from the underlying
Cambrian strata due to physical compaction and pressure dissolution at
a depth of approximately 500–2000 m. These high-temperature fluids
were partially discharged laterally in the Cambrian strata, while the
other portion migrated upward through channels (e.g., deep faults)
under external forces (the heat source is discussed below). This process
led to large-scale dolomitization because of the relatively high temper­
ature of the fluids, which help overcome the kinetic barrier for dolo­
mitization (Warren, 2000).
In the interior of the Ordovician strata, fracture and crack systems
could act as preferential migration pathways for the upward migration
of fluids (Cai et al., 2001; Corrêa et al., 2022). This is suggested by the
dolomite fillings in many fractures in the Middle-Lower Ordovician
strata (Fig. 6A and B; Yu et al., 2022). Li et al. (2016) documented that
the positions of craters in the study area were jointly controlled by the
intersection of NNE-trending faults and NW- trending faults formed in
the Caledonian- Hercynian tectonic cycle. Accordingly, extensional
segments of these NNE-trending strike-slip faults and the NW oriented -
echelon normal faults in the study area likely act as effective conduits for
the upward transport of deep-seated high-temperature fluids (Fig. 2C).
In Fig. 9, Well YB7, YB5, YB1-2 and GL1 near the Paleozoic strike-slip
fault (Fig. 2C) develop thick layers of dolomite body, while Z13 and
SN5 far from the fault system lack layered dolomite. In addition, the
dilatant microfractures that formed around fault tips during the initial
stages of strike-slip fault propagation (Baqués et al., 2010), as well as
those induced by increasing displacements of sheared joints, may have
been suitable conduits for further transmission of deep-seated hot fluids
to the porous and permeable Ordovician layer (Deng et al., 2019).
The Middle-Lower Ordovician strata were mainly deposited as
granular limestones with high original porosity and permeability (Zhang
and Luo, 2010). At a burial depth of 500–1000 m, physical compaction,
and cementation have not completely let the pores lost, so the porous
and permeable layer can still be an important percolation channel for
diagenetic fluid (Croize et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2020). Moreover, the
Lower-Middle Ordovician strata are directly adjacent to the Upper
Cambrian dolomite, which is favorable for the entrance of fluids from
the underlying strata to the target strata.
The bedding plane can also serve as a marker for lateral fluid
migration, and this evidence is clearly visible in the outcrop (Dong et al.,
2017; Lu et al., 2023). A dolomitized ‘tongue’ was observed as red and
purple-red ferroan dolomite and grey non-ferroan dolomite along the
bedding planes (Fig. 13). This indicates that the Fe-containing Mg-rich
fluids migrated laterally along the bedding planes and extended into the
limestone interiors (Chen et al., 1997; Koeshidayatullah et al., 2020). In
addition, the stylolites played a role in the pathways for the lateral
migration of the Mg-rich fluids, which is indicated by dolomites
16
Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
developed along the stylolites (Fig. 4A–E).
5.5.3. Heat sources for thermal convection dolomitization
Thermal convection is strongly temperature dependent (Kaufman,
1994; Whitaker and Xiao, 2010; Saller and Dickson, 2011; Dong et al.,
2020). The large-scale upward migration of Mg2+-rich fluids from the
Cambrian dolomite and the widespread dolomitization, i.e., several
hundred meters to more than one thousand meters vertically, could not
be achieved by free geothermal convection in a normal geothermal
gradient (Jones and Xiao, 2006).
Magmatic and volcanic activity could significantly alter the
geothermal flow and paleo-temperature. The Tarim Basin experienced
four magmatic and volcanic episodes during the period of Ediacaran-
Cambrian, the Early Ordovician, the Late Carboniferous-Early
Permian, and the Cretaceous (Chen et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2010; Yu
et al., 2011; Dong et al., 2013; Li et al., 2016). The geothermal flow
increased significantly due to magmatic activity pre- and during each
volcanic episode, which simultaneously increased the geothermal
gradient (Fig. 14). In other words, the deep strata were “heated” by each
stage of magmatic activity.
Extensive magmatic and volcanic activity occurred during and
immediately after the Early-Middle Ordovician deposition (Yu et al.,
2011; Tang et al., 2012; Dong et al., 2013; Li et al., 2016; Qiu et al.,
2019). The heat from a high-temperature magma chamber and the
related volcanic eruption altered the geothermal gradient. More
importantly, the heat provided the driving force needed for the upward
flowing of the Mg-rich Cambrian fluids along the highly permeable
Caledonian fractures. These heated fluids traverse through fluid path­
ways such as faults and bedding planes, infiltrating the porous and
permeable layers composed of Ordovician granular rocks. Afterwards,
the dolomitizing fluids thermal convected between the relatively cold
surrounding permeable limestones and the heated fractures (Dong et al.,
2020), and yielded a large volume of water-rock reaction. Moreover, this
upward migration of Mg-rich fluid with high temperatures helped
overcome the kinetic barriers of dolomite formation (Warren, 2000) and
formed the main body of Ordovician dolomites. Throughout multiple
episodes of volcanic activity during the Ordovician to Permian, this
cyclical process persists, fostering the formation of extensive dolomite
bodies.
