Essentials of Geology 13th Edition

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Chapter 7
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks opens with the formation of sedimentary rocks by describing the detrital and
chemical sediments and how these are turned into rock by diagenesis. This is followed by a
discussion of the classification scheme for the major sedimentary rock types. Then, a discussion of
sedimentary rock types and structures reveals the importance of these rocks in determining past
environments on Earth. Following a presentation of how building materials and industrial minerals
that we rely upon are related to sedimentary rocks, the chapter concludes with discussion of the
carbon cycle and the importance of sedimentary rocks and processes in this cycle.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. An Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks
a. Importance
b. Origins
2. Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
a. Shale
i. How Does Shale Form?
ii. Thin Layers
iii. Shale, Mudstone, or Siltstone?
iv. Gentle Slopes
b. Sandstone
i. Sorting
ii. Particle Shape
iii. Transport Affects Mineral Composition
iv. Varieties of Sandstone
c. Conglomerate and Breccia
3. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
a. Limestone
i. Carbonate Reefs
ii. Coquina and Chalk
iii. Inorganic Limestones
b. Dolostone
c. Chert
d. Evaporites
4. Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock
5. Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis & Lithification
a. Diagenesis
b. Lithification
i. Compaction
ii. Cementation

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 6. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
a. Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
b. Chemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks
7. Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments
a. Importance of Sedimentary Environments
b. Sedimentary Facies
c. Sedimentary Structures
8. Resources from Sedimentary Rocks
a. Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
i. Building Materials
ii. Industrial Minerals
b. Energy Resources
i. Coal
ii. Oil and Natural Gas
iii. Hydraulic Fracturing
9. The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks

FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
7.1 Explain the importance of sedimentary rocks and summarize the part of the rock cycle that
pertains to sediments and sedimentary rocks. List the three categories of sedimentary rocks.

7.2 Describe the primary basis for distinguishing among detrital rocks and discuss how the origin and
history of such rocks might be determined.

7.3 Explain the processes involved in the formation of chemical sedimentary rocks and list several
examples.

7.4 Outline the successive stages in the formation of coal.

7.5 Describe the processes that convert sediment into sedimentary rock and other changes
associated with burial.

7.6 Summarize the criteria used to classify sedimentary rocks.

7.7 Distinguish among three broad categories of sedimentary environments and provide an example
of each. List several sedimentary structures and explain why these features are useful to
geologists.

7.8 Distinguish between the two broad groups of nonmetallic mineral resources. Discuss the three
important fossil fuels associated with sedimentary rocks.

7.9 Relate weathering processes and sedimentary rocks to the carbon cycle.

72 Lutgens EOG13e IRM Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

TEACHING STRATEGIES
“Muddiest Points” – “Points for Clarification”
 Students deal better with sedimentary rock compositions, textures, and classification if they are
introduced to all of the diverse terminology after having seen hand samples. Before diving into all of
the terms, students should have samples to examine and discuss in groups or as a class. Be prepared
with plenty of hand samples to pass around the classroom. If possible, have igneous rock sample
that may have been used during Chapter 4 discussions so students can observe the differences.

Teaching Tips
7.1 Since 75 percent of the land is covered by sediments or sedimentary rocks, most students can
relate well because they can have a frame of reference for what has been seen, either in person
or in the media. However, for all sections of this chapter make use of as many opportunities as
possible to improve the students’ visual inventory and enhance the understanding of such
features even if those features are not visible in their geographical frame of experiences—see
section on “Web Resources.”

7.2 Utilize as many hands-on opportunities as possible to introduce sedimentary textures and
& compositions. Have enough hand samples for each student, or small groups of students, to
7.3 handle and make observations about general descriptive properties that reflect the composition
prior to any lecture about the terms used for naming and classification. Prior to class discussion
on rock compositions, have students complete some preparatory work such as SmartFigure 7.2.
For class discussion on sedimentary rock naming and classification, have students complete some
preparatory work such as SmartFigure 7.7 and SmartFigure 7.17.

MasteringGeology and LearningCatalytics resources/ideas/activities

MasteringGeology activities that utilize video, interactive animations, and gigapans (high-resolution
panoramic images) are effective in giving students preparatory opportunities that are directly
correlated with the chapter content. Have students complete MasteringGeology activities in
advance of class time to help them learn the material.
 All of the end-of-section Concept Check type items from the MasteringGeology item library are
excellent preparatory questions. In addition, especially focus on the following additional items
for this chapter:
Section Item Type Title
7.1 Coaching Activities Give It Some Thought: Sedimentary Processes
Coaching Activities SmartFigure: Depositional Environments
7.2 Coaching Activities SmartFigure: Sorting and Rounding
7.3 Coaching Activities SmartFigure: Bonneville Salt Flats
7.4 Coaching Activities SmartFigure: Coal
7.7 Coaching Activities Gigapan Activity: Identification and Characterization of
Sedimentary Rocks
7.7 Coaching Activities Gigapan Activity: Sedimentary Structures and the Origin of
Graded Bedding
Coaching Activities Mobile Field Trip Video Quiz—The Sedimentary Rocks of
Capitol Reef National Park
7.8 Coaching Activities SmartFigure: Oil Traps

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LearningCatalytics activities can provide an assessment of students’ understanding in real-time to allow
opportunities for review or discussion (either in small groups or the entire class).
 Using images similar to those in the text, assess students’ identification of sedimentary
structures. In the LearningCatalytics activity shown below, students match the image to the
correct sedimentary structure name (ripples, mud cracks, graded beds, and cross-bedding) and
enter the answer on their mobile device, tablet, or laptop and the real-time results are shown in
the matrix in the upper right—more green in the diagonal relates to more students with 100%
correct matching answers. In this result, the student responses for image C and D are less green
indicating less understanding, possibly a confusion between graded bedding and cross-bedding.
This provides an indication that more discussion may be needed to clear up confusion between
the two sedimentary structures.

