Limestone: Limestone Is A Common Type of Carbonate Sedimentary Rock. It Is

8/6/2021 Limestone - Wikipedia
Limestone
Limestone is a common type of carbonate sedimentary rock. It is
composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are Limestone

Sedimentary rock
different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Limestone
forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing
dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and
nonbiological processes, though biological processes have likely
been more important for the last 540 million years.[1] Limestone
often contains fossils, and these provide scientists with information
on ancient environments and on the evolution of life.[2]
About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most

of this is limestone.[3][2] The remaining carbonate rock is mostly
dolomite, a closely related rock, which contains a high percentage of Limestone outcrop in the Torcal de

Antequera nature reserve of
the mineral dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2. Magnesian limestone is an
obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously for dolomite, for Málaga, Spain
limestone containing significant dolomite (dolomitic limestone), or Composition
for any other limestone containing a significant percentage of
Calcium carbonate: inorganic
magnesium.[4] Most limestone was formed in shallow marine
environments, such as continental shelves or platforms, though crystalline calcite or organic
smaller amounts were formed in many other environments. Much calcareous material
dolomite is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of
limestone.[5][6] Limestone is exposed over large regions of the Earth's
surface, and because limestone is slightly soluble in rainwater, these
exposures often are eroded to become karst landscapes. Most cave systems
are found in limestone bedrock.
Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, an essential

component of concrete (Portland cement), as aggregate for the base of
roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints, as
a chemical feedstock for the production of lime, as a soil conditioner, and as
a popular decorative addition to rock gardens. Limestone formations
contain about 30% of the world's petroleum reservoirs.[2]
La Zaplaz formations in the

Piatra Craiului Mountains,
Contents Romania.
Description
Grains
Mud
Other characteristics
Classification
Folk classification
Dunham classification
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone 1/23
Other descriptive terms

Formation
Diagenesis
Occurrence
Limestone and living organisms
Micritic mud mounds
Organic reefs
Limestone landscape
Uses
Scarcity
Occupational safety and health
United States
Graffiti
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
Description
Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of

calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and siderite
or other carbonate minerals are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of
magnesium. Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the
dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite
mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually contain significant
magnesium.[7] Most limestone is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic sediments (mainly fine-
grained quartz and clay minerals) making up less than 5%[8] to 10%[9] of the composition. Organic
matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%.[10]
Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragments
(such as sponge spicules, diatoms, or radiolarians).[11] Fossils are also common in limestone.[2]
Limestone is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be
almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red
color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone
to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm3. Although relatively soft,
with a Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 MPa.[12] For
comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa.[13]
Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in
texture.[14] However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix. Because
limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that is deposited close to
where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content.[8]
Grains
Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms

such as coral or foraminifera.[15] These organisms secrete structures
made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these structures behind when
they die. Other carbonate grains composing limestones are ooids,
peloids, and limeclasts (intraclasts and extraclasts).[16]
Skeletal grains have a composition reflecting the organisms that

produced them and the environment in which they were
produced.[17] Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of
Ooids from a beach on Joulter's
articulate brachiopods, planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, and
Cay, The Bahamas
coccoliths. High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of
benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, echinoderms, and coralline
algae. Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of molluscs, calcareous
green algae, stromatoporoids, corals, and tube worms. The skeletal
grains also reflect specific geological periods and environments. For
example, coral grains are more common in high-energy
environments (characterized by strong currents and turbulence)
while bryozoan grains are more common in low-energy
environments (characterized by quiet water).[18]
Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than

2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or Ooids in limestone of the Carmel
Formation (Middle Jurassic) of
aragonite around a central quartz grain or carbonate mineral
southwestern Utah.
fragment. These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium
carbonate onto the ooid. Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they are
larger than 2mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in shape.
Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an oolite or
sometimes an oolitic limestone. Ooids form in high-energy
environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically
show crossbedding and other features associated with deposition in
strong currents.[19][20]
Oncoliths resemble ooids but show a radial rather than layered

internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a
normal marine environment.[19] Thin-section view of a Middle
Jurassic limestone in southern Utah,
Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate likely U.S. The round grains are ooids; the
produced by a variety of processes.[21] Many are thought to be fecal largest is 1.2 mm (0.05 in) in
diameter. This limestone is an
pellets produced by marine organisms. Others may be produced by
oosparite.
endolithic (boring) algae[22] or other microorganisms[23] or through
breakdown of mollusc shells.[24] They are difficult to see in a
limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in
ancient limestones, possibly because compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them.[22]
Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments. Intraclasts are
limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from
outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone, which is clusters of peloids cemented
together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by
other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a turbidity
current.[25]
Mud
The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the largest
fraction of an ancient carbonate rock.[22] Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5 microns in
length is described as micrite.[26] In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles,
which may precipitate directly from seawater,[27] be secreted by algae,[28] or be produced by abrasion of
carbonate grains in a high-energy environment.[29] This is converted to calcite within a few million years
of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces microspar, with grains from 5 to 15 microns
in diameter.[27]
Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm, that are
described as sparry calcite or sparite. Sparite is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20
microns and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent
crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its
characteristic crystal shapes. [30]
Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by
recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement was likely deposited in pore space
between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud.
Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment.[30]
Other characteristics
Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs
hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously
when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with
dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the
presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers.[8] Impurities (such as
clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide, and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different
colors, especially with weathered surfaces.
The makeup of a carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute
hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite
grains. The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape.[8]
Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities (vugs) in the rock. Vugs are a form
of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by a change in environment that increases the
solubility of calcite.[31]
Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous Portoro
"marble" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone.[32] True marble is produced by recrystallization of
limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process (orogeny). It
is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and the formation of distinctive
minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone.[33]
Classification
Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham,

are used for identifying the types of carbonate rocks
collectively known as limestone.
Folk classification
Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places

primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and
interstitial material in carbonate rocks.[34] Based on
composition, there are three main components: allochems Travertine limestone terraces of Pamukkale,
Turkey.
(grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The
Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the
grains and the second to the cement. For example, a
limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline matrix,
would be termed an oosparite. It is helpful to have a petrographic
microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to
determine the components present in each sample.[35]
Dunham classification
Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962. It

focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham The White Cliffs of Dover are
divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative composed of chalk.
proportions of coarser clastic particles, based on criteria such as
whether the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore
self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats.
Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock. The Dunham scheme is
more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample.[36]
A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns to the
classification scheme.[37]
Other descriptive terms
Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed

in freshwater environments, particularly hot springs. Such deposits
are typically massive, dense, and banded. When the deposits are
highly porous, so that they have a spongelike texture, they are
typically described as tufa. Secondary calcite deposited by
supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater) in caves is also
sometimes described as travertine. This produces speleothems, such
as stalagmites and stalactites.[38] Reflecting lake in the Luray Caverns
of the northern Shenandoah Valley
Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded
pieces of coral, shells, or other fossil debris. When better
consolidated, it is described as coquinite.[39]
Chalk is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such
as foraminifera, while
marl is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments.[39]
Formation
Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium, which
can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes.[40] The solubility of calcium
carbonate (CaCO
3) is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO
2) in the water.
This is summarized in the reaction:
CaCO
3 + H
2O + CO
2 → Ca2+ + 2HCO−
Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved CO2 and
precipitate CaCO
3. Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of CaCO
3, by several orders of
magnitude for fresh water versus seawater.
[41]

Near-surface water of the earth's oceans are oversaturated with CaCO3 by a factor of more than six.[42]

The failure of CaCO3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved
magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation. Precipitation
of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in the water.

Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of CaCO3 precipitation in the
oceans is the result of biological activity.[43] Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms.
The origin of carbonate mud,[29] and the processes by which it is

converted to micrite,[44] continue to be a subject of research.
Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles
around 5 microns in length. Needles of this shape and composition
are produced by calcareous algae such as Penicillus, making this a
plausible source of mud.[45] Another possibility is direct
precipitation from the water. A phenomenon known as whitings
occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks containing
dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water. It is uncertain An aerial view of a whiting event
whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or simply material precipitation cloud in Lake Ontario.
stirred up from the bottom, but there is some evidence that whitings
are caused by biological precipitation of aragonite as part of a bloom
of cyanobacteria or microalgae.[46] However, stable isotope ratios in modern carbonate mud appear to
be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of carbonate grains in high-energy
environments has been put forward as a third possibility.[29]
Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the Phanerozoic,
the last 540 million years of the Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms
in the Precambrian, prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more
important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the
modern ocean.[47]
Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock. During
diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example,
aragonite is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths,
concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 millimeters (0.039 to 0.394 in) in diameter found in
some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit
together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments.[48]
Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature,

and contributes to fossil preservation. Silicification takes place
through the reaction:
Akcakoca chert nodules within soft

limestone
Macrostylolites in a limestone.
CaCO
3 + H
2O + CO
2 + H
4SiO
4 → SiO
2 + Ca2+ + 2HCO−

