Class 8 NCERT Geography Chapter 1

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Resources Resources and Development @tireless.study

• Definition: Anything that can be used to satisfy a need is a resource.

• What makes a thing Resource

→ Utility or usability is what makes an object or substance a resource.

Example includes Water, textbook etc.

→ Some resources have economic value while some do not. Example: Metals may
have an economic value, a beautiful landscape may not. But both satisfy human
needs so these are considered as resource.
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• Some resources can become economically valuable with time.

Example: Grandmother’s home remedies are not economically
valuable today. But if they are patented and sold by a medical
firm tomorrow, they could become economically valuable.

• Important factors that can change substances into resources:

→ Time
→ Technology

• People themselves are the most important resource. Their

ideas, knowledge, inventions and discoveries that lead to the
creation of more resources.

• Each invention leads to many others. Example: The discovery

of fire led to the practice of cooking
and other processes while the invention of the wheel ultimately
resulted in development of newer modes of transport.
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Types of Resources

• There are three types of resources:

→ Natural
→ Human made 
→ Human

• Resources that are drawn from Nature and used without much
modification are called natural resources. For example: air, water, soil,
minerals etc.

• The resources which are created from natural resources through

human resources are known as human made resources. For example:
buildings, bridges, roads etc.

• People are human resources. It refers to the quantity and abilities of

the people.
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• Many of natural resources are free gifts of nature.

• These can be used directly but in some cases we

have to use tools and technology may be
needed to use a natural resource to utilize it in best
possible way.

• Natural resources are classified into different groups

depending upon their level of development and use;
→ Origin
→ Stock
→ distribution
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Human Made Resources Instagram
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• Natural substances become resources only when their original

form has been changed. For Example: Iron ore was not a
resource until people learnt to extract iron from it.

• Technology is also a human made resource.

Human Resources

• People use the nature in the best possible way using their
knowledge, skill and the technology. Therefore, they considered
as human resources.

• Education and health help in making people a valuable

resource.

• Improving the quality of people’s skills so that they are able to

create more resources is known as human resource
development.
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• Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource
conservation.

• Sustainable development is the development meets the needs of present and also
conserve them for
the future.

• Principles of Sustainable development:

→ Respect and care for all forms of life
→ Improve the quality of human life
→ Conserve the earth’s vitality and diversity
→ Minimise the depletion of natural resources
→ Change personal attitude and practices toward the environment
→ Enable communities to care for their own environment.

• It is our duty to ensure that:

→ All uses of renewable resources are sustainable
→ The diversity of life on the earth is conserved
→ The damage to natural environmental system is minimised.
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• Patent: It means the exclusive right over any idea

or invention.

• Technology: It is the application of latest

knowledge and skill in doing or making things.

• Stock of Resource: It is the amount of resources

available for use.

• Sustainable Development: Carefully utilising

resources so that besides meeting the requirements
of the present, also takes care of future generations.
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Excercises @tireless.study

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) Why are resources distributed unequally over the Earth?

Answer

The distribution of resources depends upon a number of physical

factors like terrain, climate and altitude. Since these factors differ
so much over the Earth, the distribution of resources is unequal.

(ii) What is resource conservation?

Answer

Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is

called resource conservation.
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(iii) Why are human resources important? @tireless.study

Answer

People are human resources and human resources are important

because people can make the best uses of nature to create more
resources by applying knowledge, skill and technology.

(iv) What is sustainable development?

Answer

Balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for
the future is called sustainable development. In other words,
carefully utilizing resources so that besides meeting the present
requirements it also takes care of the need of future generations is
what is known as sustainable development.
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Differences @tireless.study
 Class 8 NCERT Geography Chapter 2
Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

Introduction
Natural Resources are anything that people can
use which comes from nature such as land,
water, air etc

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Land: @tireless.study

• Land is among the most important natural resources. Land

covers about 30% of the total area of the earth’s surface.
• Ninety percent of the world population occupies only 30% of
the land area. The remaining 70% of land is either sparsely
populated or uninhabited.
• Land is unevenly inhabited due to various factors of land and
climate, water fertility of soil, etc.
• Normally the sparsely populated or uninhabited areas are
because of rugged topography, steep slopes of the
mountains, low -lying areas susceptible to water logging,
deserted areas and thickly forested areas.
• The densely populated areas of the world have plains, river
valleys which have suitable land for agriculture.
• The availability of rich and fertile land make it suitable for
living and a huge population resides on it.
• Mineral richness, water resources, fertility of soil and good
topographical conditions are important.
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Land uses: @tireless.study

• Land use refers to the use of land for different purpose such as agriculture,
forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries.
• Factors affecting land use are of two kinds- Physical factors and Human factors.
• Physical factors include topography, soil, climate and availability of water.
Human factors include population and technology.
• On the basis of ownership, land can be classified as private and community
land.
• Private land is owned by an individual or family members and is used for
personal purposes like house is a private land.
• Community land is owned by the community for common uses and can be used
by anyone in the society like collection of fodder, fruits, nuts or medical herbs.
These community lands are also called common property resources.
• The demand for land by the people is growing but the availability of land is
limited.
• The vast changes in the land use pattern shows the cultural changes in our
society.
• Land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, desertification are the major threats
to the environment because of the expansion of agriculture and construction
activities.
• Fertile land is exploited more and leads to the barrenness if not utilised judicialy.
• The over exploitation of mineral resources also make the soil vulnerable to be
degraded.
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Conservation of Land Resources:
• Growing population and their ever-growing demand has
led to a large scale destruction of forest cover and arable
land and has created a fear of losing these natural
resources.
• The present rate of degradation of land must be checked.
• The common methods used to conserve land resources
are afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of
chemical pesticides and fertilizers and checks on
overgrazing.
• By making rules related to soil and land conservation and
by making the farmers educated regarding the negative
aspects of overgrazing and over utilization of fertilizers,
the government can play an active role to preserve the
soil and land.
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Soil: @tireless.study