TEACHER RESOURCES
Web Resources:
 Keys to the Identification of Sedimentary Rocks:
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/Sedalphab.html
 Sedimentary Environments Activity:
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/intro/activities/23573.html
 Overview and extensive details regarding sedimentary rocks and their formation. Excellent
identification keys and classification tables:
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/index.html
 Sedimentary Rocks Tutorial: http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/sedimentary-rocks#
 Sedimentary Structures and Bedforms From UC Davis:
http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/sumner/gel109/SedStructures/SedPhotos.html
 SEPM Sedimentary Image Gallery: http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?&pageid=85&4

74 Lutgens EOG13e IRM Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

  U. S. Geological Survey Bedforms and Cross-Bedding in Animation:
http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/seds/bedforms/index.html
 Sedimentary Rock Gallery From Univ. WI, Milwaukee:
http://www4.uwm.edu/course/geosci-100/Mineral_Rocks/sedimentary.html

CONCEPT CHECKS
7.1 The Importance of Sedimentary Rocks
1. The bulk of Earth’s crust is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks; therefore, only
about 5 to 10 percent of the outer 10 miles of crust consists of sedimentary rocks. However,
at Earth’s surface, sediments and sedimentary rocks make up 75 percent of the rocks we see
on the continents.
2. Sedimentary rocks are important because they record many characteristics of the surface
environment when they formed and allow us to understand and reconstruct Earth’s history
through the study of layers and formations that represent past conditions. Fossils aid in this
study, allowing us to understand the environmental history of an area as well as the life
present in the geologic past and how it has changed through geologic time. Sediments and
sedimentary rocks are also important reserves for many resources used by humans,
including coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium for energy production and many useful
construction materials such as metals, aggregates, and cement ingredients as well as
phosphates for fertilizers. Sediments and sedimentary rocks also contain important
groundwater resources.
3. An exposure of granite in the mountains would be mechanically weathered from frost
wedging and sheeting (producing solid particles of quartz and perhaps some feldspar), and
chemically weathered through hydrolysis (producing clay minerals and ions in solution). This
material would move downslope through running water, gravity, and perhaps glacial ice or
wind, and be deposited in some other location. Burial, compaction, and diagenesis would
create detrital sedimentary rocks from the solid particles, and chemical sedimentary rocks
from the dissolved ions.
4. Detrital sedimentary rocks are formed from solid sediments derived from both chemical and
mechanical weathering (mud, sand, and gravel, for example). Chemical sedimentary rocks
are formed from ions in solution that precipitate by inorganic or biological processes (silica
and calcite, for example). Organic sedimentary rocks form from the diagenesis (compaction
and lithification) of the carbon-rich remains of organisms.

7.2 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

1. Quartz and clay are the most abundant minerals found in detrital sedimentary rocks. Quartz
is predominantly found in the sandstones and to a lesser degree in siltstones. Clay minerals
are the main component of the shales and mudstones.
2. The primary basis for distinguishing among detrital rocks is the size of the constituent
particles. Shales and mudstones/siltstones are composed of silt- and clay-sized grains, 1/256
to 1/16 millimeter in size. Sandstones are composed of sand-sized grains, 1/16 to 2 millimeter
in size. Conglomerates and breccias are composed of gravel-sized grains, >2 millimeter in size.

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 3. Detrital sediments become sorted based on their transport with different transport agents
sorting sediments differently. Wind-blown sand is generally very well sorted because wind
can only transport the smallest sizes for any distance. Sediment transported by waves is
better sorted than that carried by streams. Glaciers and turbulent streams generally deposit
poorly sorted sediments. Sorting can also indicate length of transport with large grain sizes
being deposited near the source of the rock fragments, and fine grain sizes having more
time to be transported far from the source.
4. Conglomerate and breccia are both sedimentary rocks composed of particles of gravel size,
generally within a mud or sand matrix and sometimes cemented with calcite or silica
cement. Conglomerates are characterized by rounded grains, indicating significant transport
by water, while breccia is characterized by sharp, angular grains, indicating little or no
transport by water.

7.3 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

1. Chemical sedimentary rocks that are biochemical form when water-dwelling plants and
animals extract dissolved ions from the water to build shells or other skeletal parts. When
the organisms die, their mineral-based skeletal material collect on the floor of a lake or an
ocean. An example of a biochemical sedimentary rock is chalk, which is created from the
calcite shells of tiny organisms, mostly plankton. Inorganic chemical sedimentary rocks form
when chemical activity or evaporation causes a water body to precipitate minerals.
Evaporites, sediments formed when seawater evaporates and precipitates minerals, are an
important example of inorganic chemical sediment formation.
2. Limestone is a chemical sedimentary rock composed essentially of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) either by inorganic means or as the result of biochemical processes. Dolostone is
closely related to limestone but composed primarily of the mineral dolomite—CaMg(CO3)2.
Chert is a general name for a number of rocks made from microcrystalline quartz, including
jasper, flint, petrified wood, and agate.
3. Given warm, tropical to subtropical latitudes and a shallow arm of a sea that only has
limited connection to the open ocean, seawater continually moves into the bay to replace
the water lost by evaporation. Eventually the water of the bay becomes saturated with
respect to certain chemicals and mineral precipitation begins. The minerals that will
commonly precipitate in the largest volume include halite and gypsum. On a small scale,
examples can be seen in places such as Death Valley, California.

7.4 Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock

1. The raw material for coal is the accumulation of large quantities of plant remains. It must
accumulate under oxygen-poor conditions to prevent the rapid decomposition of the
material prior to burial; these conditions (abundant plant material and oxygen-poor water)
are best accommodated in a swamp environment.
2. Dead plant matter accumulates in an oxygen-poor environment, such as a swamp, where it
is attacked by bacteria and partially decomposes, liberating oxygen and hydrogen and
concentrating carbon. This partial decomposition forms peat, a soft brown material that
represents partially altered plant material. As the peat is buried under more sediment, it will
slowly change to lignite, a soft, brown coal. Continued burial increases the temperature of

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 the material, and brings about chemical reactions that produce water and organic acids.
Continued burial presses out this water and volatiles, and the amount of fixed carbon
increases. The coal becomes increasingly compact with burial, and may eventually
transform into the hard, black rock bituminous coal. If continued burial and deformation
add more heat and pressure to the coal, it may become anthracite, metamorphosed coal.