3 + 2 H2O
Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert.[49]
Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of
deposition. Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming hardgrounds.
Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater
infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just a few thousand years. As rainwater mixes with
groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite. Cementing of
thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can
infiltrate over 100 kilometers (60 mi) into sediments beneath the continental shelf.[50]
As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and
mechanical compaction of the sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by pressure
solution of the sediments. This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and
redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to
80% to less than 10%.[51] Pressure solution produces distinctive styolites, irregular surfaces within the
limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and loss of a
considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At depths greater than 1 kilometer (0.62 mi), burial
cementation completes the lithification process. Burial cementation does not produce styolites.[52]
When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis
takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater
infiltrating the beds. This may include the formation of vugs, which are crystal-lined cavities within the
limestone.[52]
Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is

considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement boundaries
that cut across bedding.[53] The process of dolomitization remains an area of active research,[54] but
possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments (evaporative reflux)
or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments (Dorag dolomitization).[55] However,
Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as a mechanism for dolomitization,[56] with one 2004
review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth".[54] Ordinary seawater is capable of converting calcite to
dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal
pumping).[53] Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock
containing mixed calcite and dolomite. Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or
almost all dolomite.[55]
Occurrence
About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock,[2] and most of this is limestone.[16][2]
Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years.[57] However, the compositions
of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About 95% of modern
carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite.[58] The aragonite needles in
carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within a few million years, as this is the most
stable form of calcium carbonate.[27] Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian and Paleozoic
contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of
aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite. This
may indicate a lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times.[59] This magnesium depletion may
be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading, which removes magnesium from ocean water. The
modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as "aragonite seas".[60]
Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms.
Such environments form only about 5% of the ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in
continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are warm waters,
which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower
concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with
very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in the relative purity of most limestones. Reef organisms
are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder
silicate grains.[61] Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments
originating at or near the place of deposition.[62]
Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness. Large moundlike features in a
limestone formation are interpreted as ancient reefs, which when they appear in the geologic record are
called bioherms. Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen
in modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix.
Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the

intertidal or supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill
available accommodation space in the shelf or platform.[63]
Deposition is also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and
platforms, where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in
nutrients that increase organic productivity. Reefs are common here,
but when lacking, ooid shoals are found instead. Finer sediments are
deposited close to shore.[64]
The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of

oceanic crust, but is more a result of dissolution of calcium El Capitan, an ancient limestone
reef
carbonate at depth. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases
with pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon
dioxide, which is produced by decaying organic matter settling into
the deep ocean that is not removed by photosynthesis in the dark depths. As a result, there is a fairly
sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water unsaturated with calcium
carbonate, the lysocline, which occurs at the calcite compensation depth of 4,000 to 7,000 meters
(13,000 to 23,000 ft). Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal particles rapidly dissolve,
and the sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate ooze rich in formanifera and
coccolith remains (Globigerina ooze) to silicic mud lacking carbonates.[65]
In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and

preserve benthic (deep ocean) carbonate deposits. Ancient benthic
limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their tectonic
setting. Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths. No pre-
Jurassic benthic limesones are known, probably because carbonate-
shelled plankton had not yet evolved.[66]
Limestones also form in freshwater environments.[67] These

limestones are not unlike marine limestone, but have a lower
This is a limestone mine in
diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay
Denmark.
minerals characteristic of marls. The Green River Formation is an
example of a prominent freshwater sedimentary formation
containing numerous limestone beds.[68] Freshwater limestone is
typically micritic. Fossils of charophyte (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic
of these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates.[69]
Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional environments.[70][71] Calcite is one of the first
minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites.[72]
Limestone and living organisms
Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible
for reef formation have changed over geologic time. For example, stromatolites are mound-shaped
structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate
sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones.[73] Organisms precipitate limestone both
directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from the water by
photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate.[69]
Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures found in