• Soil is the thin layer of grainy substance covering the

surface of the earth.
• Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered
rocks found on earth. It takes hundred of years to form few
centimeters of soil.
• Soil profile refers to the layered structure which spreads
from the parent rocks to the top soil surface.
• The four layers of soil profile are: 1st layer-Top soil with
humus and vegetation, 2nd layer-Sub soil with sand, silt
and clay, 3rd layer-weathered rock material, 4th layer-
Parent rock.
• In different geographic regions, different soils can be
observed.
• Various geo-climatic regions make the soil distinctions and
varied fertility of soil occurs.
• Different type of soils are suitable for particular type of
crops.
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Factors of Soil Formation:
• The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock
and climatic factors.
• The other factors of soil formation are the topography, role of organic
material and time taken for composition of soil formation.
• Parent rock determines the color, texture, chemical properties,
minerals, content and permeability of the soil.
• Relief determines the altitude and slope and accumulation of soil.
• Flora, fauna and micro-organism affect the rate of humus formation in
soil.
• Climate determines temperature and rainfall which influence the rate
of weathering and humus in process of soil formation.
• Time determines the thickness of soil profile. It takes hundreds of
years to make just on centimeter of soil.
• soil formation is not the result of only a single factor mentioned above,
in fact it is the mixture of all the geo-climatic factors available.
• The presence of micro-organism also plays a very important role in
soil nutrient cycle and minerals balance.
Degradation of Soil and Conservation Measures
• The major threats to soil erosion and depletion.
• Human beings and natural factors are responsible for degradation of soils.
• Deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilizers or pesticides, rain water,
landslides and floods are the factors which leads to soil degradation.
• Soil conservation refers to the protection, efficient use of soil and preservation of soil
resources.
• Mulching is the method in which the bare ground between plants is covered with a layer
of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.
• Contour barriers is the method in which stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers
along contours. Trenches are made in front of them to collect water.
• In Terrace farming, broad flat steps or terraces are made on the steep slopes, so that flat
surfaces are available to grow crops. It reduces the surface runoff and soil erosion.
• In inter-cropping, different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different
times to protect the soil from rain wash.
• Contour ploughing is the process of ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to
form a natural barrier to stop water from flowing down the slope.
• Shelter belts are the rows of trees planted to check the wind movements to protect soil
cover.
• Mixed farming and crop rotation are also some of the methods to improve the fertility of
soil.
• excessive use of fertilizers is also a cause of soil degradation and leads to loss of fertility
of soil.
• Use of high yield crop variety is also a major cause of concern. Instagram
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Water:
• Water is a vital renewable natural resources. Three-fourths of the earth’s
surface is covered with water. Therefore, it is called ‘water planet.
• Ocean water is saline and not fit for human consumption whereas fresh
water accounts for only 2.7% of the total water available.
• Only 1% of this freshwater is available and fit for human use and is found as
ground water, rivers, lakes, etc.
• Fresh water is the most precious substance on earth. It can neither be
added nor subtracted from the earth.
• Water is used for agriculture, industries, generating electricity through
reservoirs of dams, etc.
• The major causes of water shortage are increasing population, resign
demands for food and cash crops, increasing urbanization and rising
standards of living.
• Water is available through the water cycle, which is a constant movement
from oceans to atmosphere and back to ocean through precipitation.
• Misuse and over exploitation led to the scarcity of water and judicial use by
every individual is necessary.
• Government had water conservation laws and has made laws against
pollution of water. Proper implementation is need of the hour.
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Problem of Water Availability:
• There is water shortage in many regions of the
world. It may be a consequence of variation of
seasonal or annual precipitation or the scarcity is
caused by over-exploitation and contamination of
water sources.
• Countries located in climatic zones are most
susceptible to droughts and face great problems
of water scarcity.
• Global warming and high pace of industrialization
also leads to raise the concern against clean
water availability.
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Conservation of Water Resources: @tireless.study
• The major problem of today’s world is shortage of clean and
adequate water sources.
• Steps should be taken to conserve water.
• Water is a renewable resource, but its overuse and pollution make
it unfit for use.
• Sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial waste pollute the
water with nitrates, metals and pesticides.
• Forest and other vegetation cover slow the surface runoff and
replenish underground water.
• Water harvesting method can also be used to save surface runoff.
• Canals used for irrigation should be properly checked for water
losses through seepage and evaporation.
• Rain water harvesting is the process of collecting rain water from
roof tops and directing it to an appropriate location where it is
stored for future use.
• Recycling plants should be installed to conserve water and to stop
wastage.
• Better irrigattion facilities should be developed to conserve water.
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Natural Vegetation and Wildlife: @tireless.study

• Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the biosphere.

• The narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere
and atmosphere is called biosphere.
• In the biosphere living beings are inter-related and interdependent
on each other for survival. This life supporting system is known as
the ecosystem.
• Plants provide us with timber, shelter to animals, produce oxygen,
protect soil for growing crops, act as shelter belts, give us fruits and
vegetables help in storage of underground water, etc.
• Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects and aquatic life forms. They
provide us milk, meat, hides and wool, help in pollination of flowers,
acts as decomposers in ecosystem, etc.
• Natural vegetation is a renewable resources but its judicial use is
must, if not utilized in proper manner it can lead to loss of life and
further more calamities.
• Wildlife and natural vegetation make a deep connection. So
preservation of both can be done simultaneously.
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Distribution of Natural Vegetation: @tireless.study
• The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture.
• Forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra are the major types of vegetation of
the world.
• Forests are associated with areas having abundant water supply. These
areas have heavy rainfall and huge trees.
• Grasslands are areas having short stunted trees and grasses grow in the
regions of moderate rainfall. As the amount of moisture decreases the size of
trees and their density reduces.
• Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in dry areas of low rainfall. The plants of this
region have deep roots and leaves with thorny and waxy surface that helps
reduce loss of moisture through transpiration.
• Tundra vegetation of cold Polar Regions comprise of mosses and lichens.
• Evergreen and deciduous are the types of forests depending upon when they
shed their leaves.
• Trees of evergreen forests do not shed their leaves simultaneously in any
season of the year.
• Deciduous forests shed their leaves in a particular season to conserve loss
of moisture through transpiration.
• In India mostly Evergreen and Deciduous forest are found which are the rich
source of timber and forest produce.
• In Himalayan region of India mixed forest are found according to their
altitude. such as taiga, evergreen forest and deciduous species are found.
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Conservation of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife: @tireless.study
• Forests are our wealth.
• Plants give shelter to the animals and together they maintain the
ecosystem.
• Changes of climate and human interferences can cause the loss of natural
habitats for the plants and animals.
• Poaching is one of the major concerns which results in a sharp decline in
the number of particular species.
• The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides, skins,
nails, teeth, horns and feathers.
• To protect our natural vegetation and wildlife, national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and biosphere reserves are made.
• Due to indiscriminate killings, several birds and animals have either
become extinct or are on the verge of extinction.
• Awareness programs like social forestry and Van-Mahotsava should be
encouraged at the regional and community level.
• It is the ethical duty of every citizen to conserve plants and animals.
• Under Article 48A of the Indian constitution forest conservation has made a
directive principal.
• Inclusion of forest and environment in constitution make the government of
India liable to take the steps in this direction.
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1. Answer the following questions.

(i) Which are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil formation?