7.5 Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rocks: Diagenesis and Lithification

1. Diagenesis is all the chemical, physical, and biological changes that take place after
sediments are deposited, and during and after lithification, but prior to metamorphism.
2. Coarser sediments are less compressible than clay-based sediments. Therefore, compaction
is most important as a lithification process in fine-grained sediments.
3. The three most common cementing agents are calcite, silica, and iron oxides. Calcite can be
identified by its reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid, silica is hard cement and does not react
with acid, and iron oxide cements can be identified by yellow, red, and orange colors in the
sedimentary rock.

7.6 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Chemical sedimentary rocks are named mostly based on mineral composition and what
form the particles take (for example, oolites, fossil fragments, and microscopic crystals).
Detrital rocks are named mostly based on the particle size.
2. Clastic texture describes those rocks that consist of broken fragments and particles that are
cemented together. Nonclastic textures consist of interlocking crystals of minerals,
sometimes referred to as a crystalline texture. All detrital rocks are clastic in texture.

7.7 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments

1. Continental, marine, and transitional (shoreline) are the three broad categories of
sedimentary environments. Examples of each include:
a. Continental: streams and lakes
b. Marine: coral reefs
c. Transitional: beaches and tidal flats
2. A single rock layer may exhibit different types of sedimentary rocks as a representation of
successive changes in environmental conditions in a particular place over time. The different
parts of such a layer are called facies. Facies are sets of sediments that deposit adjacent to
each other at the same time but different characteristics that reflect the condition in a
particular environment.
3. The most characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks is the layering of the sediments. These
layers are called “strata” or “beds.”
4. Cross bedding is a layer of sediment, within a bed, inclined to the horizontal, resulting from
movement of sediment in currents of wind or water. Graded bedding is a layer of sediment
that grade from coarse-grained at the bottom of the layer to fine-grained at the top. Graded
bedding forms from rapid deposition of mixed-size sediment; largest particles drop out first
upon rapid energy loss, and then successively finer grains settle out later.

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 5. Mud cracks and ripple marks both form in specific environmental conditions, and thus can
be used to reconstruct past environments. Mud cracks form in sediment that is alternatively
wet and dry and suggest environments such as tidal flats, shallow lakes, and desert basins.
Ripple marks are small waves of sand formed by the action of moving water or air, and their
symmetry can suggest whether the air or water was moving one direction or back and forth.
Certain ripple-mark structures can be used to determine the direction of movement of
ancient currents.

7.8 Resources from Sedimentary Rocks

1. The two common groups of nonmetallic mineral resources are building materials and
industrial/agricultural minerals. Examples of materials that belong to these two groups are:
a. Building materials: limestone/calcite, gypsum, clay, and sand and gravel
b. Industrial/agricultural minerals: limestone/calcite, quartz, fluorite, apatite, and talc
2. Petroleum, natural gas, and coal are called fossil fuels because when we combust them, we
are using energy from the Sun that was stored by plants millions of years ago. All three take
millions of years to form and are related to the breakdown of organic matter of ancient life
(fossils). The percentage of U.S. energy consumption that each represents is:
a. Petroleum: 36.2%
b. Natural gas: 25.5%
c. Coal: 20.4%
3. Disadvantages of coal use are that surface mining extensively scars the landscape,
underground mining has significant risks to health and life, and coal combustion releases
emissions that can produce acid rain and may contribute to global warming.
4. A geologic environment that allows for economically significant amounts of oil and/or gas to
accumulate is called an “oil trap.” Examples of traps that could be sketched are shown in
Figure 7.32. All oil traps have a porous, permeable reservoir rock and an impermeable cap
rock.
5. Hydraulic fracturing is used where significant reserves of natural gas exist in low
permeability rocks. This process injects fluids at high pressures into the subsurface, breaking
the shale rock, opening up cracks where the natural gas can flow into wells and be brought
to the surface.

7.9 The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks

1. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3),
which dissociates and soluble carbonate, (CO3)-2, is formed. This soluble carbonate is carried
to the ocean by streams and groundwater, and organisms living in the ocean convert it to
solid calcium carbonate shells. When these organisms die, their shells settle on the seafloor
and eventually form biochemical sedimentary rock. This effectively takes carbon (as carbon
dioxide) out of the atmosphere, and stores it as rock (biochemical limestone) in the
geosphere.
2. Carbon may move from the geosphere to the atmosphere when chemical weathering of
exposed limestone releases CO2. Additionally, whenever there is combustion at the surface,
whether natural or caused by humans, CO2 is released to the atmosphere.

78 Lutgens EOG13e IRM Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

CONCEPTS IN REVIEW
7.1 Solar energy is primarily responsible for the formation of sediment and sedimentary rock. This is
due to solar energy driving the surface processes of weathering that is heavily influenced by
climate.

7.2 Particle C has traveled the farthest from its source. This conclusion is evidenced by the spherical
nature of the particle, farther travel will round the particle more.

7.3 The rock salt is more likely an inorganic origin.

7.4 The ultimate source of energy in the coal is solar energy.

7.6 A limestone made of shell fragments is a chemical/biochemical sedimentary rock, and its texture
would be clastic.

7.7 The broad category of sedimentary environment represented is the transitional category.

7.8 It is not likely that any dinosaur carbon ends up in oil. Most all crude oil is formed from organic
remains of marine plankton and dinosaurs lived on land.

GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT

1. As the igneous rock is exposed to the surface environment, most of the silicate minerals in it will
undergo chemical weathering to produce clay and ions in solution, both of which will enter the
drainages and move downstream. If the bedrock contains quartz, it will be released, becoming
sand in the drainages, and move downstream as well.
If the material is deposited close to the bedrock source within a semi-arid environment, we
would expect to find arkosic sandstone with fragments of feldspar that were not completely
hydrolyzed to clay and quartz sand that is angular and poorly sorted. If the material were
deposited at some distance, we would find cleaner sandstone with more rounded and well-
sorted quartz sand grains. The bedding planes of the sandstone might contain structures such as
ripple marks that tell us about the current type and direction, and the sandstone may contain
cross bedding as well, which reveals information about the sedimentary environment.
2. In the chapter on minerals, the term “clay” described a silicate mineral having a sheet structure.
In Figure 7.3, the term is used to indicate the detrital particle size category with particles less
than 1/256 millimeter in size. The two different usages of the term are related in that clay
minerals are usually clay sized.
3. The angular grains indicate the detrital particles did not travel significantly far from the source
rock. The igneous source was likely granite because of the light-colored feldspars and quartz
that are present. The sediment in the rock did not undergo much chemical weathering because
the feldspar grains are intact rather than being transformed to clay.
4. A limestone at the top of a mountain indicates the area was once covered by water, either
freshwater or seawater, where the limestone was precipitated inorganically or due to
biochemical processes. Since that time, mountain building through some type of tectonic
activity lifted the sedimentary rock higher above the land surface.

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 5. It is not necessary to indicate the texture of detrital sedimentary rocks because all detrital rocks
have a clastic texture.
6. A sedimentary rock rich in quartz will effervesce with acid if its cementing agent is calcite.
Calcite effervesces in dilute acid. This rock is most likely quartz sandstone, in which the sand
grains are cemented with calcite.
7. These layers are graded beds that form when sediment-laden water quickly loses energy, often
as currents of water enter a large quiet basin. When the water loses velocity, large grains settle
out first, followed by smaller and smaller grains. This is likely part of a deep sea fan, where
sediment-laden turbidity currents slowed and deposited sediment as they entered deep ocean
basins.
8. The wavelike ridges on the surface are ripple marks. Because these are asymmetrical, we can
determine that a current moving in one direction created them. Current ripple marks have a
steeper side in the down-current direction; thus, based on the shadow on the steep side of the
marks, the current that produced these ripples was moving from the left to the right in the
photo.
9. The mineral composition of the crystals will reveal whether a rock is igneous or sedimentary.
For the rock to be sedimentary, the intergrown crystals need to be halite, calcite, gypsum, or
fine-grained quartz, which would not be expected in igneous rocks. If the composition reveals
the rock to be sedimentary, we would classify the texture as nonclastic (crystalline).
10. In this chapter, the term mineral has a much broader meaning than the strict definition of a
geologic mineral from earlier chapters. Mineral resources refer to any earth material not used
as a fuel. Mineral resources can include limestone, sands, and gravels, all of which are not true
minerals by the geologic definition.
11. Innumerable answers are possible, but one scenario might be that the carbon atom is erupted
from a volcano as a carbon dioxide molecule. It then combines with water in the atmosphere to
form carbonic acid in the water and rains down and dissolves limestone creating a cave. The
water flows out to a river which ends in a swamp where plants take up the carbon and stores it
in the plant’s tissues until the plant is eaten by a dinosaur which dies and is buried in the swamp
to contribute the carbon to a coal seam. The coal is dug up and burned in a coal-fired power
plant where the carbon is emitted into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide that is absorbed by
the ocean and then taken in by cyanobacteria and secreted as calcite in a coral reef.

80 Lutgens EOG13e IRM Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

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"He is not a man after my own heart, and I would rather be excused
from serving under him. I don't think we shall agree."
"You may not agree, but he will," laughed the captain, who did not
appear to be half so amiable as before I had signed the shipping
papers.
"I don't think you know him. In my opinion, the police commissioners
of St. Louis would like to see him very much indeed," I answered.
This was a very imprudent remark on my part, though it was only the
simple truth. Ben Waterford's face turned red, and he leaped into the
boat where I was.
"We have carried this farce just far enough," said he, angrily. "I'm not
going to fool all day with any one. Now get into that boat. Tumble his
trunk in."
The men with me obeyed the order, and my valuable trunk was
placed in the stern sheets of the shipping master's boat. I could not
hope successfully to resist the captain and mate of the Michigan, and
calmer reflection than I had at first given the subject cooled my
desperate ardor. But I still hoped that some lucky event would save
me from my fate.
"Tumble into the boat, Phil," repeated the mate.
"I want you to tell the police of New York, as soon as possible," I
continued, turning to my boatman, "that the mate of the Michigan is
—"
I had not time to say any more before Ben Waterford seized me by
the throat, and pitched me into the other boat.
 Phil made Prisoner by Waterford.

"Is a forger," I shouted.