other sedimentary rocks. However, finer structures, such as
lamination, are often destroyed by the burrowing activities of
organisms (bioturbation). Fine lamination is characteristic of
limestone formed in playa lakes, which lack the burrowing
organisms.[74] Limestones also show distinctive features such as
geopetal structures, which form when curved shells settle to the
bottom with the concave face downwards. This traps a void space
that can later be filled by sparite. Geologists use geopetal structures
to determine which direction was up at the time of deposition, which Coral reef at Nusa Lembongan, Bali,
is not always obvious with highly deformed limestone Indonesia
formations.[75]
The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia
sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa.[76]
Micritic mud mounds
Micricitic mud mounds are subcircular domes of micritic calcite that lacks internal structure. Modern
examples are up to several hundred meters thick and a kilometer across, and have steep slopes (with
slope angles of around 50 degrees). They may be composed of peloids swept together by currents and
stabilized by Thallasia grass or mangroves. Bryozoa may also contribute to mound formation by helping
to trap sediments.[77]
Mud mounds are found throughout the geologic record, and prior to the early Ordovician, they were the
dominant reef type in both deep and shallow water. These mud mounds likely are microbial in origin.
Following the appearance of frame-building reef organisms, mud mounds were restricted mainly to
deeper water.[78]
Organic reefs
Organic reefs form at low latitudes in shallow water, not more than a few meters deep. They are complex,
diverse structures found throughout the fossil record. The frame-building organisms responsible for
organic reef formation are characteristic of different geologic time periods: Archaeocyathids appeared in
the early Cambrian; these gave way to sponges by the late Cambrian; later successions included
stromatoporoids, corals, algae, bryozoa, and rudists (a form of bivalve mollusc).[79][80][81] The extent of
organic reefs has varied over geologic time, and they were likely most extensive in the middle Devonian,
when they covered an area estimated at 5,000,000 square kilometers (1,900,000 sq mi). This is roughly
ten times the extent of modern reefs. The Devonian reefs were constructed largely by stromatoporoids
and tabulate corals, which were devastated by the late Devonian extinction.[82]
Organic reefs typically have a complex internal structure. Whole body fossils are usually abundant, but
ooids and interclasts are rare within the reef. The core of a reef is typically massive and unbedded, and is
surrounded by a talus that is greater in volume than the core. The talus contains abundant intraclasts
and is usually either floatstone, with 10% or more of grains over 2mm in size embedded in abundant
matrix, or rudstone, which is mostly large grains with sparse matrix. The talus grades to planktonic fine-
grained carbonate mud, then noncarbonate mud away from the reef.[79]
Limestone landscape
Limestone is partially soluble, especially in

acid, and therefore forms many erosional
landforms. These include limestone
pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and
gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as
karsts. Limestone is less resistant to erosion
than most igneous rocks, but more resistant
than most other sedimentary rocks. It is
therefore usually associated with hills and
downland, and occurs in regions with other
sedimentary rocks, typically clays.[83][84]
Karst regions overlying limestone bedrock

The Cudgel of Hercules, a tend to have fewer visible above-ground The Samulá cenote in
tall limestone rock in Poland
sources (ponds and streams), as surface water Valladolid, Yucatán, Mexico
(Pieskowa Skała Castle in easily drains downward through joints in the
the background)
limestone. While draining, water and organic
acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges
these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in
solution. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of different
groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.[83]
Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This
process is known as bioerosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil
record.[85]
Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands.
Examples include the Rock of Gibraltar,[86] the Burren in County Clare, Ireland;[87] Malham Cove in
North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight,[88] England; the Great Orme in Wales;[89] on Fårö near the
Swedish island of Gotland,[90] the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States;[91] Notch Peak in
Utah;[92] the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam;[93] and the hills around the Lijiang River and
Guilin city in China.[94]
The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of oolitic limestone (the
Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area
during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.[95]
Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The
largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland, Sweden.[96] Another area with
large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden.[97] Huge quarries in northwestern Europe,
such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred
kilometers.[98]
Uses
Limestone is a raw material that is used globally in a variety of different ways including construction,
agriculture and as industrial materials.[100] Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in
Europe and North America. Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its
associated complex in Giza, Egypt, were made of limestone. So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario,
Canada were, and continue to be, constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.[101]
Limestone, metamorphosed by heat and pressure produces marble,