Answer

Temperature and rainfall are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil
formation.

(ii) Write any two reasons for land degradation today.

Answer

Deforestation and the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers in

agricultural lands are two factors contributing to land degradation.

(iii) Why is land considered an important resource?

Answer

Land is considered as an important resource as it provides habitation to a wide

variety of flora and fauna. Also used by Human beings for various purposes such as
agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses and roads, and setting up industries.
(iv) Name any two steps that government has taken to conserve plants and
animals.

Answer

Two steps that the government has taken to conserve plants and animals:
→ Has set up national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves for
protecting natural vegetation and wildlife; for example, the Kaziranga National
Park in Assam.
→ Has banned the killing of lions, tigers, deer, great Indian bustards and
peacocks. It has also prohibited the trade of the species of plants and animals
protected under the international agreement CITES.

(v) Suggest three ways to conserve water.

Answer

Three ways to conserve water:

→ Rain-water harvesting.
→ Lining irrigation canals to avoid seepage of water.
→ Replenishing ground water by promoting afforestation.

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Correctly matched

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4. State whether the given statements are true or false. If true, write the reasons.

(i) Ganga-Brahmaputra plain of India is an overpopulated region.

(ii) Water availability per person in India is declining.
(iii) Rows of trees planted in the coastal areas to check the wind movement is called
intercropping.
(iv) Human interference and changes of climate can maintain the ecosystem.

Answer

(i) This statement is true. Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence,
these are densely-populated areas of the world.

(ii) This statement is true. Though water is present in abundance, fresh water is a scarce
resource. Water availability is a serious problem in many regions of the world. Due to the
wastage of water, deforestation, and the pollution and depletion of fresh water reserves
(such as rivers and ground water), the availability of water is fast declining.

(iii) This statement is false. The described process is called shelter belts.

Intercropping is the process in which different crops are grown in alternate rows, and are
sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.

(iv) This statement is false. Human interferences and climatic changes for the most part
adversely affect the balance of the ecosystem.
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 Class 8 NCERT Geography Chapter 3
Minerals and Power Resources 
Mineral

• A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical

composition is a mineral.

• Minerals are not equally distributed over space.

• Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments,

under varying conditions. 

• They are created by natural processes without any human

interference.

• They can be identified on the basis of their physical properties such

as colour, density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility.
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Types of Minerals

• On the basis of composition, minerals are classified mainly as: 

→ Metallic

→ Non-metallic minerals

• Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form.

→ Examples: Iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore.

• Metallic minerals may be ferrous or non-ferrous.

→ Ferrous minerals contains iron. Examples are iron ore, manganese and
chromites.

→ Non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain some other
metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead.

• Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals.

→ Examples: Limestone, mica and gypsum and mineral fuels like coal and
petroleum.

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Extraction of Minerals

• Minerals can be extracted by mining, drilling or quarrying.

• The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the
earth’s surface is called mining.

→ Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the
surface layer; this is known as open-cast mining.

→ The mining in which deep bores, called shafts, have to be made

to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths is called is shaft
mining.

• Deep wells are bored to take minerals out is called drilling.

Petroleum and natural gas are extracted through drilling method.

• Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the
process known as quarrying.
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Distribution of Minerals

• Minerals occur in different types of rocks such as

igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks or sedimentary rocks.

→ Generally, metallic minerals are found in igneous and

metamorphic rock formations that form large plateaus.

• Metamorphic examples: Iron-ore in north Sweden,

copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada, iron,
nickel, chromites and platinum in South Africa.

• Sedimentary rock examples: Limestone deposits of

Caucasus region of France, manganese deposits of
Georgia and Ukraine and phosphate beds of Algeria
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Asia

• China and India have large iron ore deposits.

• The continent produces more than half of the world’s

tin.

→ China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among the world’s

leading tin producers.

• China also leads in production of lead, antimony and

tungsten.

• Asia also has deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel,

zinc and copper.
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Europe

• It is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world.

→ Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France have large deposits of

iron ore.

• Minerals deposits of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and

nickel are found in eastern Europe and European Russia.

North America

• Mineral deposits in North America are located in three zones:

→ The Canadian region north of the Great Lakes: Iron ore,

nickel, gold, uranium and copper

→ The Appalachian region: Coal

→ The mountain ranges of the west: Copper, lead, zinc, gold

and silver

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South America

• Iron Ore: Brazil

• Copper: Chile and Peru

• Tin: Brazil and Bolivia

• Mineral Oil: Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and

Columbia

• South America also has large deposits of gold, silver,

zinc, chromium, manganese, bauxite, mica, platinum,
asbestos and diamond.

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Africa

• It is the world’s largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum.

• Gold: South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire

• Oil: Nigeria, Libya and Angola.

• Other minerals found in Africa are copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt
and bauxite.

Australia

• It is the largest producer of bauxite in the world.

• It is a leading producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel.

• It is also rich in copper, lead, zinc and manganese.

• Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of western Australia have the largest deposits of
gold.
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Antartica

• Deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains

and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of
East Antarctica is predicted

• Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are also present in

commercial quantities.

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Distribution in India

• Iron: Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

• Bauxite: Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil
Nadu.

• Mica: Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.

→ India is the largest producer and exporter of mica in the world.

• Copper: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

• Manganese: Maharashtra,  Madhya  Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,  Odisha,  Karnataka  and Andhra

Pradesh.

• Limestone: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Tamil Nadu.

• Gold:  Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold in India. These mines are among the deepest in

the world which makes mining of this ore a very expensive process.

• Salt:  It is obtained from seas, lakes and rocks. India is one of the world’s leading producers and
exporters of salt.
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Uses of Minerals

• Minerals are used in many industries.

• Minerals used in various styles for jewellery.

• Copper is another metal used in everything from coins to

pipes.

• Silicon, used in the computer industry is obtained from

quartz.

• Aluminum obtained from its ore bauxite is  used in

automobiles and airplanes, bottling industry, buildings and
even in kitchen cookware.
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Why to conserve minerals?

• Minerals are a non-renewable resource.

• It takes thousands of years for the formation and concentration of

minerals.

• The rate of formation is much smaller than the rate at which the
humans consume these minerals.

How to conserve minerals?

• By reducing wastage in the process of mining.

• Recycling of metals is another way in which the mineral resources

can be conserved.
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Power Resources

• Power or enrgy is necessary for

industry, agriculture, transport,
communication and defense.

• Power resources categorised as:

→ Conventional resources

→ Non-conventional resources
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Conventional Sources of Energy @tireless.study

• Those sources which have been in common use for a long time are called Conventionals
sources of energy.
• Firewood and fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy sources.
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Firewood

• It is widely used for cooking and heating. 