During the Later Carboniferous and Early Permian, a large igneous
province (LIP) formed in the Tarim Basin (Chen et al., 1997; Zhang et al.,
2010; Yu et al., 2011). Permian basalt covers an area of over 150,000
km2 in the basin, which indicates a large magma chamber at deep. This
intense tectonic and associated magmatic activity is believed to have
caused marbleization, silication, tectonically controlled hydrothermal
alteration (dolomite recrystallization and dolomite precipitation) (Zhou
et al., 2009; Dong et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2016), and abnormal matu­
ration of the Ordovician oil (Pu et al., 2013). However, these diagenetic
events postdate the dolomitization.
5.5.4. Thermal convection dolomitization model
A new thermal convection dolomitization model for the Lower-
Middle Ordovician strata of the Tarim Basin is proposed based on the
evidences discussed above (Fig. 15). First, the penecontemporaneous
Middle-Upper Cambrian dolomite was formed and contained large
amounts of residual seawater, which the dolomite can be easily com­
pacted. During the sedimentary period of the Lower Ordovician Pen­
glaiba Fm., the underlying Cambrian dolomite was physically and
chemically compacted, resulting in the release of massive Mg2+. The
newly formed Mg2+-rich fluids were driven by the geothermal heat
provided by a deep magma chamber, moving upward through the
Caledonian- Hercynian active faults, and the permeable strata to the
Lower Ordovician strata. The Mg-rich fluids could easily dolomitize the
Ordovician limestones due to their high-temperature nature and trans­
port mechanism through thermal convection. However, the limestones
of the Penglaiba Fm. remained un-dolomitized locally, which was
H. Zheng et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740

Fig. 14. The four stages of thermal evolution (Ediacaran–Cambrian: 673.1 ± 55.4–774 ± 0.18 Ma; Early Ordovician: 460.2 ± 2.2–484 ± 2.2 Ma; Late Carbon­
iferous–Early Permian: 264.3 ± 1.3–282.3 ± 1.4 Ma; and Cretaceous: 100.9 ± 3.4 Ma; Chen et al., 1997; Li et al., 2016) and their relationship to the thermal flow
values (Qiu et al., 2002) and the palaeotemperatures (Li et al., 2005; Lu et al., 2017) of the Tarim basin. Note an episode of regional tectonic uplift occurred in the
Devonian to Early Carboniferous and caused a significant increase in the thermal flow values and geothermal gradient. The pink shadows are magmatic events.

Fig. 15. Thermal convection dolomitization model of the Lower–Middle Ordovician, Tarim Basin. Stage–I: The Middle–Upper Cambrian semi–contemporaneous
dolomite precipitation; Stage–II: During deposition of the Lower Ordovician Penglaiba Fm., the underlying Cambrian dolomites were compacted. The released
Mg2+–rich fluids moved upward through the faults, fractures, and permeable strata driven by geothermal heat from a deep magma chamber. Controlled by fluid
conduits, the Penglaiba Fm. remained locally un–dolomitized. Stage–III: As dolomitization continued, the Mg2+ content decreased. The late–stage thermal convection
dolomitization weakened until the formation fluid was under–saturated in dolomite.

largely controlled by the location of the fluid conduits and the perme­
ability of the limestones (Koeshidayatullah et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2020).
Thermal convective dolomitization may have lasted for a long time
during the shallow to medium burial stage. Due to the differentiation of
diagenetic fluids and precursor structures during this process, the
metasomatic dolomite formed has differentiated crystal grain structures
and different degrees of dolomitization (Koeshidayatullah et al., 2021;
Lu et al., 2023, Figs. 3–5). Finally, a minor amount of dolomites formed
because the Mg2+ contents decreased with continuing dolomitization.
The late-stage thermal convection dolomitization became weakened

17
H. Zheng et al.
until the formation fluids were under-saturated with dolomite. Howev­
er, magmatic activity and the associated thermal convection continued.
As a result, late-stage calcite cements were formed by the Ca-rich
diagenetic fluids (Dong et al., 2013, 2017; Guo et al., 2016; Du et al.,
2018).
This model explains how the widespread dolomites developed in the
Lower-Middle Ordovician strata of the Tarim Basin. In addition, our
study revised the thermal convection model that highlights the contri­
bution of Mg-rich fluids formed by the compaction of the underlying
strata, which may be driven by a heat source related to magmatic and
volcanic episodes (Machel, 2004). This model is of general significance
for studying dolomitization in areas where abnormal geothermal ac­
tivities exist.
5.6. Effects of dolomitization on the reservoir
Dolomitization plays a pivotal role in the preservation of early pores.
In the study area, the precursors of Ordovician dolomites are grain shoal
facies, characterized by abundant primary intergranular pores (Liu
et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2015; Gao and Fan, 2015).