which has been used for many statues, buildings and stone
tabletops.[102] On the island of Malta, a variety of limestone called
Globigerina limestone was, for a long time, the only building
material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of
buildings and sculptures.[103]
Limestone can be processed into many various forms such as brick,

cement, powdered/crushed, or as a filler.[104] Limestone is readily The Megalithic Temples of Malta
available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate such as Ħaġar Qim are built entirely
carving.[99] Ancient American sculptors valued limestone because it of limestone. They are among the
was easy to work and good for fine detail. Going back to the Late oldest freestanding structures in
Preclassic period (by 200–100 BCE), the Maya civilization (Ancient existence.[99]
Mexico) created refined sculpture using limestone because of these
excellent carving properties. The Maya would decorate the ceilings
of their sacred buildings (known as lintels) and cover the walls with carved limestone panels. Carved on
these sculptures were political and social stories, and this helped communicate messages of the king to
his people.[105] Limestone is long-lasting and stands up well to exposure, which explains why many
limestone ruins survive. However, it is very heavy (density 2.6[106]), making it impractical for tall
buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material.
Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era
were normally made of limestone. It is used as a facade on some
skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid
blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington
area, has long been a source of high-quality quarried limestone,
called Indiana limestone. Many famous buildings in London are
built from Portland limestone. Houses built in Odessa in Ukraine in
the 19th century were mostly constructed from limestone and the
The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of
extensive remains of the mines now form the Odessa the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
Catacombs.[107] World had an outside cover made
entirely from limestone.
Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages
in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and
commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe
are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern
England.[108]
Limestone quarry at Cutting limestone Limestone as

Cedar Creek, blocks at a quarry in building material
Virginia, USA Gozo, Malta
Riley County Courthouse
built of limestone in
Manhattan, Kansas, USA
Limestone is used
worldwide as
building material.
A limestone plate with a negative

Limestone is the raw material for production of lime, primarily map of Moosburg in Bavaria is
known for treating soils, purifying water and smelting copper. Lime prepared for a lithography print.
is an important ingredient used in chemical industries.[109]
Limestone and (to a lesser extent) marble are reactive to acid
solutions, making acid rain a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this stone.
Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain.[110][111]
Likewise limestone gravel has been used to protect lakes vulnerable to acid rain, acting as a pH buffering
agent.[112] Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a
neutral or mild alkali-based cleaner.[113]
Other uses include:
It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide), cement and mortar.[57]
Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils (agricultural lime).[114]
Is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt concrete.[57]
As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, where it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution
control.[115]
In glass making, particularly in the manufacture of soda-lime glass.[116]
As an additive toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and
a cheap filler.[117]
To suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.[118]
Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.[119]

As a calcium supplement in livestock feed, such as for poultry (when ground up).[120]
For remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to
restore essential nutrient levels.[121]
In blast furnaces, limestone binds with silica and other impurities to remove them from the iron.[122]
It can aid in the removal of toxic components created from coal burning plants and layers of polluted
molten metals. [123]
Many limestone formations are porous and permeable, which makes them important petroleum
reservoirs.[124] About 20% of North American hydrocarbon reserves are found in carbonate rock.
Carbonate reservoirs are very common in the petroleum-rich Middle East,[57] and carbonate reservoirs
hold about a third of all petroleum reserves worldwide.[125] Limestone formations are also common
sources of metal ores, because their porosity and permeability, together with their chemical activity,
promotes ore deposition in the limestone. The lead-zinc deposits of Missouri and the Northwest
Territories are examples of ore deposits hosted in limestone.[57]
Scarcity
Limestone is a huge industrial material that is in constant demand. This raw material was and has been
essential in the iron and steel industry since the nineteenth century.[126] Companies never had a
shortage of limestone, however it was a concern as the demand continued to increase[127] and in fact is
still in high demand today.[128] The major potential threats back in the nineteenth century were regional
availability and accessibility.[126] The two main accessibility issues were transportation and property
rights. Other problems were high capital costs on plants and facilities due to environmental regulations
and the requirement of zoning and mining permits.[129] These two dominant factors lead to the
adaptation and selection of other materials that were created and formed to design alternatives for
limestone that suited economic demands.[126]
Limestone was classified as a critical raw material however, with the potential risk of shortages, it drove
industries to find new alternative materials and technological systems. This allowed limestone to no
longer be classified as critical and granted a significant impact to the construction of new substances,
minette ores is a common substitute for example.[126]
Occupational safety and health
Powdered limestone as a food additive is generally recognized as NFPA 704
safe[131] and limestone is not regarded as a hazardous material. fire diamond