• In India, more than fifty per cent of the energy used by villagers comes
from fire wood.

Fossil Fuels

• Remains of plants and animals which were buried under the earth for
millions of years got converted by the heat and pressure into fossil fuels.

• Coal, petroleum and natural gas are the fossils fuels which are the main
sources of conventional energy.

• Fossile fuels are in limited quantities and the rate at which the growing
world population is consuming them is far greater than the rate of their
formation.

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1) Coal @tireless.study

• Most abundantly found fossil fuel. 

• It is used as a domestic fuel, in industries such as iron and

steel, steam engines and to generate electricity. 

→ Electricity from coal is called thermal power. 

• The giant ferns and swamps got buried under the layers of
earth millions of years ago converted into Coal. Therefore
referred to as Buried Sunshine.

• Producers in the world: China, USA, Germany, Russia, South

Africa and France.

• Producers in India: Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in

Jharkhand.
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2) Petroleum @tireless.study

• Petroleum is a thick black liquid.

• It is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields
located in off-shore and coastal areas. 

→ This is then sent to refineries which process the crude oil and
produce a variety of products like diesel, petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics
and lubricants. 

• Petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold as they are very
valuable.

• Producers in the world: Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, USA,

Russia, Venezuela, and Algeria. 

• Producers in India: Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and the

deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.
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Natural Gas

• Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil
is brought to the surface.

• It can be used as a domestic and industrial fuel. 

• Producers in the world: Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands

• Producers in India: Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some

areas off shore in Mumbai.

Why use of Fossile fuels should be checked?

• The sharp increase in our consumption of fossil fuels has led to their
depletion at an alarming rate. 

• The toxic pollutants released from burning these fuels are also a cause for
concern.
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Hydel Power

How Hydel Power is generated?

• Rain water or river water stored in dams is made to fall from heights.→ The falling
water flows through pipes inside the dam over turbine blades placed at the bottom of
the dam.

→ The moving blades then turn the generator to produce electricity. which is called
hydro electricity.

• The water discharged after the generation of electricity is used for irrigation. 

• One fourth of the world’s electricity is produced by hydel power. 

• Producers in the world: Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, and China. 

• Important hydel power stations in India: Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar,

Nagarjunsagar

and Damodar valley projects.

Why we need to use non-conventional sources of energy

• The increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its shortage.

• It is estimated that if the present rate of consumption

continues, the reserves of these fuel will get exhausted. 

• Also it causes environmental pollution. 

Therefore, there is need for using non-conventional sources.

• Examples of non-conventional sources: Solar energy, wind

energy, tidal energy.

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Solar Energy
Solar energy trapped from the sun can be used in solar cells to produce electricity.

→ Many of these cells are joined into solar panels to generate power for heating and
lighting purpose.

• The technology of utilising solar energy benefits a lot of tropical countries that are
blessed with abundant sun shine.

• Solar energy is also used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers besides being
used for community lighting and traffic signals.
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Nuclear Power @tireless.study

Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally
occurring radio active elements like uranium and thorium. 

→ These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors and emit power. 

• Greatest Producers: USA and Europe.

• Uranium deposits in India: Rajasthan and Jharkhand.

• Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala. 

• Nuclear power stations in India: Kalpakkam in Tamilnadu, Tarapur in Maharastra,

Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kaiga in
Karnataka.

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Geothermal Energy @tireless.study

• Heat energy obtained from the earth is called geothermal energy.

• The temperature in the interior of the earth rises steadily as we go

deeper.

→ Some times this heat energy may surface itself in the form of hot
springs.

→ This heat energy can be used to generate power.

• Geothermal energy in the form of hot springs has been used for cooking,
heating and bathing for several years.

• USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New
Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central America.

• In India, geothermal plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal

Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh.
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Tidal Energy @tireless.study

• Energy generated from tides is called tidal energy.

• Tidal energy can be harnessed by building dams at narrow openings of

the sea.

→ During high tide the energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine
installed in the dam to produce

electricity.

• Producers in the world: Russia, France and the Gulf of Kachchh in

India have huge tidal mill farms.

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Bio Gas @tireless.study

• Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung
and kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas.

• The organic waste is decomposed by bacteria in biogas digesters to

emit biogas which is essentially a mixture of methane and carbon
dioxide.

• Biogas is an excellent fuel for cooking and lighting and produces huge
amount of organic manure each year.
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Exercises @tireless.study

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) Name any three common minerals used by you everyday.

Answer

Salt, Gold and Copper are three common minerals used everyday

(ii) What is an ore? Where are the ores of metallic minerals generally located?

Answer

Rocks from which minerals are mined are known as ores. For any material to be called
ore of any mineral, it must contain minimum adequate quantity of that mineral so that it
can be extracted profitably.

(iii) Name two regions rich in natural gas resources.

Answer

Russia and Norway are the two regions rich in natural gas resources.
 Instagram
(iv) Which sources of energy would you suggest for @tireless.study

(a) Rural areas

(b) Coastal areas
(c) Arid regions

Answer

(a) Biogas energy for rural areas

(b) Hydel and tidal energy for coastal areas
(c) Wind and solar energy for arid regions

(v) Give five ways in which you can save energy at home.

Answer

Five ways in which energy can be saved at home:

→ Switching off lights, fans and other electrical appliances when not in use
→ By seeing to it that electrical devices are operating efficiently; for example, defrosting
refrigerator regularly and not keeping the refrigerator door open for longer than necessary
→ Using energy-efficient devices such as fluorescent bulbs and tubes
→ Using energy efficiently while cooking; for example, keeping the lids of pans on while
cooking
→ Unplugging electrical devices when not in use prevents leakage of electricity; thus saving
energy.
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3. Give reasons.

(i) Environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before

building huge dams.

Answer

Environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before

building huge dams because of the following reasons -
→ Dams create imbalance in the earth’s equilibrium.
→. Deforestation leads to environmental pollution.
→ People become displaced.
→ Cities / villages / towns may require shifting causing lot of
hardships for the people.
→ Flood threats loom large.
→ Earthquake threats
→ Silting of lakes is a problem.
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(ii) Most industries are concentrated around coal mines.

Answer

Coal is used as a source of energy and power and also as a raw material
in most of the industries. Hence most industries are concentrated around
coal mines of the purpose saving cost of transportation of coal (cost
effectiveness).

(iii) Petroleum is referred to as “black gold”.

Answer

Petroleum is referred to as “black gold” because it is black in colour in

the crude form and its derivatives are extremely valuable as petroleum
itself. Today it is almost inevitable in our day-to-day life. A variety of
products like – kerosene, diesel, petrol, wax, plastics, lubricants etc. are
produced from these mineral resources.
(iv) Quarrying can become a major environmental concern.