"Shove off," said Captain Farraday; and the two boats separated.
"I'll tell them," replied the boatman, who was evidently vexed at the
loss of the promised sovereign, though he had done his best to earn
it.
"I want you to come alongside the bark, and carry the papers to the
custom-house," said Captain Farraday. "I will give you five dollars if
you will."
"I'll give you five more," added Ben Waterford.
I saw that those who were likely to be my friends were to be bought
off. Ten dollars would effectually silence them, and I had nothing more
to hope for, though it occurred to me that I might communicate with
the pilot, whose canoe had come alongside just as I left the bark. I
had exhausted my own resources, and I prayed to God for help. I was
driven up the accommodation ladder, and reached the deck, utterly
defeated and cast down. The men hoisted up my trunk, but I felt as
though that and myself might as well be at the bottom of the bay. I
had neglected, both in the letter and the spirit, the advice of my
father, and I was in a fair way to suffer severely for it. If Ben Waterford
had not been the mate of the bark, my future would have seemed
more tolerable.
"What shall we do with him?" asked Captain Farraday. "Send him
forward with the rest of the crew?"
"Not yet; he is turbulent, and may make trouble there. We will keep
him aft till we are in blue water. Come with me, Phil," he continued, in
savage tones, which were a foretaste of what I might reasonably
expect from him.
I followed him into the cabin, where he ordered me to wait his further
pleasure. He looked into several state-rooms, and finally entered one
of them, closing the door behind him. I had an opportunity for
reflection; but I had nothing to think of but the misery which the future
had in store for me. I sat down on a stool, and it was the literal stool
of repentance to me. If I could only get on shore once more, I should
be willing to give my word never to go to sea as a sailor again.
Captain Farraday came below while I was there, but he said nothing
to me. He enclosed some papers in an envelope, and soon left me
alone.
He had hardly gone before Ben Waterford came out of the state-
room. He had changed his clothes, and looked more like a sailor than
before. When I first saw him, I recognized him as the "Mr. A.
McGregor" I had seen on board of the steamer. Of course I had no
more doubt that he had robbed me of my money. I concluded that he
had in some manner learned that I had it before he left St. Louis, and
had probably come on board of the boat to obtain it. He had shaved
off his whiskers, and taken other precautions to avoid recognition.
"Go in there, Phil," said he, pointing to the state-room he had just left.
"You and I have berthed together before, and we can do it again."
"I don't care about going on this voyage now, Mr. Waterford."
"Perhaps not; but you have shipped, and you are bound to go now."
"If you will let me off—"
"I have no time to talk now. Go in there. I shall know where to find you
when I want you."
"I was only going to say—"
"In there," said he, savagely; and he made a demonstration towards
me.
I concluded that it would be the safest way for me to obey, and I
entered the state-room. He closed the door behind me, and I heard
the bolt of the lock spring upon me. I was a prisoner, and Ben
Waterford intended that I should remain where I was till the bark was
in blue water. In a short time I heard the voice of the captain, giving
orders on the quarter-deck to get the vessel under way. I had nothing
to do but bewail my sad fate.
The state-room belonged to the chief mate. On a desk in the corner
was a volume lettered "Log-book." On the floor was Ben Waterford's
trunk, and I was almost sure I had seen it on board of the steamer on
the Ohio. I stooped down to look at it, in order to satisfy myself, for I
had nothing else to do. The key was in the key-hole. This was
certainly a great oversight on the part of the mate. He could not have
intended to leave his trunk open while I was a prisoner in his room;
but villains are always making blunders and mistakes.
I am willing to acknowledge that it is not right to retaliate for an injury;
but I at once decided to explore the trunk of Mr. Ben Waterford. I did
not intend to do so from motives of revenge, but simply in the
interests of justice, and with the hope that I might find my lost money.
I had been trying for years to be a Christian young man. I had been in
earnest, and every day I had read the New Testament, and
endeavored to follow its precepts and principles. I honestly believe, if
I could have performed a good service to the new mate, I should not
have hesitated to do it.
I opened the trunk, and lifted up the various articles which it
contained. Among other things, I found several bags of money—gold,
I concluded by the weight of them. I untied the strings of several of
them, and found that they contained English sovereigns and Spanish
doubloons. They were not mine, and I restored them. If I had known
then to what use they were to be applied, I should have felt justified in
throwing them all into the sea. I concluded that Waterford had
exchanged the money he had obtained by forgery in St. Louis for this
gold. I tied up each bag as I found it, and put it back in its place.
While I was thus engaged, I heard the creaking of the rigging, and the
bark had careened over so that I understood she was now going to
sea.
But I had not examined all the bags, and I continued my investigation.
Among them I found a quantity of coin tied up in a white linen
handkerchief. I removed the string, and was pleased to find that the
money consisted of American gold. I had counted my own coin times
enough to know exactly of what it consisted. There were sixty twenty-
dollar pieces and thirty ten-dollar pieces. It did not take me long to
count them, and the number corresponded to my own. I was satisfied
that this money was mine, though of course I could not identify all the
pieces. I should not have been willing to swear to any one of them,
though some had a very familiar look.
I claimed this gold, and being my own judge and jury, my claim was
allowed. It was possible that it was not mine; but the probabilities
were all in my favor. I decided to take possession, though it occurred
to me that I might as well take possession of the vessel, since I was
in the power of my enemy, and he could take it from me at his own
pleasure. I proceeded to tie up the handkerchief as I had found it,
when upon one corner of it I found the initials "P. F." These letters
certainly belonged to me, whether the gold did or not. They had been
worked in the linen by Mrs. Greenough, my excellent St. Louis
