RESPIRATION:

GLYCOLYSIS, KREBS’ CYCLE

Presented by
Nikhil Deshwal
B.Sc.(Biotech.)
Year II
 RESPIRATION
• Cellular respiration is a metabolic process consisting of a series of steps to convert chemical
energy (sugar) into a usable form of energy (ATP) in the cell.
• The reactions involved in cellular respiration are catabolic reactions that involve the
breakdown of larger organic molecules into smaller forms.
• The overall process of cellular respiration takes place in a number of steps that are
specialized for the degradation of specific molecules.
• Cellular respiration is a basis of life that occurs in all living forms. In most multicellular
organisms, cellular respiration occurs in the form of aerobic respiration.
• The process of cellular respiration involves the breakdown of high energy bonds, which
release energy in the form of ATP.

• Technically, cellular respiration is a combustion reaction, but the process in the cell occurs in
a slow controlled manner to release energy via a series of reactions.
• Most of the reactions in cellular respiration are redox reactions in the presence of strong
oxidizing agents like molecular oxygen.
• The chemical energy produced during cellular respiration is stored in the form of ATP which
releases energy by the breaking of the bond of the third phosphate group during processes
like biosynthesis, locomotion, and active transport of molecules.
• Different biomolecules and structures are involved during the process of cellular
respiration.
• Similarly, a different set of enzymes catalyze different steps of cellular respiration, all of
which are found within the cell.
 GLYCOLYSIS
• Glycolysis is the central pathway for the glucose catabolism in
which glucose (6-carbon compound) is converted into pyruvate
(3-carbon compound) through a sequence of 10 steps.
• Glycolysis takes place in both aerobic and anaerobic organisms
and is the first step towards the metabolism of glucose.
• The glycolytic sequence of reactions differs from one species to
the other in the mechanism of its regulation and the subsequent
metabolic fate of the pyruvate formed at the end of the process.
• In aerobic organisms, glycolysis is the prelude to the citric acid
cycle and the electron transport chain, which together release
most of the energy contained in glucose.
• It is also referred to as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas or EMP
pathway, in honor of the pioneer workers in the field.
 GLYCOLYSIS STEPS
• During glycolysis, a single mole of 6-carbon glucose is broken
down into two moles of 3-carbon pyruvate by a sequence of
10 enzyme-catalyzed sequential reactions. These reactions
are grouped under 2 phases, phase I and II.
• Stage I comprises “preparatory” reactions which are not
redox reactions and do not release energy but instead lead to
the production of a critical intermediate of the pathway.
• Stage I consists of the first five steps of the glycolysis process.
• Similarly, in Stage II, redox reactions occur, energy is
conserved in the form of ATP, and two molecules of pyruvate
are formed.
• The last five reactions of glycolysis constitute phase II.
GLYCOLYSIS DIAGRAM
PHASE I
GLYCOLYSIS DIAGRAM
PHASE II
 GLYCOLYSIS EQUATION
• A summary of the process of glycolysis cab be written as follows:
• C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2C3H4O3 + 2H2O + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+
• In words, the equation is written as:
• Glucose + Adenosine diphosphate + Phosphate + Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide
• ↓
• Pyruvate + Water + Adenosine triphosphate + Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide + Hydrogen ions
• The overall process of glycolysis results in the following events:
Glucose is oxidized into pyruvate.
NAD+ is reduced to NADH*.
ADP is phosphorylated into ATP.
FATES OF PYRUVATE
• 1. Oxidation of pyruvate
• In aerobic organisms, the pyruvate is then moved to the mitochondria where it is
oxidized into the acetyl group of acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl Co-A).
• This process involves the release of one mole of CO2.
• Later, the acetyl CoA is completely oxidized into CO2 and H2O by entering the citric
acid cycle.
• This pathway follows glycolysis in aerobic organisms and plants.

• 2. Lactic acid fermentation

• In conditions where the oxygen is insufficient, like in the skeletal muscle cells, the
pyruvate cannot be oxidized due to lack of oxygen.
• Under such conditions, the pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the process of
anaerobic glycolysis.
• Lactate production from glucose also occurs in other anaerobic organisms by the
process of lactic acid fermentation.