Answer

Quarrying can become a major environmental concern

because of the following reasons:
→ It may destroy the humus of soil which is much required
for the growth of plants and crops.
→It produces a lot of noise pollution due to use of
explosives at times in order to break the huge chunks of
rocks.
→ In the process of quarrying lot of dust is generated which
causes air pollution and also occupational hazards.
→ Blasting done in the process of quarrying generate
vibration which damage in the nearby buildings, dams or
any other similar structure.
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 Class 8 NCERT Geography Chapter 4
Introduction
Agriculture
• Primary Activities: It include all those connected with extraction
and production of natural resources.

→ Examples: Agriculture, fishing and gathering.

• Secondary Activities: These are concerned with the processing

of these resources.

→ Examples: Manufacturing of steel, baking of bread and

weaving of cloth.

• Tertiary Activities: These provide support to the primary and

secondary sectors through services.

→ Examples: Transport, trade, banking, insurance and

advertising.
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Various types of cultures:
1. Agriculture: raising crops and
rearing livestock
2. Sericulture: rearing of silk worms
and silk production
3. Pisciculture: Breeding of fish
4. Viticulture: Cultivation of grapes
5. Horticulture: Growing of
vegetables, flowers and fruits
Agriculture

• Agriculture is a primary activity.

→ It includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers

and rearing of livestock.

• In the world, 50 percent of persons are engaged in

agricultural activity.

→ Two-thirds of India’s population is still dependent on

agriculture.

• Favourable topography of soil and climate are vital for

agricultural activity.

→ The land on which the crops are grown is known as

arable land.
Farm System

• The important inputs of agriculture are seeds, fertilisers,

machinery and labour.

• The operations needed are ploughing, sowing, irrigation,

weeding and harvesting.

• The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy and
poultry products.

Types of Farming

• Farming can classified into two main types, depending upon the

geographical conditions, demand

of produce, labour and level of technology:

→ Subsistence farming

→ Commercial farming

Subsistence Farming

• This type of farming is practised to meet the

needs of the farmer’s family.

• Low levels of technology and household

labour are used to produce on small output.

• Subsistence farming can be further classified

as:

→ Intensive subsistence farming

→ Primitive subsistence farming

Primitive subsistence farming

• It includes

→ Shifting cultivation

→ Nomadic herding

Shifting Cultivation

• It is practised in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical

Africa, parts of southeast Asia and Northeast India.

→ These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of

vegetation.

• Method: A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them.
The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops are grown. After the
soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the

cultivator moves to a new plot.

• Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.

Nomadic herding

• It is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of

Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like
Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.

• Method: In this type of farming, herdsmen move

from place to place with their animals for fodder
and water, along defined routes.

• Sheep, camel, yak and goats are most commonly

reared.

→ They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other

products to the herders and their families.

Commercial Farming

• In commercial farming crops are grown and animals

are reared for sale in market.

• The area cultivated and the amount of capital used

is large.

• Most of the work is done by machines.

• Commercial  farming  includes

→ Commercial grain farming

→ Mixed farming

→ Plantation agriculture

Commercial grain farming

• Crops are grown for commercial purpose.

• Common crops: Wheat and maiz.

• Major areas: temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia.

• Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown.

Mixed farming

• The land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock. 

• Areas: Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

Plantations 

• Only single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown. 

• Large amount of labour and capital are required. 

• The produce may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories thus require transportation
facilities.

• Areas: Tropical regions of the world. 

→ Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka are some examples.
• Rice: Major food crop of the world.

→ It is the staple diet of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. 

→ Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall. 

→ It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water. 

→ China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt.

• Wheat: Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season and bright
sunshine at the time of harvest. 

→ It thrives best in well drained loamy soil. 

→ Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India.

→ In India it is grown in winter.

• Millets: They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less fertile and sandy
soils. 

→ It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate
rainfall. → Jowar,bajra and ragi are grown in India. 

→ Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.

• Maize: Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine.

→ It needs well-drained fertile soils.

→ Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.
→ Cotton: Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten
frost-free days

and bright sunshine for its growth. 

→ It grows best on black and alluvial soils. 

→ China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are amin producers. 

→ It is one of the main raw materials for the cotton textile industry.

• Jute: Also known as ‘Golden Fibre’. 

→ It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and
humid climate. 

→ This crop is grown in the tropical areas. 

→ India and Bangladesh are the leading producers.

• Coffee: Coffee requires warm and wet climate and well-drained loamy soil. 

→ Hill slopes are more suitable for growth of this crop. 

→ Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.

• Tea: Tea is a beverage crop grown on plantations.

→ It needs well-drained loamy soils and gentle slopes.

→ Requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall throughout the year for the
growth of its tender leaves.

→ Labour in large number is required to pick the leaves. 

→ Kenya, India, China, Sri Lanka produce the best quality tea in the world.
Agricultural Development

• It refers to efforts made to increase farm production in

order to meet the growing demand of increasing
population.

• How to achieve agricultural development

→ Increasing the cropped area

→ Increasing the number of crops grown

→ Improving irrigation facilities

→ Use of fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds

• The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to

increase food security.
A Farm in India

• Small Size farmland.

• Use HYV seeds purcahsed from markets.

• Take advice from friends, elders or government.

• Use tractors or bullock carts for ploughing the field.

• Use tubewell for irrigational activities.

• Also, rear livestock to earn more income.

• All the members of the family help him in various farm activities.

• The farmers takes credit from a bank or the agricultural co-operative

society to buy HYV seeds and implements.

• Lack storage facilities so they are forced to sell the produce even
when the market is not favourable to them.

• In recent years, the government has taken some steps to develop

storage facilites.
A Farm in USA

• Large size farmland.

• The farmer generally resides in the farm.

• Some of the major crops grown are corn, soyabean, wheat, cotton
and sugarbeet.

• Adequate measures are taken to control pests that can damage the
crop.

• From time to time, Soil samples are checked in the laboratory to

check whether the nutrients are sufficient or not.

• The Farmer's computer is linked to the satellite which gives him a

precise picture of his field.

• This helps farmers to use chemical fertilisers and pesticides wherever

they are required.

• Farmers use tractors, seed drills, leveller, combined harvester and

thresher to perform various agricultural operations. 

• Grains are stored in the automated grain storage or despatched to

market agencies.
Excercises

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What is agriculture?

Answer

Agriculture is the primary activity which includes growing of

crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock. It
is also known as farming.

(ii) Name the factors influencing agriculture.

Answer

Various factors influencing agriculture are - Favourable

topography, Soil and Climate.