landlady. It was the counterpart of the others in my wardrobe; and it
was perfectly evident that Mr. Ben Waterford had stolen the
handkerchief from my trunk when he opened it to take out the gold. I
had not missed the handkerchief, but I identified it to my own
satisfaction. I thought that a less partial judge and jury would have
given me the verdict on this evidence, added to that I had before
obtained.
I put the gold into my coat pocket, hoping that my wits would enable
me to retain it through the vicissitudes which were before me. I had
recovered my money, but I cannot say that I felt much better than
before. It was like the yellow dross upon the desert island; I had no
opportunity to use it; but I felt that I was in better condition to escape
whenever an occasion should be presented. I put everything in the
trunk just as I had found it, except the portion that belonged to me. I
locked it, and then, having unscrewed the bull's eye, I opened it, and
dropped the key overboard.
By this time the bark was pitching in the billows, and I concluded that
we must soon be in "blue water." It grew dark in the state-room; but at
last the door opened, and the mate summoned me to appear on
deck.
 CHAPTER IX.
IN WHICH PHIL FINDS HIMSELF RATED AS AN
ABLE SEAMAN IN THE PORT WATCH.
"We are in blue water, Phil," said Mr. Ben Waterford, as he opened
the door of the state-room. "I didn't know but you might want to take
a last look at the shores of your native land, as you are a little
sentimental, like all young monkeys when they go to sea for the first
time."
"Thank you; it is very kind of you to give me the opportunity to do
so," I replied.
"It may be a long time before you see it again."
"Neither of us may ever see it again."
"That's a good deal more likely to happen to you than to me."
"There's no knowing what may happen to either of us."
"Whatever happens to either of us, I want you to understand, in the
first place, Phil, that I am the mate of this vessel."
"I understand that already, and because I understood it, I wanted to
get out of the vessel."
"You didn't get out of her."
"Unfortunately I did not."
"I didn't mean you should," said the mate, chuckling over the
success of his efforts.
"I'm here, and I'm disposed to make the best of it."
"I have no doubt you will be meek enough now; but you needn't
attempt to play the hypocrite here. Your cant won't help you."
"Cant never helps any one."
"You are growing sensible as you grow older," said he, with a sneer.
"I see you have shipped as an able seaman."
"I was not aware that I had shipped in any particular capacity. I
signed the paper at the captain's request."
"You are a very innocent little lamb. Didn't you write able seaman
against your name?"
"I did not."
"Then somebody else wrote it there for you, because you neglected
to rate yourself."
"My signing the paper was a mere form. I came on board to work my
passage to Palermo; and the captain said he would let me go when
we got there."
"When we get to Palermo he will do so," chuckled the mate. "In the
mean time, as you are written down as an able seaman, we shall
regard you as such, and expect you to do duty as one."
I did not understand him then; but I afterwards learned that sailors,
when they ship, rate themselves as able seamen, ordinary seamen,
or boys, the latter term meaning green hands, whatever their age or
size. If a man claims to be an able seaman, he must do the work of
one; not only be able to hand, reef, and steer, but to perform all the
difficult problems in making and mending rigging. In a word, he must
be proficient in all the arts of seamanship. He receives the highest
rate of wages.
An ordinary seaman is required to hand, reef, and steer; to make the
usual knots, and to understand the ropes and sails so that he can
obey an order from the officers; but he is not expected to be
proficient in all the niceties of making and mending rigging. A boy, or
green hand, is not supposed to know anything except what is taught
him after he comes on board. It is a great nautical sin for a man to
ship above his proper rating. If he signs his name and takes his pay
as an able seaman when he is not competent to perform the work of
one, he is regarded as a cheat. As there are usually but few able
seamen in a ship, the work of one who has thus deceived the officer
has to be done by others, and he is generally punished severely for
the trick. The most unpopular hand before the mast is one who has
shipped above his rate; and all his shipmates feel that they have a
reasonable grudge against him.
The mate had evidently rated me on the ship's papers to suit himself,
intending thereby to draw down upon me the enmity of the crew. I
expected no favors from him, and was prepared to submit to any
indignities and hardships to which I might be subjected, consoling
myself with the belief that I had only three or four weeks of service in
the bark before me.
"I shall do my duty to the best of my ability," I continued. "I did not
expect to find you in the vessel, or I should not have been here."
"I suppose not; but I'm very glad you are here. I may say I wanted
you here, and it is not altogether by chance that you happen to be
here," he replied, shaking his head. "You have come athwart my
hawse once or twice too often, Phil."
"I have never had any malice or ill-will towards you."
"Tell that to the marines! If you had minded your own business, I
should have been a rich man, and the husband of Marian Collingsby
to-day. No matter, my lad; I mean to be both yet."
"I only did what I considered it my duty to do."
"None of your cant! I'm going to call all hands in a few minutes, and I
shall take care that you are in my watch."
"Wherever I am, I shall do the best I know how."
"You will wish you had always done so, and not meddled with my
affairs, before this cruise is up. You are not going to live in the cabin,
and have plum duff for dinner every day."
"I will submit as cheerfully as possible to my lot, whatever it may be."
Ben Waterford appeared to be angry because his threats did not
appall me. I hoped that God would give me strength to do my duty,
and enable me to bear all I might be called upon to endure. My tyrant
seemed to be disposed to torture me before he sacrificed me; but I
was determined not to be tortured by any mere words that he used. I
had already nullified a part of the mischief he had done me, for I had
my gold in my pocket. If I could retain this, my future seemed to be
tolerably secure.
"Do you know how you happen to be on board of this bark, Phil?"
said Waterford, the malice twinkling in his eye.
"The circumstances led me here."
"Not exactly! I led you here."
"Perhaps you did, for it looks now as though an evil spirit had guided