• 3. Alcoholic Fermentation
• In some microbes like brewer’s yeast, the pyruvate formed from glucose is converted
anaerobically into ethanol and CO2.
• This is considered the most ancient form of the metabolism of glucose, as observed
in conditions where the oxygen concentration is low.
THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE
OR
THE KREBS’ CYCLE
 INTRODUCTION
• The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle is a series of
reactions that take place in the mitochondria resulting in oxidation of acetyl CoA to
release carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms that later lead to the formation of
water.
• This cycle is termed the citric acid cycle as the first metabolic intermediate formed
in the cycle is citric acid.
• This cycle is also termed tricarboxylic acid (TCA) because it was then not certain
whether citric acid or some other tricarboxylic acid (g., isocitric acid) was the first
product of the cycle. However, now it has been known that the first product is
indeed citric acid and thus the use of this name has since been discouraged.
• This cycle only occurs under aerobic conditions as energy-rich molecules like
NAD+ and FAD can only be retrieved from their reduced form once they transfer
electrons to molecular oxygen.
• The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of all
biomolecules; proteins, fatty acids, carbohydrates. Molecules from other cycles
and pathways enter this cycle through Acetyl CoA.
• The citric acid cycle is a cyclic sequence of reactions formed of 8 enzyme-mediated
reactions.
• This cycle is also particularly important as it provides electrons/ high-energy
molecules to the electron transport chain for the production of ATPs and water.
• Pyruvate formed at the end of glycolysis is first oxidized into Acetyl CoA which then
enters the citric acid cycle.
•
• The citric acid cycle in eukaryotes takes place in the
mitochondria while in prokaryotes, it takes place in the
cytoplasm.
• The pyruvate formed in the cytoplasm (from glycolysis) is
brought into the mitochondria where further reactions take
place.
• The different enzymes involved in the citric acid cycle are
located either in the inner membrane or in the matrix space
of the mitochondria.
KREBS’ CYCLE DIAGRAM
 KREBS’ CYCLE PRODUCTS
• Since this is a cyclic process, the oxaloacetate formed at the end as it
condenses with acetyl CoA in the next cycle.
• At each turn of the cycle,
• 3 NADH,
• 1 FADH2,
• 1 GTP (or ATP),
• 2 CO2
 KREBS’ CYCLE EQUATION
• The overall reaction/ equation of the citric acid cycle is:
• Acetyl CoA + 3 NAD+ + 1 FAD + 1 ADP + 1 Pi → 2 CO2 +
3 NADH + 3 H+ + 1 FADH2 + 1 ATP
• In words, the equation is written as:
• Acetyl CoA + Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide + Flavin
adenine dinucleotide + Adenosine diphosphate +
Phosphate → Pyruvate + Water + Adenosine
triphosphate + Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide +
Hydrogen ions
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GLYCOLYSIS
AND KREBS’ CYCLE
 FAQs OF GLYCOLYSIS
• What is aerobic glycolysis?
Aerobic glycolysis is the process of oxidation of glucose into pyruvate followed by the
oxidation of pyruvate into CO2 and H2O in the presence of a sufficient amount of oxygen.
• What is anaerobic glycolysis?
Anaerobic glycolysis is the process that takes place in the absence of enough oxygen resulting
in the reduction of pyruvate into lactate and reoxidation of NADH into NAD+.
• Where does glycolysis occur?
Glycolysis occurs in the extramitochondrial fraction of the cell in the cytosol.

• What are the products of glycolysis?

The products of glycolysis are two moles of pyruvate, four moles of ATPs (net gain of 2 ATPs),
and one mole of NADH.

• How many NADH are produced by glycolysis?

Two moles of NADH are produced by glycolysis.
• How many ATPs are formed in glycolysis?
A total of four moles of ATPs are formed in glycolysis. The net gain of ATP in glycolysis is just 2
ATPs as two ATPs are utilized during the preparatory phase of glycolysis.
• What are the functions of glycolysis?
The primary function of glycolysis is to produce energy in the form of ATP. Similarly, glycolysis
also produces pyruvate, which is then oxidized further to create more ATPs.
 FAQs OF KREBS’ CYCLE
• What is the purpose of the Krebs cycle?
The purpose of the Kreb’s cycle is the complete oxidation of glucose, resulting in energy-rich
molecules that later produce ATPs in the electron transport chain.
• Where does the Krebs cycle take place?
Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondria of eukaryote and in the cytoplasm of the
prokaryotes.
• How many ATP are produced in the citric acid cycle?
One ATP is formed in a single citric acid cycle while two ATPs are formed from a single
molecule of glucose (two molecules of pyruvate are formed from one molecule of glucose).

• Does the citric acid cycle require oxygen?

Yes, the citric acid requires oxygen as the cycle operates only under aerobic conditions as
NAD+ and FAD can be regenerated from their reduced form in the mitochondria only by
electron transfer to molecular oxygen.

• Where do the reactions of the citric acid cycle occur in prokaryotic cells?
The reactions of the citric acid cycle occur in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.
• Where do the reactions of the citric acid cycle occur in eukaryotic cells?
The reactions of the citric acid cycle occur in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells.
• What inhibits the citric acid cycle?
Various factors like the absence of oxygen, low levels of oxaloacetate or pyruvate, necessary
enzymes and coenzymes, high levels of ATP and NADH, and the accumulation of ketone
bodies.
THANK YOU