(iii) What is shifting cultivation? What are its disadvantages?

Answer

Shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn cultivation is a type of

farming activity which involves clearing a plot of land by
felling trees, burning the felled trees, mixing the ashes with
soil, and then growing crops like maize, yam, potatoes and
cassava on the cleared land. After the soil loses its fertility,
the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves on to a new
plot. 

This type of farming has the following disadvantages.

→ Deforestation

→ After some time the land loses its fertility.

→ Soil erosion.

→ Small patches of cultivation which is insufficient for

feeding a large population.
(iv) What is plantation agriculture?

Answer

Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming where a single crop of tea,

coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton is grown. Large amount of labour
and capital is required in this type of farming. The produce is either processed on the
farm itself or in nearby factories. Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of
the world, like rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka, etc.

(v) Name the fibre crops and name the climatic conditions required for their growth.

Answer

Jute & cotton are known as fiber crops. The climatic conditions required for their
growth are:

→ Jute (Golden Fiber): High temperature more than 25°C, heavy rainfall, warm and
humid climate.

→ Cotton: High temperature around 30 - 40°C, low rainfall and most importantly 210
frost-free days and bright sunshine. Means lot of cloud-free sunny days is essential for
cotton growing.

3. Give reasons.

(i) In India agriculture is a primary activity.

Answer

Two-third of India's population is dependent upon agriculture. Hence,

in India, agriculture is a primary activity.

(ii) Different crops are grown in different regions.

Answer

Different crops are grown in different regions because growing of

crops depends upon the geographical conditions, demand of
produce, labour and level of technology. Favourable topography of
soil, climates also play an important role in selection of crops to be
grown in that area.
Distinguish
Class 8 NCERT Geography Chapter 5
Industries
Introduction

• Secondary activities or manufacturing change raw

materials into products of more value to people.

→ Example: Pulp changed into paper and paper into a

note book.

• Industry refers to an economic activity that is

concerned with production of goods, extraction of
minerals or the provision of services.

→ Example: Iron and steel industry (production of

goods), coal mining industry (extraction of coal) and
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Classification of Industries

• Industries can be classified on the basis:

→ Raw materials

→ Size

→ Ownership

• On the Basis of Raw Materials:

→ Agro based industries: Use plant and animal based products as their raw
materials. Examples: Food processing, vegetable oil, cotton textile, dairy
products and leather industries.

→ Mineral based industries: Use mineral ores as their raw materials. The
products of these industries feed other industries. Example: Iron made from
iron ore.

→ Marine based industries: Use products from the sea and oceans as raw
materials. Examples: Industries processing sea food or manufacturing fish oil.

→ Forest based industries: Use forest produce as raw materials. Examples:

pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture and buildings.
• On the Basis of Size (refers to the amount of capital
invested, number of people employed and the volume
of production):

→ Small Scale industries: Use lesser amount of

capital and technology. Example: Cottage or
household industries where the products are
manufactured by hand, by the artisans. Basket
weaving, pottery and other handicrafts are products of
cottage industry.

→ LargeScale industries: Use higher capital is higher

and superior technology. Examples: Silk weaving and
food processing industries.

On the basis of Ownership:

→ Private Sector industries: Owned and operated by individuals

or a group of individuals. Examples: Reliance Industries Limited
and ITC Limited.

→ Public sector industries: Owned and operated by the

government. Examples: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Steel
Authority of India Limited.

→ Joint sector industries: Owned and operated by the state and

individuals or a group of individuals. Example: Maruti Udyog
Limited.

→ Co-operative sector industries: Owned and operated by the

producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both.
Examples: Anand Milk

Union Limited and Sudha Dairy.

Factors affecting location of Industries

• The factors affecting the location of industries areavailability of:

→ Raw material

→ Land

→ Water

→ Labour

→ Power

→ Capital

→ Transport

→ Market

• Sometimes, the government provides incentives like subsidised

power, lower transport cost and other infrastructure so that
industries may be located in backward  areas.
Industrial System

• An industrial system consists of inputs, processes

and outputs.

→ Inputs include raw materials, labour and costs of

land, transport, power and other infrastructure.

→ The processes include a wide range of activities that

convert the raw material into finished products.

→ The outputs are the end product and the income

earned from it.

Industrial Regions

• When a number of industries locate close to each other

and share the benefits of their closeness, they make a
Industrial regions.

• Industrial regions of the world: eastern North America,

western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern
Asia.

• Industrial regions in India: Mumbai- Pune cluster,

Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region, Hugli region, Ahmedabad-
Baroda region, Chottanagpur industrial belt,
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut
region and the Kollam-Thiruvanathapuram industrial
cluster.

Distribution of Major Industries

• The world’s major industries are the iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the
information technology industry.

• The iron and steel and textile industry are the older industries while information
technology is an emerging industry.

Iron and Steel Industry

• This is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw material for other industries.

• The inputs for this industry include raw materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone,
along with labour, capital, site and other infrastructure.

• The process of converting iron ore into steel involves many stages.

→ The raw material is put in the blast furnace where it undergoes smelting.

→ It is then refined.

• The output obtained is steel which may be used by other industries as raw material.
Iron and Steel

• Steel is often called the backbone of modern industry.

→ Daily use tools, Ships, trains, trucks, and autos are

made largely of iron or steel.

• Features of Steel:

→ Steel is tough and it can easily be shaped, cut, or made

into wire.

→ Special alloys of steel can be made by adding small

amounts of other metals such as aluminium, nickel, and
copper.

→ Alloys give steel unusual hardness, toughness, or ability

to resist rust.

Timeline of Iron and Steel industry's location

• Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industry was located where raw
materials, power supply and running water were easily available.

• Between 1850 to 1900 A.D., the  ideal location for the industry was
near coal fields and close to canals and railways.

• After 1950, iron and steel industry began to be located on large areas
of flat land near sea ports because by this time steel works had become
very large and iron ore had to be imported from overseas.

• Location of iron and steel industry in the world: Germany, USA, China,

Japan and Russia.

• Location of iron and steel industry in India: Bhilai (Chhattisgarh),

Durgapur, Burnpur (West Bengal),  Rourkela (Odisha), Bokaro,
Jamshedpur (Jharkhand).
• Other important steel centres: Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in
Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Salem in Tamil Nadu.
Jamshedpur

• Before independence, Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) was only one iron
and steel plant in the country which was privately owned.

• After Independence, the government set up several iron and steel plants.

→ TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha
and Kharkai in Jharkhand. Later on, Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur.

Why Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant

• This place was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway
line.

• It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to Kolkata, which
provided a large market.