However, limestone dust can be a mild respiratory and skin irritant, [130]
and dust that gets into the eyes can cause corneal abrasions. Because 0
limestone contains small amounts of silica, inhalation of limestone 1 0
dust could potentially lead to silicosis or cancer.[130]
Limestone
United States
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure
limit) for limestone exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory
exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory
exposure over an 8-hour workday.[132]
Graffiti
Removing graffiti from weathered limestone is difficult because it is a porous and permeable material.
The surface is fragile so usual abrasion methods run the risk of severe surface loss. Because it is an acid-
sensitive stone some cleaning agents cannot be used due to adverse effects.[133]
Gallery

A stratigraphic Photo and etched Biosparite limestone A concretionary

section of section of a sample of the Brassfield nodular (septarian)
Ordovician of fossiliferous Formation (Lower limestone at
limestone exposed limestone from the Silurian) near Jinshitan Coastal
in central Kope Formation Fairborn, Ohio, U.S., National Geopark,
Tennessee, U.S. (Upper Ordovician) showing grains Dalian, China
The less-resistant near Cincinnati, mainly composed of
and thinner beds are Ohio, U.S. crinoid fragments
composed of shale.
The vertical lines
are drill holes for
explosives used
during road
construction.
Limestone from Folded limestone Fossils in limestone Limestone

Lake Tai, used in layers on Cascade from the northern distribution in Ohio,
gongshi, a Chinese Mountain in Provo Black Sea region from "Geography of
stone art Canyon, Utah Ohio," 1923
Chalk is a variety of
limestone. It is a
softer, and more
powdery material.
See also
Coral sand
In Praise of Limestone – poem by W. H. Auden
Kurkar – Regional name for an aeolian quartz calcrete on the Levantine coast
Limepit – Old method of calcining limestone
Sandstone – Type of sedimentary rock
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Further reading
Boynton, Robert S. (1980). Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone (https://archive.org/det
ails/rulesdistrictco00distgoog). Wiley. ISBN 0471027715.
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8/6/2021 Limestone - Wikipedia

About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most

Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, an essential

La Zaplaz formations in the

Other descriptive terms

Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms

Skeletal grains have a composition reflecting the organisms that

Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than

Oncoliths resemble ooids but show a radial rather than layered

Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham,

Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places

Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962. It

Other descriptive terms

Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed

The origin of carbonate mud,[29] and the processes by which it is

Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature,

Akcakoca chert nodules within soft

Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert.[49]

Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is

Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the

The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of

In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and

Limestones also form in freshwater environments.[67] These

Limestone and living organisms

Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures found in

Micritic mud mounds

Limestone is partially soluble, especially in

Karst regions overlying limestone bedrock

Limestone, metamorphosed by heat and pressure produces marble,

Limestone can be processed into many various forms such as brick,

Limestone quarry at Cutting limestone Limestone as

A limestone plate with a negative

Other uses include:

Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.[119]

Occupational safety and health

Powdered limestone as a food additive is generally recognized as NFPA 704

safe[131] and limestone is not regarded as a hazardous material. fire diamond

A stratigraphic Photo and etched Biosparite limestone A concretionary

Limestone from Folded limestone Fossils in limestone Limestone

16. Blatt & Tracy 1996, pp. 295–300.

71. "Term 'evaporite' " (https://web.archive.org/web/20120131020924/http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.co

19. "Why Fortified Flour?" (https://www.wessexmill.co.uk/acatalog/Fortified-Flour.html). Wessex Mill.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limestone&oldid=1033138033"

This page was last edited on 11 July 2021, at 20:52 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

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