my steps."
"Good, Phil! That was well said. You hit the nail on the head. I won't
tell you yet where we are bound; but I must tell you that I saw you on
board of the ferry-boat when you came to New York, and that
Captain Farraday induced you to ship because I desired it. This will
be good news to you, and I wished you to know it. Before I have
done with you, I am going to teach you to mind your own business."
"You will find me a good scholar at that," I replied.
I asked no questions, as he evidently wished me to do. I had parted
with him when we left the Ohio, but I had no idea where he had been
since that time. His explanation showed me why Captain Farraday
had been so anxious to have me go with him, and I felt that I had
walked into the trap very blindly.
"That's all, Phil. We shall be even soon. Now we will go on deck.
Where's your trunk?"
"On deck, I believe."
I followed him on deck. The bark was under all sail, and driving
rapidly over the blue waves. Far away in the distance I saw some
hills, which the darkness soon shut out from my view. The drunken
crew had certainly improved wonderfully since I had seen them last,
for all were quiet and orderly. I found my trunk, and was ordered to
carry it to the forecastle. A bunk near the door was assigned to me,
and I put my trunk under it.
"How do you like this?" asked the mate.
"Very well," I replied.
"Very well? Is that the way you address your officer? If you ever
speak to me or the second mate without a 'sir,' you will get knocked
down for your impudence. Do you understand that?"
"I do, sir."
"That's better. Now open your trunk; and let's see what you have in
it."
"Open my trunk, sir!" I exclaimed, amazed at this requirement.
"Open it!" he added, sternly. "We look into every man's kit, to see
that he has no liquor concealed there."
I thought this was a reasonable requirement, after this explanation,
and I opened the trunk. The mate tumbled over my things very
rudely. I had tied up the relics of my childhood in little bundles, so
that he did not see their contents, and he only tossed them on the
deck. He picked up the bag which had contained my gold.
"What's this for?" he demanded.
"I had my money in it, sir."
"Where's your money now?"
"I lost it, sir."
"Lost it!"
"It was stolen from me, sir."
"Was it? Well, I hope you may find it again—that's all," chuckled he.
I made no answer; but I could not help foreshadowing the scene
when he examined the contents of his own trunk.
"Put back your duds, and stand by when all hands are called."
He left me, and I hastily restored my property to the trunk, and
locked it. I took up the bag which the mate had examined, and
dropped the handkerchief containing the gold into it. I dared not put
the treasure into my trunk, and I looked about me for some secure
place of deposit for it. An apartment frequented by twenty such men
as composed the crew of the Michigan was not a safe place for
fifteen hundred dollars in gold; but I had no alternative, and I thrust
the bag into a hole under my berth.
"All hands on deck!" shouted the second mate, whose name was
Tom York, though nautical courtesy compelled us to call him Mr.
York.
The men gathered in the waist, and the captain made a speech to
them, which I thought contained buncombe enough for a member of
Congress; but the speaker, whose grog had not been stopped, as
that of the crew had been, was still boozy. The men were then
divided into watches, the mates alternately selecting a hand until all
had been stationed.
"Call your man," said the captain to the chief mate.
"Phil Farringford, able seaman," replied Waterford.
"Your turn, Mr. York," added the captain.
"Ned Bilger."
"Jack Sanderson," continued the chief mate.
"Are you an able seaman, my hearty?" asked Sanderson, the man
who had been chosen second in the port watch with me.
"No, I am not. The mate is down upon me, and rated me as an able
seaman, because I did not know enough to rate myself," I replied.
"But we want the able seamen equally divided in the watches."
"The mate knows very well that I am not an able seaman," I added.
"Beg your pardon, Mr. Waterford, but this youngster says he's not an
able seaman," said Sanderson, stepping up to the mate.
"He shipped as such, and we take him at his word. You must do the
same."
"That will never do, my hearty," growled Sanderson to me.
"I can't help it."
"You are honest, my lad," said the old sailor, who was at least fifty
years old. "I don't see why the mate should make his first choice of a
youngster like you, though."
"I know something about a vessel, but not much. I am willing to do
what I can to learn; but I don't pretend to be what I am not."
"That's honest," added old Jack, slapping me on the back. "I'll make
an able seaman of you. There, pipe down. Now come with me, and
we will overhaul the matter."
I went to the forecastle with Sanderson, and told him my story, so far
as it related to my connection with the vessel.
 CHAPTER X.
IN WHICH PHIL STANDS HIS WATCH, AND TAKES
HIS TRICK AT THE WHEEL.
Jack Sanderson was an old sailor. I had noticed, when I first came on
board of the bark, that he was very drunk. But he had a kind heart,
and was a person of great natural ability. If he had let liquor alone, he
might have been the master of a vessel. He was much interested in
my story, and gave me such good advice as the circumstances
required. He counselled me to obey the officers in all things, to be
respectful, and to perform every duty with care and attention. I had
already resolved to do all this, but I was strengthened by the advice
of the old salt.
"I'm afraid the captain won't discharge you when we get to Palermo,"
said Jack.
"Then I shall discharge myself," I replied, decidedly.
"That's easy to say, my hearty, but not always easy to do. You signed
the shipping papers."
"The captain told me that was a mere form, and that he would let me
go when the bark arrived at Palermo."
"Perhaps he will let you go, and then again perhaps he won't. You
can't always tell the night beforehand how the wind's going to blow.
You've walked right into a scrape, and all you can do is to make the
best of it."
"I intend to do that; and I think the best thing I can do will be to leave
when we reach Palermo."
"There goes one bell, and we must turn in, for we shall be tumbled
out at midnight," added Jack.
My bunk was next above that of my new friend. I knelt, as I always
did, before my bed, and prayed for strength and grace. I had been in
the habit of uttering my prayer audibly, and in a low tone. I did so on
the present occasion. The rest of the port watch had all turned in, and
most of them appeared to be snoring.
"So you say your prayers, Phil," said Jack Sanderson, as I climbed
into my berth.