• TISCO, gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and
manganese from Odisha and Chhattisgarh.

• The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured sufficient water supply. Government
initiatives provided adequate capital for its later development.
Pittsburgh

• It is an important steel city of the United States of America. 

Why iron and steel industry developed in Pittsburgh

• The raw material such as coal is available locally, while the iron ore comes
from the iron mines at Minnesota, about 1500 km from Pittsburgh. 

→ Between these mines and Pittsburgh, Great Lakes waterway is present which
is one of the world’s best routes for shipping ore cheaply. 

→ Trains carry the ore from the Great Lakes to the Pittsburgh area. 

→ The Ohio, the Monogahela and Allegheny rivers provide adequate water
supply.

• Today,, Large steel mills are located in the valleys of the Monogahela and
Allegheny rivers above Pittsburgh and along the Ohio River below it. 

• Finished steel is transported to the market by both land and water routes.

• Other factories present in Pittsburgh area use steel as their raw material to
make many different products such as railroad equipment, heavy machinery and
rails.

Cotton Textile Industry

• The textile industry can be divided on the basis of raw materials i.e.,
fibres used in them.

• Fibres can be of two types:

→ Natural: Obtained from wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute.

→ Man-made: It includes nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.

• Till the industrial revolution, cotton cloth was made using hand
spinning techniques (wheels) and looms. 

• In 18th century, power looms facilitated the development of cotton

textile industry, first in Britain and later spread to other parts of the
world.

• Important producers of cotton textiles: India, China, Japan and the

USA.

• Before the British rule, Indian hand spun and hand woven cloth popular
worldwide for their quality and design but the production of hand woven
cotton textile was expensive and time consuming.

→ However, the traditional cotton textile industry could not face the
competition from the new textile mills of the West, which produced
cheap and good quality fabrics through mechanized industrial units.

• The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai

in 1854.

• Location of cotton textile industry in India:

→ Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and

Gujarat because of favourable humid climate.

→ But today, humidity can be created artificially, and raw cotton is a

pure and not weight losing raw

material, so this industry has spread to other parts of the country such
as Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata,
Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat.
Ahmedabad

• It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati river.

• The first mill was established in 1859 after Mumbai.

• It soon became the second largest textile city of India, after

Mumbai and was therefore often referred to as the
‘Manchester of India’.

Why textile industry developed in Ahmedabad 

• Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area

which ensures easy availability of raw material. 

• The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving. 

• The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the
establishment of the mills.

• The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra

provide both skilled and semi-skilled

labour.

• Well developed road and railway network permits easy

transportation of textiles to different parts of the country, thus
providing easy access to the market.

• Mumbai port nearby facilitates import of machinery and export of

cotton textiles.

• But in the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills facing problems.

→ Several textile mills have closed down due to the emergence of

new textile centres in the country as well as non-upgradation of
machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad.
Osaka

• It is an important textile centre of Japan, also known as

the ‘Manchester of Japan’.

Why textile industry developed in Osaka

• The extensive plain around Osaka ensured that land was

easily available for the growth of cotton mills.

• Warm humid climate is well suited to spinning and

weaving. 

• The river Yodo provides sufficient water for the mills. 

• Labour is easily available. 

• Location of port facilitates import of raw cotton and
for exporting textiles.

• The textile industry at Osaka depends completely

upon imported raw materials. 

→ Cotton is imported from Egypt, India, China and

USA. 

• The finished product is mostly exported and has a

good market due to good quality and low price.

• Recently, the cotton textile industry of Osaka has

been replaced by other industries, such as iron and
steel, machinery, shipbuilding, automobiles, electrical
equipment and cement.
Information Technology (IT)

• The information technology industry deals in the storage,

processing and distribution of information.

• This industry has become global due to a series of

technological, political, and socio-economic events.

• Major hubs of the IT industry of the world: Silicon Valley,

California and Bangalore, India.

• There are other emerging information technology hubs in

metropolitan centres of India such as Mumbai, New Delhi,
Hyderabad and Chennai. 

→ Other cities such as Gurgaon, Pune, Thiruvanthapuram,

Kochi and Chandigarh re also important centres of the IT
industry.
Locational advantages Silicon plateau -
Bangalore

• Bangalore has the largest number of educational

institutions and IT colleges in India.

• The city was considered dust free with low rents

and low cost of living.

• The state government of Karnataka was the first to

announce an IT Policy in 1992.

• The city has the largest and widest availability of

skilled managers with work experience.

Locational advantages of Silicon valley -

California

• Close to some of the most advanced scientific and

technological centres in the world

• Pleasant climate with an attractive and a clean

environment. 

• Plenty of space for development and future

expansion.

• Located close to major roads and airports.

• Good access to markets and skilled work force.

Excercises

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What is meant by the term 'industry'?

Answer

The term 'industry' refers to an economic activity that is concerned with the
production of goods (e.g., iron and steel industry), extraction of minerals (e.g., coal
mining industry) or provision of services (e.g., tourism industry).

(ii) What are the main factors which influence the location of an industry?

Answer

Factors influencing the location of an industry:

→ Availability of raw material

→ Availability of land

→ Adequate supply of water

→ Adequate supply of labour

→ Access to power

→ Amount of capital

→ Access to transport

→Presence of market
(iii) Which industry is often referred to as the backbone of modern
industry and why?

Answer

Iron and steel industry is often referred to as the backbone of the

modern industry because almost everything is either made from iron or
steel or has been made using tools and machineries of these metals.
There are plenty of examples like -ships, trains, vehicles; all are made
largely of steel. Materials of our day-to-day use starting safety pin to our
building in which we live, are made from steel. Without the use of iron no
industry can run.

(iv) Why cotton textile industry rapidly expanded in Mumbai?

Answer

Cotton textile rapidly expanded in Mumbai because its warm, moist

climate, facility of port for importing of machinery and above all the easy
availability of skilled labour.
(v) What are the similarities between information
technology industry in Bangalore and California?

Answer

Similarities between information technology industry in

Bangalore and California:

→ Presence of high quality educational institutions,

and advanced scientific and technological centres

→ Pleasant climate and clean environment.

→ Presence of good quality, skilled workforce.

→ Access to markets.

→ Well-developed and well-connected.

Distinguish
 Class 8 NCERT Geography Chapter 6
Human Resources
Introduction

• People with their demands and abilities are

considered as Human Resources.

• Human resources like other resources are not

equally distributed over the world.

→ They differ in their educational levels, age

and sex. Their numbers and characteristics
also keep changing. Instagram
@tireless.study
Distribution of Population

• The way in which people are spread across the earth surface
is known as the pattern of population distribution.

• The distribution of population in the world is extremely

uneven.