Afterwards, these pores are inherited and preserved due to the dolo­
mitization of precursor limestones. This is because the high permeability
of precursor limestones can be served as conduits for the flow of dolo­
mitizing fluids and subsequent water-rock reaction (i.e., dolomitiza­
tion). On the other hand, dolomites tend to be more resistant to
compaction compared to the particle-supported limestones, which en­
sures the preservation of previous storage spaces (Moore and Wade,
2013).
The intensification of thermal convection dolomitization and the
associated increase in dolomite crystallization degrees contribute to the
Fig. 16. The effect of dolomitization on pore throat ratio and pore tortuosity (modified from Chen et al., 2024). The pore-throat ratio is defined as the ratio of pore
diameter to throat diameter, while tortuosity is the ratio of the average effective flow path length to the straight-line length along the fluid flow direction.
18
Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106740
adjustment of the pore structure of the original porous reservoir. The
changes of the crystallization of dolomite can result in the alterations in
the crystal size and morphology of carbonate minerals (Cai et al., 2019).
Accordingly, this process could also reshape the pore structures between
mineral crystals. The predominant transformation from intergranular to
intercrystalline pores leads to a flatter pore space and reduced tortuos­
ity, which promotes the permeability (Ahmadi et al., 2011). Simulta­
neously, the dolomitization process can also generate relatively
homogenous size of dolomite crystals replacing the original heteroge­
neity limestone particles, thereby decreasing the pore-throat ratio (Cai
et al., 2019). Therefore, the decreases in pore tortuosity and pore-throat
ratio induced by thermal convection dolomitization significantly facili­
tated the reservoir permeability (Fig. 16).
In conclusion, the prediction of the Lower to Middle Ordovician
thermal convection dolomite reservoirs in the Tarim Basin should focus
on the following aspects: (1) Regions with greater thickness of under­
lying dolomite may provide more magnesium sources, enhancing the
scale of dolomite body; (2) Locations near basement fault systems,
especially strike-slip and extensional faults (Davies and Smith, 2006; Xu
et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2023), are more likely to develop dolomite
reservoirs (Figs. 2C and 7); (3) Areas where primary pores preserved are
mainly granular shoals developed on paleo-highlands.
6. Conclusions
Based on petrological evidence, geochemical data, and Calculation of
Mg2+ flux, we investigated the widespread Middle-Lower Ordovician
dolomites of the Tarim Basin. The dolomites are present as 1) individual
dolomite crystals; 2) Pds; 3) layered-massive dolomite, and 4) cement
dolomites in pores and fractures. The dolomite content generally
H. Zheng et al.
decreases with decreasing burial depth. Most of the dolomites exhibit
evidence of being dolomitized by burial formation waters and being
partially influenced by hydrothermal fluids. The Mg-rich dolomitizing
fluids are believed to be largely derived from the underlying Middle-
Upper Cambrian dolomite.
A new thermal convection dolomitization model was proposed. The
Mg2+-rich formation fluids were first extracted from the underlying
Cambrian dolomite by physical and chemical compaction. Then, the
dolomitizing fluids were driven by heat that originated from a high-
temperature magma chamber during the Early Ordovician and moved
upward through faults and fractures and/or permeable strata into the
Ordovician strata. Finally, the overlying Ordovician limestones were
easily, gradually dolomitized from bottom to top because of the thermal
convection circulation and high temperature of massive dolomitizing
fluids.
This revised thermal convection dolomitization model explains how
these widespread dolomites developed in the Lower-Middle Ordovician
strata of the Tarim Basin. As a potentially untraditional dolomite for­
mation model, thermal convection dolomitization may be of general
significance to areas affected by abnormal geothermal activities. In
addition, this model provides new insight into the formation of dolo­
mites conducive to hydrocarbon accumulation.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Haofu Zheng: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation,
Data curation. Feifan Lu: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
draft, Conceptualization. Yixin Dong: Formal analysis. Bo Liu: Project
administration, Funding acquisition. Xuefeng Zhang: Writing – original
draft, Visualization. Kaibo Shi: Project administration, Funding acqui­
sition. Jiajun He: Visualization. Hairuo Qing: Validation, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
Financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
China, China (No. U19B6003), Natural Science Foundation of Sichuan
Province, China (2023NSFSC0804), Chongqing Natural Science Foun­
dation, China (CSTB2023NSCQ-MSX1022) and Chongqing Municipal
Education Commission Science and Technology Research Project, China
(KJQN202100740). We are appreciative for the thorough and valuable
comments of Editor Dr. Marco Brandano and two anonymous reviewers,
which greatly improved our manuscript. We thank Dr. Ruixin Guo of
Sichuan University for his help with data processing. We are grateful to
Dr. Qiqi Wang of the University of Texas at Austin, Dr. Weimin Jiang of
China National Petroleum Corporation and Dr. Jinxin Yu of CNOOC for
their review and assistance with the manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2024.106740.
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