Phil Prayed for Strength and Grace.

"Yes, sir; I always do that, and I do not feel like neglecting it here."
"That's right, my lad. I don't do so myself, but I like to see others do it;
I wish I could. I always feel safer in a vessel when somebody prays."
"If you think it is right to do so, I hope you will do it yourself."
"I don't think I could now. I was brought up to do so; but I've drank
liquor enough to float this bark from New York to Palermo, and that's
knocked all the good out of me."
"I would stop drinking liquor."
"Stop! But I'm an old sailor."
"Have you any liquor on board?"
"Not a drop."
"Then you will drink none on this cruise."
"Not a thimbleful."
"If you can get along without it for three or four weeks at sea, why can
you not do without it when you go ashore?"
"You are green, my lad. By the time you can take your trick at the
wheel, and parcel a stay, you will know all about it. But batten down
your peepers, and go to sleep, Phil."
It was not so easy for me to go to sleep after the excitement of the
evening, and I wasted half of my watch below in thinking over the
events of the day. Certainly I had enough to reflect upon, enough to
regret, and enough to dread in the future. I was completely in the
power of my enemy. I could only submit, and suffer. It was possible
that Captain Farraday, after he was sober, would save me from
absolute abuse; but I did not expect anything from him. I went to
sleep at last, because I could think of nothing to mitigate my hard lot.
"All the port watch!" rang through the forecastle before I was ready to
hear the call, for I had not slept two hours.
However, I was one of the first to hear the summons, because I had
no drunken debauch to sleep off. I turned out instantly, and shook
Jack Sanderson till he came out of his drunken stupor. He leaped
briskly from his bunk, and we were the first to report ourselves on
deck. The chief mate had not yet appeared, and I wondered whether
he had discovered the loss of a part of his specie. I expected a
tremendous storm when he ascertained that his ill-gotten gold had
disappeared. He could not unlock his trunk without the use of the
pick-lock; but, as he had found no difficulty in opening mine, I did not
think he would in opening his own. The only thing that troubled me
was the insecurity of the hiding-place I had chosen for my treasure. I
was looking for a better place, and I hoped the storm would not come
till I had found it.
The bark was still under all sail, with the wind from the south-west. I
noticed a change in the sails, and that the vessel rolled now, instead
of pitching. Either the wind had changed, or the course of the bark
had been altered; I could not tell which. I liked the motion of the
vessel; and, as she sped over the waves, I could have enjoyed the
scene if I had not been in the power of an enemy. While I was looking
at the sails and the sea, the chief mate came on deck. By this time
the starboard watch had roused their sleepy shipmates, and the
whole port watch were at their stations.
"Phil Farringford!" called the mate.
"Here, sir," I replied, stepping up to the quarter-deck; and I observed
that Jack Sanderson followed me as far as it was proper for him to
go.
"You are an able seaman, Phil; take your trick at the wheel."
"Ay, ay, sir," I replied, using the language I had heard others use
when ordered by an officer to do anything.
"Beg your pardon, sir; but Phil does not pretend to be an able
seaman," interposed my salt friend.
"Who spoke to you?" growled the mate. "Go forward, and when I
want anything of you I'll call for you."
"I only wanted to say, sir—"
"Shut up!"
Jack went forward, followed by a shower of oaths from the mate.
"Relieve the helm, Phil," repeated Waterford.
"Ay, ay, sir."
I went to the wheel.
"You are down on the shipping papers as an able seaman, and you
ought to be able to take your trick at the wheel."
"I will do the best I can, sir," I replied.
"You will steer the bark, or take the consequences," said the mate, as
if satisfied that he had put me in a position where I must make a
failure, and call down upon my head the wrath and contempt of my
shipmates.
There were but two able and three ordinary seaman in the port watch.
The others, like myself, were green hands, who had never stood at a
wheel. The five seamen, therefore, would be obliged to do all the
steering; and of course it put more of this duty upon them than the
other watch had, in which there were three able and three ordinary
seamen. Five men would have to do the work which properly
belonged to six; and these men, in the common course of life on
shipboard, would hate and annoy, to the best of their ability, the one
who imposed this extra labor upon them.
I had never steered at a wheel, but I was perfectly at home at the
helm of a yacht. I knew the compass, and understood when a sail
was drawing properly. Perhaps it was presumptuous in me, but I
made up my mind, when ordered to do it, that I could steer the bark.
She was going free, with the wind a little abaft the beam, and this
made it easy for a beginner. While I stood listening to the mate, I
noticed that the helmsman steered very "small;" indeed, the bark
seemed to take care of herself.
"South-east," said Ned Bilger, whom I relieved at the helm.
"South-east," I repeated, as I had heard the wheelman say when the
course was given to him.
I placed myself on the weather side of the wheel, and grasped the
spokes with a firm hand. Fixing my gaze upon the compass in the
binnacle, I determined to make a success of my first attempt to steer.
I was a mechanic, and I fully comprehended the working of the
machinery of the compass. All I had to do was to keep the point
south-east on the notch; or, in other words, to keep south-east in
range with the bowsprit. I was cool and self-possessed, for I felt that I
could do all that was required of me.
Waterford walked forward, as I took the helm, to look after the men.
Doubtless he expected the bark would come up into the wind in a
moment, and that he should have an opportunity to lay me out. I soon
found that the vessel carried a weather helm; or, if left to herself,
would throw her head tip into the wind. As the compass appeared to
turn, though in reality it was the bark that varied, I met her with the
helm. I steered small, thus avoiding the usual mistake of
inexperienced helmsmen; and I found that a single spoke brought the
compass back to its proper position. In five minutes I felt entirely at
home; but I thanked my stars that the bark did not happen to be
close-hauled, for, between laying a course and keeping all the sails
drawing, I should have been badly bothered.
As soon as I understood the wheel, I rather liked the work. I was so
interested in my occupation that I ceased to gape, and felt very much
like an old sailor. The mate, who was evidently waiting for me to
make a blunder, said nothing more to me. He occasionally walked aft
and glanced at the compass; but I was very careful not to let the bark
vary a hair from her course. As the mate said nothing, I imitated his
example. It is not proper for any one to talk to the man at the wheel,
and Waterford showed that he was a good officer by holding his
tongue. I kept up a tremendous thinking; and, among other things, I
tried to explain why, if the bark was bound up the Mediterranean, her
course was to the south-east. I knew about the variation of the
compass; but, as it was less than a point to the westward, it did not
account for the present course. My theory was, that the vessel ought
to be headed about east, in order to reach the Straits of Gibraltar. But
I did not venture to express any opinion on this subject to the captain
or the mate.
Waterford planked the deck, and I fancied that he was not at all
pleased to find that I could steer the bark. While I congratulated
myself that I was able to do so, I knew there were a hundred other
things I could not do, and therefore his revenge was only deferred for
a few hours. At four bells, Dick Baxter, one of the able seamen of our
watch, came aft and relieved me.
"What do you mean, Phil?" demanded Jack Sanderson, when I went
forward. "You said you wasn't a seaman."
"I never steered a square-rigged vessel before in my life," I replied. "I
have been at the helm of a yacht."
"You steered like an old sailor, my hearty, and kept her as steady as a
judge on the bench."
"I am going to do the best I can. I know something about a vessel, but
I have a great deal to learn."
"I'll learn you, my lad."
"Thank you. I shall be very grateful to you."
I spent the remaining two hours of my watch on deck in learning the
names and uses of the various ropes of the running rigging. I studied
on halyards, sheets, buntlines, and clew-garnets, and I thought I
made good progress. But the next day I was introduced to a cringle,
and found myself at fault.