→ More than 90 per cent of the world’s population lives in

about 30 percent of the land surface.

• Crowded areas: South and south east Asia, Europe and north
eastern North America.

• Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two

continents Asia and Africa.

• Sixty percent of the world’s people live in just 10 countries.→

These are China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Nigeria, Russian Fed. and Japan.

Density of Population

• Population density is the number of people

living in a unit area of the earth’s surface.

→ It is normally expressed as per square

km.

• The average density of population in the

whole world is 51 persons per square km. 

• South Central Asia has the highest density

of population.
Factors affecting distribution of Population

Geographical Factors

• Topography: People always prefer to live on plains rather

than mountains and plateaus because these areas are
suitable for farming, manufacturing and service activities.

→ Example: The Ganga plains are the most densely

populated areas of the world while mountains like Andes,
Alps and Himalayas are sparsely populated.

• Climate: People usually avoid extreme climates that are

very hot or very cold.

→ Example: Sahara desert is very hot and polar regions of

Russia, Canada and Antarctica are cold are sparsely
populated.

• Soil: Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture.

→ Example: Fertile plains such as Ganga and

Brahmaputra in India, Hwang-He, Chang Jiang in China
and the Nile in Egypt are densely populated.

• Water: People prefer to live in the areas where fresh

water is easily available.

→ Example: The river valleys of the world are densely

populated while deserts have spare population.

• Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more

populated.

→ Example: Diamond mines of South Africa and

discovery of oil in the Middle east lead to settling of
people in these areas.
Social, Cultural and Economic Factors

• Social: Areas of better housing, education and

health facilities are more densely populated.

→ Example: Pune.

• Cultural: Places with religion or cultural

significance attract people.

→ Example: Varanasi, Jerusalem and Vatican city.

• Economic: Industrial areas attract large number

of people as it provide employment opportunities.
→ Example: Osaka in Japan and Mumbai in India.
Population Change

• Population change refers to change in the number of people during a specific

time.

• The change happens due to changes in the number of births and deaths.

• Until the 1800s, the world’s population grew steadily but slowly

→ Large numbers of babies were born, but they died early too as there were no
proper health facilities.

→ Also, Sufficient food was not available for all the people.

• In 1804, the world’s population reached one billion.

• In 1959, the world’s population reached 3 billion which is often called

population explosion.

• In 1999, 40 years later, the population doubled to 6 billion.

→ The main reason for this growth was that with better food supplies and
medicine, deaths were reducing, while the number of births still remained fairly
high.

Natural Growth Rate

• Birth rate: The number of live births per 1,000

people.

• Death rate: The number of deaths per 1,000 people. 

• Migrations is the movement of people in and out of

an area.

• The difference between the birth rate and the death

rate of a country is called the natural growth rate.

• The population increase in the world is mainly due to

rapid increase in natural growth rate.
Migration

• Migration is another way by which population size

changes.

• Emigrants are people who leave a country.

→ Countries like the United States of America and

Australia have gained in-numbers by in-migration or
immigration.

• Immigrants are those who arrive in a country.

→ Sudan is an example of a country that has

experienced a loss in population numbers due to out-
migration or emigration.
Patterns of Population Change

• Rates of population growth vary across the

world.

• Countries like Kenya have high population

growth rates as they had both high birth rates and
death rates.

• Countries like United Kingdom,

population growth is slowing because of both low
death and low birth rates.

Population Composition

• Population composition refers to the structure of the population.

→ It tells about age, sex, literacy level, health condition, occupation and
income level of population.

• Population pyramid, also called an age-sex pyramid is a way to study the

population composition of a country.

• A population pyramid shows

→ The total population divided into various age groups, example: 5 to 9 years,
10 to 14 years.

→ The percentage of the total population, subdivided into males and females,
in each of those groups.
There are two groups of dependents
→ Young dependents (aged below 15 years)

→ Elderly dependents (aged over 65 years)

• Those between the age of 15 years and 65 years are working age and are the economically
active.

• The population pyramid tells us how many dependents there are in a country.

• The population pyramid of a country in which birth and death rates both are high is broad at
the base and rapidly narrows towards the top because although, many children are born, a
large percentage of them die in their infancy, relatively few become adults and there are very
few old people.

→ Example: Kenya.

• The countries where death rates (especially amongst the very young) are decreasing, the
pyramid

is broad in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to adulthood.

→ These countries contain a relatively large number of young people and which means a strong
and expanding labour force.

→ Example: India.

• The countries where death rates are decreasing allow numbers of people to reach old age.

→ Example: Japan.
1. Answer the following questions.

(i) Why are people considered a resource?

Answer

People are considered a resource because with their demands and capabilities they can create new
resources. Nature’s bounty becomes important only when people find it and make it useful for them.
Hence, human resource is also considered an important and potential resource for the society.

(ii) What are the causes for the uneven distribution of population in the world?

Answer

The distribution of population in the world is uneven - some areas are very crowded while some are
sparsely populated. There are various reasons behind uneven distribution:

→ Geographical factors: Favourable topography, availability of mineral and fresh water resources,
favourable climate and soil fertility are some of the reasons affecting population distribution e.g., Indo
Gangetic Plains, Diamond Mines of South Africa etc are densely populated.

→ Social and Cultural factors: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more
populated. Places of religious and cultural significance also attract people e.g., Varanasi, Jerusalem etc.

→ Economic factors: Places having more industries, transportation and communication facilities
provide better employment opportunities. People are attracted to these places because of the above
reasons e.g., Mumbai, Osaka etc.
(iii) The world population has grown very rapidly. Why?

Answer

The world population has grown very rapidly because the death rate has
gone down as a result of the growth of food supplies and the improvement of
medical facilities. Also, unlike the death rate, the birth rate has remained quite
high.

(iv) Discuss the role of any two factors influencing population change.

Answer

The birth rate and the death rate are two factors that influence population
change. The birth rate is the number of live births per 1000 people while the
death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 people. These are the natural
causes of population change. When the birth rate is higher than the death
rate, population increases. When the death rate is more than the birth rate,
population decreases. When the two rates are equal, the population remains
constant. Thus, the birth and death rates affect the balance of population.
(v) What is meant by population composition?

Answer

Population composition refers to the structure of the population.

Population composition helps to know the number of males or female,
their age-groups, literacy, their occupation, their income level and health
conditions etc.

(vi) What are population pyramids? How do they help in understanding

about the population of a country?

Answer

The graphical illustration that is used for studying the population

composition of a country is called population pyramids. It shows the
present number of males and females in a country along with their age
groups. The age-group distribution of population tells us the number of
dependents and the number of economically active individuals present
in the population.